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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">Pfb4jSZqPkSm8nK3HP7Ccmw</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2015002500588</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2015005050134</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20150134</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Obesity Resistance Promotes Mild Contractile Dysfunction Associated with Intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> Handling</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>S&#225;</surname>
            <given-names>Felipe Gon&#231;alves dos Santos de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima-Leopoldo</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Paula</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jacobsen</surname>
            <given-names>Bruno Barcellos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferron</surname>
            <given-names>Artur Junio Togneri</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Estevam</surname>
            <given-names>Wagner Muller</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campos</surname>
            <given-names>Dijon Henrique Salom&#233;</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castardeli</surname>
            <given-names>Edson</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cunha</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rcia Regina Holanda da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cicogna</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Leopoldo</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233; Soares</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Centro de Educa&#231;&#227;o F&#237;sica e Desportos</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Desportos</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Vit&#243;ria</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro de Educa&#231;&#227;o F&#237;sica e Desportos &#8211; Departamento de Desportos &#8211; Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo, Vit&#243;ria, ES, Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina &#8211; Universidade Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Andr&#233; Soares Leopoldo</bold> , Avenida Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras, Postal Code 29075-410. Vit&#243;ria, ES - Brazil. E-mail: <email>andresoaresleopoldo@gmail.com</email>, <email>andre.leopoldo@ufes.br</email>
					</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and Obtaining financing: Lima-Leopoldo AP, Leopoldo AS; Acquisition of data: S&#225; FGS, Jacobsen BB, Ferron AJT, Estevam WM, Campos DHS, Castardeli E; Analysis and interpretation of the data: S&#225; FGS, Jacobsen BB, Ferron AJT, Estevam WM, Campos DHS, Castardeli E, Cunha MRH; Writing of the manuscript: S&#225; FGS, Lima-Leopoldo AP, Cicogna AC, Leopoldo AS; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Lima-Leopoldo AP, Castardeli E, Cunha MRH, Cicogna AC, Leopoldo AS.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>27</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>105</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>588</fpage>
      <lpage>596</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Diet-induced obesity is frequently used to demonstrate cardiac dysfunction. However, some rats, like humans, are susceptible to developing an obesity phenotype, whereas others are resistant to that.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>To evaluate the association between obesity resistance and cardiac function, and the impact of obesity resistance on calcium handling.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Thirty-day-old male Wistar rats were distributed into two groups, each with 54 animals: control (C; standard diet) and obese (four palatable high-fat diets) for 15 weeks. After the experimental protocol, rats consuming the high-fat diets were classified according to the adiposity index and subdivided into obesity-prone (OP) and obesity-resistant (OR). Nutritional profile, comorbidities, and cardiac remodeling were evaluated. Cardiac function was assessed by papillary muscle evaluation at baseline and after inotropic maneuvers.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>The high-fat diets promoted increase in body fat and adiposity index in OP rats compared with C and OR rats. Glucose, lipid, and blood pressure profiles remained unchanged in OR rats. In addition, the total heart weight and the weight of the left and right ventricles in OR rats were lower than those in OP rats, but similar to those in C rats. Baseline cardiac muscle data were similar in all rats, but myocardial responsiveness to a post-rest contraction stimulus was compromised in OP and OR rats compared with C rats.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>Obesity resistance promoted specific changes in the contraction phase without changes in the relaxation phase. This mild abnormality may be related to intracellular Ca2+ handling.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Obesity-Resistance</kwd>
        <kwd>High-Fat Diet</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiac Function</kwd>
        <kwd>Ca<sup>2+</sup> Handling</kwd>
        <kwd>Rats</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>FAPES</funding-source>
          <award-id>53618009/2011</award-id>
        </award-group>
      </funding-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Obesity is characterized by an excess of fat mass influenced by genetic and environmental factors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. This multifactorial disease is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension, arteriosclerosis, and coronary heart disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
      <p>Elucidation of the mechanisms involved in obesity&#8209;related cardiac dysfunction requires the use of appropriate diet&#8209;induced models<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. However, it is well known that rats, like humans, show different susceptibilities to the development of diet&#8209;induced obesity, so it is possible to identify subgroups developing obesity and others maintaining a lean phenotype despite a high caloric intake This subgroup of rats that do not become obese even when fed a high-fat diet are categorized as obesity-resistant (OR) rats<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. These OR rats exhibit lower body weight (BW) gain and less fat deposits than obesity-prone (OP) rats despite similar energy intake<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. Obesity resistance reflects the ability to accurately sense energy balance and respond to increased energy intake with adaptive responses that counteract a tendency for weight gain<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>.</p>
      <p>Few studies have evaluated the correlation between cardiac function and obesity resistance, and the mechanisms by which OR can promote myocardial dysfunction are not well understood. Carroll et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref> were unable to identify any cardiac abnormalities in OR animals after 12 weeks. Conversely, Louis et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref> showed that OR rats fed a high-fat diet for 17 weeks manifested cardiac dysfunction, reflected by significantly increased isovolumetric relaxation time. Several factors have been proposed as contributors to cardiac dysfunction in obesity models, among them changes in calcium (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) handling<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. Nevertheless, it is unclear whether changes in Ca<sup>2+</sup> handling play a critical role in the development of myocardial dysfunction induced by obesity resistance.</p>
      <p>Considering the lack of information regarding cardiac function and the mechanisms underlying the involvement of Ca<sup>2+</sup> handling in obesity resistance, this study was designed to test the hypothesis that obesity resistance does not promote myocardial dysfunction or impairs Ca<sup>2+</sup> handling in obesity models.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Animal Models and Experimental Protocol</title>
        <p>Thirty-day-old male Wistar rats were randomly distributed into two groups: control (C, n = 54) and obese (Ob, n = 54). The C group was fed a standard diet (RC Focus 1765) and the Ob group was alternately exposed to four palatable high-fat diets (RC Focus 2413, 2414, 2415, and 2416; Agroceres, Rio Claro, Brazil) as previously described<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. The sample size was based on previous studies performed in our laboratory<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>.</p>
        <p>BW was recorded weekly after the start of the experimental protocol. Obesity, determined according to BW gain, began to establish at week 3, as previously demonstrated<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. At this time point, C and Ob rats were maintained on their respective diets for 15 additional consecutive weeks.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Animal Care</title>
        <p>The animals were maintained in a controlled environment with clean air, 12 hours of light/dark cycles starting at 6 a.m., room temperature maintained at 23 &#177; 3&#176;C, and relative humidity maintained at 60 &#177; 5%. All experiments and procedures were performed in accordance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals published by the National Research Council (1996), and were approved by the Ethics Committee for the Use of Animals (UNESP, Botucatu, SP, Brazil), under number 1036.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Nutritional Profile</title>
        <p>Food consumption, calorie intake (CI), feed efficiency (FE), and BW were recorded weekly as previously described<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Fifteen weeks after obesity had developed, the animals were anesthetized with an injection of ketamine (50 mg/kg) and xylazine (0.5 mg/kg). They were then decapitated and thoracotomized, and the epididymal, retroperitoneal and visceral fat depots were dissected and weighed. The adiposity index was calculated with the following formula: (total body fat/final BW) x 100. Body fat was determined from the sum of the individual weight of each fat pad according to the formula: Body fat = epididymal fat + retroperitoneal fat + visceral fat<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Determination of Obesity and Obesity</title>
        <p>A criterion based on the adiposity index was used to determine the occurrence of obesity and obesity resistance according to several authors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. After 15 weeks, rats consuming high-fat diets were ranked based on their adiposity indexes. Thus, in the current study, rats on the high-fat diet exhibiting the greatest adiposity indexes were referred to as OP (n = 35), whereas those exhibiting the lowest adiposity indexes were referred to as OR (n = 19). Rats that failed to present the normal characteristic of the C group while fed with a standard diet were no longer used (n = 15).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP)</title>
        <p>One week before the rats were euthanized, tail SBP was measured with a tail plethysmograph. The animals were warmed in a wooden box at 40&#176;C for 4 minutes to induce tail arterial vasodilation. A sensor coupled to an electro&#8209;sphygmomanometer attached to a computer was placed in the tail and the SBP was then measured with a specific software (Biopac Systems Inc., CA, USA).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Glucose Tolerance and Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR)</title>
        <p>The experiments were performed in the C (n = 34), OP (n = 31), and OR (n = 13) rats after 15 weeks of treatment. After 4&#8211;6 hours of fasting, a blood sample was collected from the tip of their tails. The blood glucose level (baseline condition) of each animal was immediately determined using a handheld glucometer (Accu-Chek Advantage; Roche Diagnostics Co., Indianapolis, IN). Subsequently, an injection of glucose solution dissolved in water was administered intraperitoneally(Sigma-Aldrich&#174;, St Louis, MO, USA), and blood glucose levels were measured after 15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. The HOMA-IR reflects the degree of insulin resistance and was calculated with the following formula: HOMA-IR = [fasting glucose (mmol/l) X fasting insulin (mU/ml)]/22.5.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Metabolic Profile</title>
        <p>At the end of the experimental period, the animals were fasted for 12&#8211;15 hours, then anesthetized with an intramuscular injection of ketamine (50 mg/kg) and xylazine (0.5 mg/kg), and euthanized by decapitation. Blood samples were collected and the serum was separated by centrifugation at 3,000 X g for 15 minutes at 4&#176;C, and stored at -80&#176;C until further analysis. The serum was analyzed for levels of glucose, triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (T-Chol), high&#8209;density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), l<italic>ow-density lipoprotein</italic> cholesterol (LDL), insulin, and leptin. Glucose, TG, T-Chol, HDL, and LDL were measured with an automatic enzymatic analyzer system (Biochemical analyzer BS-200, Mindray, China). Leptin and insulin levels were determined by enzyme&#8209;linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method using commercial kits (Linco Research Inc., St. Louis, MO, USA).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Post-Death Morphological Analysis</title>
        <p>The rats were euthanized by thoracotomy, and the hearts, ventricles, and tibia were separated, dissected, weighed, and measured. Cardiac remodeling was determined by analyzing the weight of the heart and the left (LV) and right (RV) ventricles, and their correlation with the tibial length.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Isolated Papillary Muscle</title>
        <p>To assess the intrinsic contractile and mechanical properties of the heart, the isolated papillary procedure was employed as previously described<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. This experiment was performed in C (n = 36), OP (n = 35), and OR (n = 18) rats. The papillary muscles were also evaluated under the baseline condition of 2.5 mM Ca<sup>2+</sup> and after the inotropic maneuvers of increase in extracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup>concentration and post-rest contraction (PRC) as previously described<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical Analysis</title>
        <p>All analyses were performed using the SigmaStat 3.5 software (SYSTAT Software Inc., San Jose, CA, USA). The distribution of the variables was assessed with the Shapiro-Wilk test, and the results were reported as means &#177; standard deviations. Comparisons between groups were performed using one-way ANOVA for independent samples, and Tukey&#8217;s <italic>post hoc</italic> test. Repeated-measures two-way ANOVA was used to evaluate glucose tolerance and myocardial Ca<sup>2+</sup> handling. The level of significance was determined at 5 % (&#945; = 0.05).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <sec>
        <title>General Characteristics of the Experimental Groups</title>
        <p>There was no difference in baseline BW among the groups (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref>). The high-fat diet promoted a substantial increase in body fat and adiposity index in OP rats compared with C and OR rats. Specifically, OP rats had a 86.4% and 78.8% higher body fat content and 66.9% and 60.5% higher adiposity indexes than C and OR rats, respectively. In addition, epididymal, retroperitoneal, and visceral fat pads, as well as final BW were greater in OP rats compared with C and OR rats. Despite the greater amount of energy in the high-fat diet, the calorie intake was similar in both groups due to a reduced food consumption by OP and OR rats in relation to C rats. In addition, FE was higher in the OP group compared with that in the C group. Although FE values were similar in OP and OR rats, this parameter showed a trend towards a lower result in OR when compared with OP rats (p = 0.077).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t01">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Characteristics of the experimental groups</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="2">
                  <bold>Variables</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center" colspan="3" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                  <bold>Groups</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>C (n= 39)</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>OP (n= 35)</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>OR (n= 19)</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">IBW (g)</td>
                <td align="center">150 &#177; 12</td>
                <td align="center">152 &#177; 11</td>
                <td align="center">152 &#177; 10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">FBW (g)</td>
                <td align="center">486 &#177; 34</td>
                <td align="center">545 &#177; 46<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
										<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">#</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">492 &#177; 41</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Weight gain (g)</td>
                <td align="center">336 &#177; 31</td>
                <td align="center">393 &#177; 44<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
										<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">#</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">340 &#177; 40</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Epididymal fat (g)</td>
                <td align="center">7.33 &#177; 1.72</td>
                <td align="center">12.9 &#177; 3.7<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
										<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">#</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">7.31 &#177; 1.94</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Retroperitoneal fat (g)</td>
                <td align="center">8.74 &#177; 2.09</td>
                <td align="center">17.8 &#177; 6.2<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
										<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">#</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">9.84 &#177; 2.58</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Visceral fat (g)</td>
                <td align="center">5.95 &#177; 1.34</td>
                <td align="center">10.6 &#177; 3.7<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
										<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">#</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">6.00 &#177; 1.21</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Body fat (g)</td>
                <td align="center">22.2 &#177; 4.1</td>
                <td align="center">41.3 &#177; 12.8<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
										<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">#</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">23.1 &#177; 4.3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Adiposity index (%)</td>
                <td align="center">4.51 &#177; 0.73</td>
                <td align="center">7.53 &#177; 1.99<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
										<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">#</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">4.69 &#177; 0.67</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">FC (g/day)</td>
                <td align="center">26.6 &#177; 1.9</td>
                <td align="center">22.4 &#177; 2.8<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">20.8 &#177; 3.0<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">&amp;</xref>
									</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">CI (kcal/day)</td>
                <td align="center">78.4 &#177; 5.7</td>
                <td align="center">81.6 &#177; 10.1</td>
                <td align="center">75.9 &#177; 10.9</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">FE (%)</td>
                <td align="center">2.40 &#177; 0.24</td>
                <td align="center">2.85 &#177; 0.50<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">2.59 &#177; 0.48</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN01">
              <p>Values are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation; n: Number of animals; C: Control; OP: Obesity prone; OR: Obesity resistant; IBW: Initial body weight; FBW: Final body weight; FC: Food consumption; CI: Calorie intake; FE: Feed efficiency;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN02">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>C versus OP; p &lt; 0.05;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN03">
              <label>&amp;</label>
              <p>C versus OR; p &lt; 0.05; </p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN04">
              <label>#</label>
              <p>OP versus OR, p &lt; 0.05; One-way ANOVA for independent samples and Tukey's post hoc test.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Glucose, Insulin, HOMA-IR, and Metabolic Profile</title>
        <p>There were no statistical differences in glucose and insulin levels between the groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1 &#8211; A</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">B</xref>). However, the glucose profile and HOMA-IR index were significantly affected by exposure to obesity (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1 &#8211; C</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">D</xref>). The OP rats presented higher levels of glucose at time points 60, 90, and 120 minutes compared with C rats (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1 &#8211; C</xref>). In addition, there was no statistical difference in the glucose profile between C and OR rats (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1 - C</xref>). The area under the curve (AUC) for glucose was higher in OP rats than C rats (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Table 2</xref>). Moreover, the HOMA-IR index was higher in OP rats than C and OR rats (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1 &#8211; D</xref>). HDL, LDL, T-Chol and SBP were not significantly different between the groups (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Table 2</xref>). However, TG levels were higher in OP than C rats. Furthermore, OP rats exhibited higher levels of leptin when compared with C and OR rats (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Table 2</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Hormonal profiles and comorbidities; n= number of animals. A: Serum glucose; B: Serum insulin; C: Blood glucose levels following an oral glucose load; D: Homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) in control (C, white circles; n = 34), obesity-prone (OP, black squares; n = 31) and obesity-resistant (OR, white triangles; n = 13) rats. Values are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation. <sup>*</sup>C versus OP; p &lt; 0.05.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-06-0588-50134-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        <table-wrap id="t02">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Systolic blood pressure, and biochemical and hormonal profiles</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left"/>
                <th align="center" colspan="3">
                  <bold>Groups</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                <th align="left">
                  <bold>Variables</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>C (n= 34)</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>OP (n= 31)</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>OR (n= 13)</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">AUC (mg/dL/min)</td>
                <td align="center">19823&#177;4166</td>
                <td align="center">23718 &#177; 4172<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN07">*</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">21713&#177;3887</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">SBP (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">128 &#177; 8</td>
                <td align="center">132 &#177; 11</td>
                <td align="center">131 &#177; 11</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Cholesterol (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">59.8 &#177; 14.0</td>
                <td align="center">67.2 &#177; 14.0</td>
                <td align="center">63.7 &#177; 9.1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Triglycerides (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">54.6 &#177; 14.0</td>
                <td align="center">74.0 &#177; 26.2<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN07">*</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">62.4 &#177; 25.7</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">HDL (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">36.2 &#177; 22.0</td>
                <td align="center">38.9 &#177; 19.5</td>
                <td align="center">40.5 &#177; 19.3</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">LDL (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">25.5 &#177; 10.1</td>
                <td align="center">28.4 &#177; 13.4</td>
                <td align="center">27.6 &#177; 14.1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Leptin (ng/mL)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">&#167;</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">3.45 &#177; 5.47</td>
                <td align="center">6.70 &#177; 14.30<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN07">*</xref>
										<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN08">#</xref>
									</td>
                <td align="center">3.25 &#177; 4.66</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN05">
              <p>Values are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation; n: Number of animals; C: Control; OP: Obesity prone; OR: Obesity resistant; AUC: Area under the curve for glucose; SBP: Systolic blood pressure; HDL: High-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN06">
              <label>&#167;</label>
              <p>Values are expressed as median &#177; semi-interquartile range; </p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN07">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>C versus OP; p &lt; 0.05; </p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN08">
              <label>#</label>
              <p>OP versus OR, p &lt; 0.05; One-wayANOVA for independent samples and Tukey's post hoc test; <sup>&#167;</sup>Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA and Dunn's post hoc test.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Morphological Characteristics</title>
        <p>The morphological characteristics of the rats are displayed in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2 (A-F)</xref>. The absolute heart and LV weights, as well as their correlation with tibial length, were significantly increased in OP rats compared with C and OR rats (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2 &#8211; A</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">D</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">E</xref>). Furthermore, OP rats showed greater RV weight and correlation with tibial length than C rats (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2 &#8211; C</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">F</xref>). Of note, tibial lengths were similar among the groups.</p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Morphologic profiles of controls (C, n = 39), obesity-prone (OP, n = 35) and obesity-resistant (OR, n = 19) rats; n = Number of animals. A: Heart weight; B: Left ventricular (LV) weight; C: Right ventricular (RV) weight; D: Heart weight/tibial length; E: LV/tibial length: F: RV/tibial length. Values are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation. <sup>*</sup>C versus OP; p &lt; 0.05; #OP versus OR, p &lt; 0.05.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-06-0588-50134-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Analysis of Myocardial Function and Calcium (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) Handling</title>
        <p>The contraction performance of papillary muscles at baseline conditions (Ca<sup>2+</sup> of 2.5 mM) was similar for all parameters in the C, OP, and OR groups (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t03">Table 3</xref>). After 60 seconds of PRC, the maximum developed tension (DT) was lower in OP rats compared with C rats, (C: 7.2 &#177; 1.7 g/mm<sup>2</sup><italic>versus</italic> OP: 6.4 &#177; 1.4 g/mm<sup>2</sup>; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3 &#8211; A</xref>). Although the significance of this effect was only observed at 60s, the myocardium from OP rats also exhibited lower values of DT in response to PRC at 30s (C: 6.8 &#177; 1.5 versus OP: 6.1 &#177; 1.3, p = 0.056). Although at baseline condition, +dT/dt values were similar between C, OP and OR rats, when subjected to PRC at 60 s, this parameter was reduced in OP and OR rats compared to C rats (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3 &#8211; B</xref>). In addition, there was a trend towards lower +dT/dt in OP and OR rats during the PRC at 30 seconds, when compared with C rats (p = 0.075 and p = 0.076, respectively), but these values were not significantly different between the groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3 &#8211; B</xref>). <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">D</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">E</xref>) shows that obesity resistance did not impair DT and +dT/dt after increase in extracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> concentration. Furthermore, obesity and obesity resistance failed to elicit any significant effect on the peak of the negative tension derivatives (-dT/dt) at baseline and after maneuvers in the groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3 &#8211; C</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">F</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t03">
          <label>Table 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Baseline data from isolated muscle preparations</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left" rowspan="2">
                  <bold>Variables</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center" colspan="3" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                  <bold>Groups</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>C (n= 36)</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>OP (n= 35)</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>OR (n= 18)</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">DT (g/mm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">6.77 &#177; 1.68</td>
                <td align="center">6.10 &#177; 1.68</td>
                <td align="center">6.30 &#177; 1.37</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">RT (g/mm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">1.22 &#177; 0.44</td>
                <td align="center">1.03 &#177; 0.38</td>
                <td align="center">0.99 &#177; 0.27</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">+dT/dt (g/mm<sup>2</sup>/s)</td>
                <td align="center">75.9 &#177; 18.8</td>
                <td align="center">70.6 &#177; 19.2</td>
                <td align="center">72.5 &#177; 16.2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">-dT/dt (g/mm<sup>2</sup>/s)</td>
                <td align="center">25.3 &#177; 5.3</td>
                <td align="center">24.9 &#177; 7.0</td>
                <td align="center">24.0 &#177; 5.2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">CSA (mm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">1.10 &#177; 0.25</td>
                <td align="center">1.14 &#177; 0.29</td>
                <td align="center">1.10 &#177; 0.35</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN09">
              <p>Values are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation; n: Number of animals; C: Control; OP: Obesity prone; OR: Obesity resistant Baseline condition 2.5 mM [Ca<sup>2+</sup>]; DT Maximum developed tension normalized per cross-sectional area of the papillary muscle; RT: Resting tension normalized per cross-sectional area of the papillary muscle; Peak of the positive (+dT/dt) and negative (-dT/dt) tension derivatives normalized per cross-sectional area of the papillary muscle; CSA: Cross-sectional area; One-way ANOVA for independent samples and Tukey's post hoc test.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Effects of post-rest contraction (PRC; A, B, and C) and increasing extracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> concentration (D, E, and F) in papillary muscles of control (C; n= 36), obesity-prone (OP; n = 35), and obesity-resistant (OR; n= 18) rats. PRC basal: 0.5 mM [Ca<sup>2+</sup>]. Values are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation; n = number of animals. DT: maximum developed tension; Peak of the positive (+dT/dt) and negative (-dT/dt) tension derivatives. <sup>*</sup>C versus OP; p &lt; 0.05; <sup>&amp;</sup>C versus OR; p &lt; 0.05.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-06-0588-50134-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>Although obesity and overweight are increasingly widespread, some individuals remain resistant to becoming obese<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. Previous studies have shown that this resistance to obesity may be attributed to changes in nutrition and adiposity patterns<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>. Most humans and animals consuming high-fat diets show an increase in BW, with corresponding increase in adiposity levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>. In comparison, some animals that are fed high-fat diets present less weight gain and adiposity than others that are prone to obesity.</p>
      <p>Few studies have evaluated and identified the cardiac characteristics of OR rats<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Still, the occurrence of cardiac dysfunction and its mechanisms remain unknown in this animal model. Interestingly, little information is available on the relationship between obesity resistance, cardiac function, and Ca<sup>2+</sup> handling. The major finding in the current study was that obesity resistance promotes mild myocardial dysfunction, and this result was related to damage in the contraction phase. We believe that this is the first study to report the role of Ca<sup>2+</sup> handling in the myocardium of OR rats.</p>
      <p>Fat-enriched diets have been used for decades to model obesity and obesity resistance in rodents<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. Using male rats fed a high-saturated fat diet for 20 weeks, these studies reported that 42.5% and 40% rats were classified as OP and OR, respectively. In addition, Carroll et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref> found that 12 weeks of a moderate-fat diet identified 37.5% and 31.25% of OP and OR rats, respectively. The high-fat diet used in the present study was sufficiently intense and long to promote obesity in 64.8% of the rats (OP), whereas 35.2% of the rats did not develop obesity (OR). The literature reveals that obesity resistance is characterized by gain in BW and adiposity at a rate similar to, or lower than that of standard chow-fed rats<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. The findings of the current study show that OR animals had significantly reduced final BW and fat deposits compared with the OP group, but similar characteristics as those of C rats. In addition, the adiposity index was 60.5% lower in the OR group compared with the OP group. These results are in line with findings of several other studies<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>.</p>
      <p>Previous studies have shown that obesity resistance can occur due to increased total energy expenditure as well as reduced food intake<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>. Joo et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> observed increased expression of some thermogenic enzymes and decreased expression of lipogenic enzymes in adipose tissues of OR rats fed a high-fat diet. Obesity resistance also showed suppression of lipogenesis and acceleration of fatty-acid oxidation in visceral fat<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. The authors suggested that these characteristics are likely to contribute to the anti-obesity phenotype in rats. Moreover, Jackman et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14 </xref>demonstrated that to maintain body homeostasis, OR animals tend to decrease their food intake and/or increase their energy expenditure.</p>
      <p>Many experiments have demonstrated that disorders induced in rats fed a high-fat diet resemble the human comorbidities caused by obesity, such as glucose intolerance, insulin resistance, hypertension, and dyslipidemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. In OR models, there have been controversies regarding the presence of comorbidities<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. In the current study, there were no changes typically associated with obesity in OR rats, since the high-fat diet was not able to promote changes in glucose, lipid, insulin, leptin, or blood pressure profiles. Our data corroborate those of other studies in which elevation of these variables and/or presence of comorbidities were also not identified<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. Of note, Carroll et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref> found an increase in the HOMA-IR in OR rats compared with C rats.</p>
      <p>Morphologic analysis indicated that obesity resistance did not induce cardiac remodeling as seen in human obesity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Instead, OR rats presented lower total heart, and LV and RV weights compared with OP rats. While obesity promoted changes in cardiac structures, such as increase in LV weight (9.0%) and RV weight (21.0%) compared with C rats, OR rats only displayed a slight increase of 8.1% in RV weight, with no significant change in LV weight. Several factors have been implicated in the development of ventricular hypertrophy in obese models, including insulin and leptin<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Our results suggest that leptin and insulin did not increase sufficiently to promote cardiac remodeling in OR rats.</p>
      <p>The purpose of the present investigation was to study the changes in LV myocardial performance using the isolated papillary muscle preparation method. Several investigations currently use these maneuvers to identify changes in the contraction and relaxation phases which may not be observed under baseline conditions<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. Along with a lack of increase in BW or fat in the OR rats, the cardiac function in these animals did not change significantly after exposure to a high&#8209;fat diet at baseline conditions. Nevertheless, the myocardial responsiveness to PRC was compromised with specific changes in the contraction phase, but without changes in the relaxation phase. Our data are in disagreement with those of Louis et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref> who have shown that OR rats fed a high&#8209;fat diet for 17 weeks presented cardiac dysfunction during the relaxation phase. Despite the absence of cardiac dysfunction at baseline conditions, the PRC stimulation provided evidences that the impairment of myocardial contraction seen in OR rats was related to changes in intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> handling. However, there are only a few studies that have reported impaired intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> handling leading to myocardial dysfunction in OR rodents. In cardiac myocytes, Ca<sup>2+</sup> plays an important role in cardiac performance and physiological processes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>. According to B&#246;geholz et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>, there are three main ways to modulate the contractile function of myofilaments, namely (1) alteration of cytosolic Ca<sup>2+</sup>concentration, (2) mechanical change in pretension, and (3) catecholaminergic stimulation.</p>
      <p>A possible explanation for the contraction impairment mediated by +dT/dt in OR rats may be related to &#946;-adrenergic system downregulation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>, which was not observed in this study. Positive inotropy in response to &#946;-stimulation involves several pathways such as a) phosphorylation of plasma membrane Ca<sup>2+</sup> channels by protein kinase A increasing Ca<sup>2+</sup>entry into the cell, b) phosphorylation of phospholamban and ryanodine receptor (RyR), increasing Ca<sup>2+</sup> stores and Ca<sup>2+</sup> release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, respectively, and c) increase in actomyosin shortening velocity, which increases crossbridge cycling<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>. It has been reported that changes in the &#946;-adrenergic system can reduce L-type Ca<sup>2+</sup> channels and RyR activity by regulating their phosphorylation status in obesity models<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>In summary, the results from this investigation demonstrate that mild myocardial function changes caused by obesity resistance are related to specific contraction impairment without changes in the relaxation phase. Future studies are necessary to evaluate the damage to intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> handling, as well as the &#946;-adrenergic system in OR rodent models.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by FAPES/ES.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Bruno Barcellos Jacobsen and Artur Junio Togneri Ferron, from Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ack>
      <title>Acknowledgments</title>
      <p>This study was funded by Grants process n&#176; 53618009/2011 from FAPES, ES, Brazil. This manuscript has been proofread and edited by native English speakers (BioMed Proofreading).</p>
    </ack>
    <ref-list>
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          <name>
            <surname>S&#225;</surname>
            <given-names>Felipe Gon&#231;alves dos Santos de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima-Leopoldo</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Paula</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jacobsen</surname>
            <given-names>Bruno Barcellos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferron</surname>
            <given-names>Artur Junio Togneri</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Estevam</surname>
            <given-names>Wagner Muller</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campos</surname>
            <given-names>Dijon Henrique Salom&#233;</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castardeli</surname>
            <given-names>Edson</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cunha</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rcia Regina Holanda da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cicogna</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Leopoldo</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233; Soares</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Centro de Educa&#231;&#227;o F&#237;sica e Desportos</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Desportos</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Vit&#243;ria</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro de Educa&#231;&#227;o F&#237;sica e Desportos &#8211; Departamento de Desportos &#8211; Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo, Vit&#243;ria, ES, Brasil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff04">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina &#8211; Universidade Estadual Paulista, Botucatu, S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Andr&#233; Soares Leopoldo</bold> , Avenida Fernando Ferrari, 514, Goiabeiras. CEP 29075-910, Vit&#243;ria, ES &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>andresoaresleopoldo@gmail.com</email>, <email>andre.leopoldo@ufes.br</email>
					</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Lima-Leopoldo AP, Leopoldo AS; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: S&#225; FGS, Jacobsen BB, Ferron AJT, Estevam WM, Campos DHS, Castardeli E; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: S&#225; FGS, Jacobsen BB, Ferron AJT, Estevam WM, Campos DHS, Castardeli E, Cunha MRH; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: S&#225; FGS, Lima-Leopoldo AP, Cicogna AC, Leopoldo AS; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Lima-Leopoldo AP, Castardeli E, Cunha MRH, Cicogna AC, Leopoldo AS.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>A obesidade induzida por dieta &#233; frequentemente utilizada para demonstra&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. No entanto, alguns ratos, como humanos, s&#227;o suscet&#237;veis ao desenvolvimento de um fen&#243;tipo de obesidade, enquanto outros s&#227;o resistentes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Avaliar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade e fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e o impacto da resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade no tr&#226;nsito de c&#225;lcio.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Ratos Wistar machos com trinta dias de idade foram distribu&#237;dos em dois grupos com 54 animais cada: controle (C; dieta padr&#227;o) e obesos (quatro dietas palat&#225;veis hiperlip&#237;dicas) por 15 semanas. Ap&#243;s o protocolo experimental, os ratos alimentados por dietas hiperlip&#237;dicas foram classificados de acordo com o &#237;ndice de adiposidade e subdivididos em propensos &#224; obesidade (PO) e resistentes &#224; obesidade (RO). Foram avaliados o perfil nutricional, comorbidades e remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. A fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca foi avaliada pelo estudo do m&#250;sculo papilar isolado em condi&#231;&#245;es basais e ap&#243;s manobras inotr&#243;picas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>As dietas hiperlip&#237;dicas promoveram aumento na gordura corporal e no &#237;ndice de adiposidade em ratos PO comparados com ratos C e RO. Os perfis de glicose, lip&#237;dios e press&#227;o arterial permaneceram inalterados em ratos RO. Al&#233;m disso, os ratos RO apresentaram peso total do cora&#231;&#227;o e dos ventr&#237;culos direito e esquerdo mais baixos do que ratos PO, mas semelhantes aos ratos C. Os m&#250;sculos card&#237;acos de todos os ratos apresentaram dados semelhantes na condi&#231;&#227;o basal, mas a resposta mioc&#225;rdica a um est&#237;mulo de contra&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-pausa estava comprometida em ratos PO e RO em compara&#231;&#227;o aos ratos C.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>A resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade promoveu altera&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas na fase de contra&#231;&#227;o, sem alterar a fase de relaxamento. Esta anormalidade leve pode estar relacionada com o tr&#226;nsito intracelular de Ca<sup>+2</sup>.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-Chave:</title>
        <kwd>Resist&#234;ncia &#224; Obesidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Dieta Hiperlip&#237;dica</kwd>
        <kwd>Fun&#231;&#227;o Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Tr&#226;nsito de C&#225;lcio</kwd>
        <kwd>Ratos</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>FAPES</funding-source>
          <award-id>53618009/2011</award-id>
        </award-group>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A obesidade &#233; caracterizada por um excesso de massa adiposa influenciado por fatores gen&#233;ticos e ambientais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. Esta doen&#231;a multifatorial &#233; um fator de risco independente para dist&#250;rbios cardiovasculares como hipertens&#227;o arterial, arteriosclerose e doen&#231;a coronariana<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
        <p>A elucida&#231;&#227;o dos mecanismos envolvidos na disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida pela obesidade requer a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de modelos adequados induzidos por dieta<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. No entanto, sabe&#8209;se que os ratos, como os humanos, mostram suscetibilidades diferentes para desenvolver obesidade induzida por dieta, sendo poss&#237;vel identificar subgrupos que desenvolvem obesidade e outros que mant&#234;m um fen&#243;tipo magro apesar de uma alta ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica. Este subgrupo de ratos que n&#227;o se tornam obesos mesmo quando alimentados com uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica s&#227;o categorizados como ratos resistentes &#224; obesidade (RO)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Estes RO apresentam menor ganho de peso corporal (PC) e menores dep&#243;sitos de gordura do que os ratos propensos &#224; obesidade (PO) apesar de ingest&#227;o semelhante de energia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. Resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade reflete a habilidade de perceber com acur&#225;cia o balan&#231;o energ&#233;tico e responder ao consumo energ&#233;tico aumentado com respostas adaptativas que se op&#245;em &#224; de ganho de peso<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>.</p>
        <p>Poucos estudos t&#234;m avaliado a correla&#231;&#227;o entre resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade e fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e os mecanismos pelos quais a resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade pode promover disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ainda n&#227;o s&#227;o bem compreendidos. Carroll e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref> n&#227;o identificaram qualquer anormalidade card&#237;aca em animais RO ap&#243;s 12 semanas. Por outro lado, Louis e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref> mostraram que ratos RO alimentados com uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica por 17 semanas manifestaram disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, refletida por um tempo significativamente maior de relaxamento isovolum&#233;trico. V&#225;rios fatores t&#234;m sido propostos como contribuintes para a disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca em modelos de obesidade, entre eles mudan&#231;as no tr&#226;nsito de c&#225;lcio (Ca<sup>+2</sup>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. No entanto, n&#227;o &#233; claro se as mudan&#231;as no tr&#226;nsito de Ca<sup>+2</sup> desempenham um papel cr&#237;tico no desenvolvimento da disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica induzido pela resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade.</p>
        <p>Considerando a falta de informa&#231;&#245;es sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e os mecanismos subjacentes ao envolvimento do tr&#226;nsito de Ca<sup>+2</sup> na resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade, este estudo foi elaborado para testar a hip&#243;tese de que a resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade n&#227;o promove disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ou prejudica o tr&#226;nsito de Ca<sup>+2</sup> em modelos de obesidade.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Animais e Protocolo Experimental</title>
          <p>Ratos Wistar machos com trinta dias de idade foram distribu&#237;dos aleatoriamente em dois grupos: controle (C, n = 54) e obeso (Ob, n = 54). O grupo C foi alimentado com uma dieta padr&#227;o (RC Focus 1765) e o grupo Ob foi exposto alternadamente a quatro dietas hiperlip&#237;dicas palat&#225;veis (RC Focus 2413, 2414, 2415, and 2416; Agroceres, Rio Claro, Brasil) como descrito anteriormente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. O tamanho da amostra foi baseado em estudos anteriores realizados em nosso laborat&#243;rio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
          <p>O PC foi registrado semanalmente ap&#243;s in&#237;cio do protocolo experimental. A obesidade foi baseada no ganho de PC e come&#231;ou a se estabelecer na semana 3, como determinado previamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. A partir desse momento, os ratos C e Ob foram mantidos em suas respectivas dietas por mais 15 semanas consecutivas.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cuidados dos Animais</title>
          <p>Os animais foram mantidos em um ambiente controlado com ar puro, ciclos de 12 horas de claro/escuro com in&#237;cio &#224;s 6h00 da manh&#227;, temperatura mantida a 23 &#177; 3&#176;C e umidade relativa de 60 &#177; 5%. Todos os procedimentos e experimentos foram realizados em conformidade com o <italic>Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals</italic> publicado pelo <italic>National Research Council</italic> (1996), e foram aprovados pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica no Uso de Animais (UNESP, Botucatu, SP, Brasil), sob o n&#250;mero 1036.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Perfil Nutricional</title>
          <p>O consumo alimentar, ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica (IC), efici&#234;ncia alimentar (EA) e PC foram registrados semanalmente como descrito previamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Quinze semanas ap&#243;s a obesidade ter se desenvolvido, os animais foram anestesiados com inje&#231;&#227;o de cetamina (50 mg/kg) e xilazina (0,5 mg/kg). Os animais foram ent&#227;o decapitados e toracotomizados e os dep&#243;sitos de gordura foram dissecados e pesados. O &#237;ndice de adiposidade foi calculado a partir da seguinte f&#243;rmula: (gordura corporal total/PC final) x 100. A gordura corporal foi determinada pela somat&#243;ria de cada dep&#243;sito de gordura de acordo com a f&#243;rmula: Gordura corporal = gordura epididimal + gordura retroperitoneal + gordura visceral<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Determina&#231;&#227;o da Obesidade e Resist&#234;ncia &#224; Obesidade</title>
          <p>Um crit&#233;rio baseado no &#237;ndice de adiposidade foi utilizado para determinar a ocorr&#234;ncia de obesidade e resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade, de acordo com v&#225;rios autores<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. Ap&#243;s 15 semanas, os ratos alimentados com dietas hiperlip&#237;dicas foram classificados com base em seus &#237;ndices de adiposidade. Dessa forma, neste estudo, ratos alimentados com dieta hiperlip&#237;dica que exibiram os maiores &#237;ndices de adiposidade foram referidos como PO (n = 35), enquanto que aqueles que exibiram menores &#237;ndices de adiposidade foram designados como RO (n = 19). Os ratos que n&#227;o apresentaram o comportamento normal do grupo C quando alimentados com uma dieta padr&#227;o n&#227;o foram mais utilizados (n = 15).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Press&#227;o Arterial Sist&#243;lica (PAS)</title>
          <p>Uma semana antes dos ratos serem eutanasiados, a PAS foi medida na cauda dos animais com um pletism&#243;grafo de cauda. Os animais foram aquecidos em uma caixa de madeira a 40&#176;C por 4 minutos para induzir vasodilata&#231;&#227;o arterial na cauda. Um sensor acoplado a um eletro&#8209;esfigmoman&#244;metro ligado a um computador foi colocado na cauda e a PAS foi ent&#227;o medida com o uso de um programa espec&#237;fico (Biopac Systems Inc., CA, EUA).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Toler&#226;ncia &#224; Glicose e &#205;ndice de Resist&#234;ncia Insul&#237;nica (HOMA-IR)</title>
          <p>Os experimentos foram realizados nos ratos C (n = 34), PO (n = 31) e RO (n = 13) ap&#243;s 15 semanas de tratamento. Ap&#243;s 4&#8211;6 horas de jejum, uma amostra de sangue foi coletada da ponta da cauda. O n&#237;vel de glicemia (condi&#231;&#227;o basal) de cada animal foi determinado imediatamente com um glicos&#237;metro port&#225;til (Accu-Chek Advantage; Roche Diagnostics Co., Indianapolis, IN). Posteriormente, uma inje&#231;&#227;o de solu&#231;&#227;o de glicose dissolvida em &#225;gua foi administrada intraperitonealmente(Sigma-Aldrich&#174;, St Louis, MO, EUA), e os n&#237;veis de glicose no sangue foram medidos ap&#243;s 15, 30, 60, 90 e 120 minutos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. O &#237;ndice HOMA-IR reflete o grau de resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina e foi calculado com a seguinte f&#243;rmula: HOMA-IR = [glicemia de jejum (mmol/l) X insulinemia de jejum (mU/ml)]/22.5.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Perfil Metab&#243;lico</title>
          <p>Ao final do per&#237;odo experimental, os animais foram colocados em jejum por 12 a 15 horas, e em seguida anestesiados com uma inje&#231;&#227;o intramuscular de cetamina (50 mg/kg) e xilazina (0,5 mg/kg) e eutanasiados por decapita&#231;&#227;o. Foram colhidas amostras de sangue e o soro foi separado por centrifuga&#231;&#227;o a 3.000 X g durante 15 minutos a 4&#176;C e armazenado a -80&#176;C at&#233; an&#225;lise posterior. O soro foi utilizado para an&#225;lise dos n&#237;veis de glicose, triglicer&#237;deos (TG), colesterol total (Col-T), colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL), <italic>colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade</italic> (LDL), insulina e leptina. Glicose, TG, Col-T, HDL e LDL foram medidos com um sistema de an&#225;lise enzim&#225;tica autom&#225;tico (Biochemical analyzer BS-200, Mindray, China). Os n&#237;veis de leptina e insulina foram determinados pelo m&#233;todo de ensaio de imunoadsor&#231;&#227;o por liga&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica (ELISA) com uso de kits comerciais (Linco Research Inc., St. Louis, MO, USA).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise Morfol&#243;gica</title>
          <p>Os ratos foram eutanasiados por toracotomia, e os cora&#231;&#245;es, ventr&#237;culos e t&#237;bia foram separados, dissecados, pesados e medidos. A remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca foi determinada atrav&#233;s da an&#225;lise do peso do cora&#231;&#227;o e dos ventr&#237;culos esquerdo (VE) e direito (VD), e suas correla&#231;&#245;es com o comprimento da t&#237;bia.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#250;sculo Papilar Isolado</title>
          <p>Para avaliar as propriedades intr&#237;nsecas contr&#225;teis e mec&#226;nicas do cora&#231;&#227;o, o procedimento de isolamento papilar foi empregado como previamente descrito<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Este experimento foi realizado em ratos C (n = 36), PO (n = 35) e RO (n = 18). Os m&#250;sculos papilares tamb&#233;m foram avaliados na condi&#231;&#227;o basal de 2,5 mM Ca<sup>+2</sup> e ap&#243;s as manobras inotr&#243;picas de aumento na concentra&#231;&#227;o extracelular de Ca<sup>+2</sup>e potencial p&#243;s-pausa (PPP) como descrito anteriormente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise Estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Todas as an&#225;lises foram realizadas com o software SigmaStat 3.5 (SYSTAT Software Inc., San Jose, CA, USA). A distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis foi avaliada com o teste de Shapiro-Wilk e os resultados foram relatados como m&#233;dias &#177; desvios-padr&#227;o. Compara&#231;&#245;es entre os grupos foram realizadas com ANOVA unifatorial para amostras independentes e teste <italic>post hoc</italic> de Tukey. ANOVA bifatorial para medidas repetidas foi utilizada para avaliar a toler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose e o tr&#226;nsito de Ca<sup>+2</sup> mioc&#225;rdico. O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia foi determinado em 5% (&#945; = 0,05).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Caracter&#237;sticas Gerais dos Grupos Experimentais</title>
          <p>N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a no PC inicial entre os grupos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t04">Tabela 1</xref>).A dieta hiperlip&#237;dica promoveu um aumento substancial na gordura corporal e no &#237;ndice de adiposidade em ratos PO comparado com ratos C e RO. Especificamente, em compara&#231;&#227;o aos ratos C e RO, os ratos PO apresentaram respectivamente teor de gordura corporal 86,4% e 78,8% maior e &#237;ndices de adiposidade 66,9% e 60,5%, mais elevados. Al&#233;m disso, os dep&#243;sitos de gordura epididimal, retroperitonal e visceral, bem como o PC final foram maiores em ratos PO comparados com ratos C ou RO. Apesar da maior quantidade de energia na dieta hiperlip&#237;dica, a ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica foi semelhante entre os grupos devido a um consumo alimentar reduzido pelos ratos PO e RO em rela&#231;&#227;o aos ratos C. Al&#233;m disso, a EA foi maior no grupo PO em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo C. Embora os valores de EA tenham sido semelhantes em ratos PO e RO, este par&#226;metro mostrou um resultado inferior sem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica em ratos RO quando comparados com ratos PO (p = 0,077).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t04">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Caracter&#237;sticas dos grupos experimentais</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2">
                    <bold>Vari&#225;veis</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="3" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                    <bold>Grupos</bold>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>C (n = 39)</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>PO (n = 35)</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>RO (n = 19)</bold>
                  </th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PCI (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">150 &#177; 12</td>
                  <td align="center">152 &#177; 11</td>
                  <td align="center">152 &#177; 10</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">PCF (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">486 &#177; 34</td>
                  <td align="center">545 &#177; 46<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref>
											<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">#</xref>
										</td>
                  <td align="center">492 &#177; 41</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Ganho de peso (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">336 &#177; 31</td>
                  <td align="center">393 &#177; 44<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref>
											<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">#</xref>
										</td>
                  <td align="center">340 &#177; 40</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Gordura epididimal (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">7,33 &#177; 1,72</td>
                  <td align="center">12,9 &#177; 3,7<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref>
											<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">#</xref>
										</td>
                  <td align="center">7,31 &#177; 1,94</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Gordura retroperitoneal (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">8,74 &#177; 2,09</td>
                  <td align="center">17,8 &#177; 6,2<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref>
											<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">#</xref>
										</td>
                  <td align="center">9,84 &#177; 2,58</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Gordura visceral (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">5,95 &#177; 1,34</td>
                  <td align="center">10,6 &#177; 3,7<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref>
											<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">#</xref>
										</td>
                  <td align="center">6,00 &#177; 1,21</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Gordura corporal (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">22,2 &#177; 4,1</td>
                  <td align="center">41,3 &#177; 12,8<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref>
											<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">#</xref>
										</td>
                  <td align="center">23,1 &#177; 4,3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">&#205;ndice de adiposidade (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">4,51 &#177; 0,73</td>
                  <td align="center">7,53 &#177; 1,99<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref>
											<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">#</xref>
										</td>
                  <td align="center">4,69 &#177; 0,67</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">CA (g/dia)</td>
                  <td align="center">26,6 &#177; 1,9</td>
                  <td align="center">22,4 &#177; 2,8<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref>
										</td>
                  <td align="center">20,8 &#177; 3,0<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">&amp;</xref>
										</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">IC (kcal/dia)</td>
                  <td align="center">78,4 &#177; 5,7</td>
                  <td align="center">81,6 &#177; 10,1</td>
                  <td align="center">75,9 &#177; 10,9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">EA (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">2,40 &#177; 0,24</td>
                  <td align="center">2,85 &#177; 0,50<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN11">*</xref>
										</td>
                  <td align="center">2,59 &#177; 0,48</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN10">
                <p>Os valores est&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o; n: N&#250;mero de animais; C: Controle; PO: Propensos &#224; obesidade; RO: Resistentes &#224; obesidade; PCI: Peso corporal inicial; PCF: Peso corporal final; CA: Consumo alimentar; IC: Ingest&#227;o de calorias; EA: Efici&#234;ncia alimentar;</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN11">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>C versus PO; p &lt; 0,05;</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN12">
                <label>&amp;</label>
                <p>C versus RO; p &lt; 0,05;</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN13">
                <label>#</label>
                <p>PO versus RO, p &lt; 0,05; ANOVA unifatorial para amostras independentes e teste post hoc de Tukey.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <sec>
            <title>Glicose, Insulina, HOMA-IR e Perfil Metab&#243;lico</title>
            <p>N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as estat&#237;sticas nos n&#237;veis de glicose e insulina entre os grupos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 1 &#8211; A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">B</xref>). No entanto, o perfil de glicose e o &#237;ndice HOMA-IR foram significativamente afetados pela exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; obesidade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 1 &#8211; C</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">D</xref>). Os ratos PO apresentaram n&#237;veis mais altos de glicose nos tempos de 60, 90 e 120 minutos em compara&#231;&#227;o aos ratos C (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 1 &#8211; C</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica no perfil de glicose entre ratos C e RO (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 1 &#8211; C</xref>). A &#225;rea sob a curva (AUC) para a glicose foi superior em ratos PO em rela&#231;&#227;o aos ratos C (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t05">Tabela 2</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, o &#237;ndice HOMA&#8209;IR foi maior em ratos PO do que em ratos C e RO (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 1 &#8211; D</xref>). HDL, LDL, Col-T e PAS n&#227;o foram significativamente diferentes entre os grupos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t05">Tabela 2</xref>). No entanto, os n&#237;veis de TG foram maiores em ratos PO do que em ratos C. Al&#233;m disso, os ratos PO exibiram n&#237;veis mais elevados de leptina quando comparados com ratos C e RO (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t05">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
            <fig id="f04">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Perfis hormonais e comorbidades; n = n&#250;mero de animais. A: Glicemia; B: Insulinemia; C: N&#237;veis de glicemia ap&#243;s sobrecarga oral de glicose; D: Modelo homeost&#225;tico para avaliar resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica (HOMA-IR) em ratos controle (C, c&#237;rculos brancos; n = 34), propensos &#224; obesidade (PO, quadrados pretos; n = 31) e resistentes &#224; obesidade (RO, tri&#226;ngulos brancos; n = 13). Os valores s&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o <sup>*</sup> C versus PO; p &lt; 0,05.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-06-0588-50134-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            <table-wrap id="t05">
              <label>Tabela 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e perfis bioqu&#237;micos e hormonais</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" rowspan="2">
                      <bold>Vari&#225;veis</bold>
                    </th>
                    <th align="center" colspan="3" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                      <bold>Grupos</bold>
                    </th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="center">
                      <bold>C (n = 34)</bold>
                    </th>
                    <th align="center">
                      <bold>PO (n = 31)</bold>
                    </th>
                    <th align="center">
                      <bold>RO (n = 13)</bold>
                    </th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left">AUC (mg/dL/min)</td>
                    <td align="center">19823&#177;4166</td>
                    <td align="center">23718&#177;4172<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">*</xref>
											</td>
                    <td align="center">21713&#177; 3887</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left">PAS (mmHg)</td>
                    <td align="center">128 &#177; 8</td>
                    <td align="center">132 &#177; 11</td>
                    <td align="center">131 &#177; 11</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left">Colesterol (mg/dL)</td>
                    <td align="center">59,8 &#177; 14,0</td>
                    <td align="center">67,2 &#177; 14,0</td>
                    <td align="center">63,7 &#177; 9,1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left">Triglicer&#237;deos (mg/dL)</td>
                    <td align="center">54,6 &#177; 14,0</td>
                    <td align="center">74,0 &#177; 26,2<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">*</xref>
											</td>
                    <td align="center">62,4 &#177; 25,7</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left">HDL (mg/dL)</td>
                    <td align="center">36,2 &#177; 22,0</td>
                    <td align="center">38,9 &#177; 19,5</td>
                    <td align="center">40,5 &#177; 19,3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left">LDL (mg/dL)</td>
                    <td align="center">25,5 &#177; 10,1</td>
                    <td align="center">28,4 &#177; 13,4</td>
                    <td align="center">27,6 &#177; 14,1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left">Leptina (ng/mL)<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">&#167;</xref>
											</td>
                    <td align="center">3,45 &#177; 5,47</td>
                    <td align="center">6,70 &#177; 14,30<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">*</xref>
												<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN17">#</xref>
											</td>
                    <td align="center">3,25 &#177; 4,66</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN14">
                  <p>Os valores est&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o; n: N&#250;mero de animais; C: Controle; PO: Propensos &#224; obesidade; RO: Resistentes &#224; obesidade; AUC: &#193;rea sob a curva para a glicose; PAS: Press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; HDL: Colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; LDL: Colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade;</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN15">
                  <label>&#167;</label>
                  <p>Os valores est&#227;o expressos em mediana &#177; intervalo semi-interquartil;</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN16">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>C versus PO; p &lt; 0,05; </p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN17">
                  <label>#</label>
                  <p>PO versus RO, p &lt; 0,05; ANOVA unifatorial para amostras independentes e teste post hoc de Tukey; <sup>&#167;</sup>Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA unifatorial e teste post hoc de Dunn.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Caracter&#237;sticas Morfol&#243;gicas</title>
          <p>As caracter&#237;sticas morfol&#243;gicas dos ratos est&#227;o exibidas na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 2</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">A</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">F</xref>). O peso absoluto do cora&#231;&#227;o e o peso do VE, assim como suas correla&#231;&#245;es com o comprimento da t&#237;bia foram significativamente mais elevados em ratos PO comparados com ratos C e RO (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 2 &#8211; A</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">D</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">E</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, os ratos PO mostraram maior peso de VD e correla&#231;&#227;o com o comprimento da t&#237;bia do que ratos C (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 2 &#8211; C</xref>e<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">F</xref>). &#201; interessante ressaltar que os comprimentos tibiais foram semelhantes entre os grupos.</p>
          <fig id="f05">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Perfis morfol&#243;gicos dos ratos controles (C, n = 39), propensos &#224; obesidade (PO, n = 35) e resistentes &#224; obesidade (RO, n = 19); n = n&#250;mero de animais. A: Peso do cora&#231;&#227;o; B: Peso do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE); C: Peso do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD); D: Peso do cora&#231;&#227;o/comprimento da t&#237;bia; E: VE/comprimento da t&#237;bia: F: VD/comprimento da t&#237;bia. Os valores s&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o. <sup>*</sup> C versus PO; p &lt; 0,05; p &lt; 0,05; #PO versus RO, p &lt; 0,05.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-06-0588-50134-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise da Fun&#231;&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica e Tr&#226;nsito de C&#225;lcio (Ca<sup>+2</sup>)</title>
          <p>O desempenho da contra&#231;&#227;o dos m&#250;sculos papilares em condi&#231;&#245;es basais (Ca<sup>+2</sup>: 2,5 mM) foi semelhante para todos os par&#226;metros nos grupos C, PO e RO (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t06">Tabela 3</xref>). Ap&#243;s 60 segundos de PPP, a tens&#227;o m&#225;xima desenvolvida (TD) foi menor em ratos PO em compara&#231;&#227;o com ratos C (C: 7,2 &#177; 1,7 g/mm<sup>2</sup><italic>versus</italic> PO: 6,4 &#177; 1,4 g/mm<sup>2</sup>; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 3 &#8211; A</xref>). Embora este efeito tenha sido significativo apenas aos 60 segundos, o mioc&#225;rdio de ratos PO tamb&#233;m mostrou valores menores de TD em resposta ao PPP aos 30 segundos (C: 6,8 &#177; 1,5 g/mm<sup>2</sup><italic>versus</italic> PO: 6,1 &#177; 1,3 g/mm<sup>2</sup>; p = 0,056). O pico dos valores basais da velocidade m&#225;xima de varia&#231;&#227;o positiva da tens&#227;o desenvolvida (+dT/dt) foi semelhante entre os ratos C, PO e RO quando submetidos &#224; PPP aos 60 segundos, mas este par&#226;metro se mostrou reduzido em ratos PO e RO em compara&#231;&#227;o a ratos C (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 3 &#8211; B</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, +dT/dt em ratos PO e RO apresentou menores valores durante o PPP aos 30 segundos quando comparados com ratos C (p = 0,075 e p = 0,076, respectivamente), mas esses valores n&#227;o foram significativamente diferentes entre os grupos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 3 &#8211; B</xref>). A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 3</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">D</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">E</xref>) mostra que a resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade n&#227;o afetou a TD e a +dT/dt ap&#243;s o aumento na concentra&#231;&#227;o extracelular de Ca<sup>+2</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, a obesidade e a resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade n&#227;o provocaram nenhum efeito significativo sobre a velocidade m&#225;xima de varia&#231;&#227;o negativa da tens&#227;o desenvolvida (-dT/dt) na condi&#231;&#227;o basal e ap&#243;s manobras nos grupos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 3 - C</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">F</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t06">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Dados de base da prepara&#231;&#227;o muscular isolada</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2">
                    <bold>Vari&#225;veis</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center" colspan="3" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                    <bold>Grupos</bold>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>C (n = 36)</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>PO (n = 35)</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>RO (n = 18)</bold>
                  </th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">TD (g/mm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">6,77 &#177; 1,68</td>
                  <td align="center">6,10 &#177; 1,68</td>
                  <td align="center">6,30 &#177; 1,37</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">TR (g/mm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">1,22 &#177; 0,44</td>
                  <td align="center">1,03 &#177; 0,38</td>
                  <td align="center">0,99 &#177; 0,27</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">+dT/dt (g/mm<sup>2</sup>/s)</td>
                  <td align="center">75,9 &#177; 18,8</td>
                  <td align="center">70,6 &#177; 19,2</td>
                  <td align="center">72,5 &#177; 16,2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">-dT/dt (g/mm<sup>2</sup>/s)</td>
                  <td align="center">25,3 &#177; 5,3</td>
                  <td align="center">24,9 &#177; 7,0</td>
                  <td align="center">24,0 &#177; 5,2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">AST (mm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">1,10 &#177; 0,25</td>
                  <td align="center">1,14 &#177; 0,29</td>
                  <td align="center">1,10 &#177; 0,35</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN18">
                <p>Os valores est&#227;o expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o; n: N&#250;mero de animais; C: Controle; PO: Propensos &#224; obesidade; RO: Resistentes &#224; obesidade. Linha de base condi&#231;&#227;o -2.5 mM [Ca<sup>+2</sup>]; TD: Tens&#227;o m&#225;xima desenvolvida normalizada pela &#225;rea seccional transversa do m&#250;sculo papilar; TR: Tens&#227;o de repouso normalizada pela &#225;rea seccional transversa do m&#250;sculo papilar; velocidade m&#225;xima de varia&#231;&#227;o positiva (+ dT/dt) e negativa (-dT/dt) da tens&#227;o desenvolvida normalizada pela &#225;rea seccional transversa do m&#250;sculo papilar; AST: &#193;rea de sec&#231;&#227;o transversal; ANOVA unifatorial para amostras independentes e teste post hoc de Tukey.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <fig id="f06">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Efeitos do potencial p&#243;s-pausa (PPP; A, B e C) e aumento na concentra&#231;&#227;o de Ca<sup>+2</sup> extracelular (D, E e F) no m&#250;sculo papilar de ratos controle (C; n = 36), propensos &#224; obesidade (PO; n = 35) e resistentes &#224; obesidade (RO; n = 18). PPP basal: 0,5 mM [Ca<sup>+2</sup>]. Os valores s&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o; n = N&#250;mero de animais. Tens&#227;o m&#225;xima desenvolvida (TD); velocidade m&#225;xima de varia&#231;&#227;o positiva (+dT/dt) e negativa (-dT/dt) da tens&#227;o desenvolvida. <sup>*</sup>C versus PO; p &lt; 0,05; <sup>&amp;</sup> C versus RO; p &lt; 0,05.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-06-0588-50134-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>Apesar da obesidade e do sobrepeso serem cada vez mais generalizados, alguns indiv&#237;duos permanecem resistentes a se tornarem obesos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. Estudos anteriores mostraram que esta resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade pode ser atribu&#237;da a mudan&#231;as na nutri&#231;&#227;o e padr&#245;es de adiposidade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>. A maioria dos seres humanos e animais que consumem dietas hiperlip&#237;dicas mostram um aumento no PC, com correspondente aumento nos n&#237;veis de adiposidade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>. Em compara&#231;&#227;o, alguns animais que s&#227;o alimentados com dietas hiperlip&#237;dicas apresentam menor ganho de peso e adiposidade do que outros que s&#227;o propensos &#224; obesidade.</p>
        <p>Poucos estudos t&#234;m avaliado e identificado as caracter&#237;sticas card&#237;acas de ratos RO<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Mesmo assim, a ocorr&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e seus mecanismos s&#227;o desconhecidos neste modelo animal. Curiosamente, h&#225; pouca informa&#231;&#227;o dispon&#237;vel sobre a rela&#231;&#227;o entre resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade, fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e tr&#226;nsito de Ca<sup>+2</sup>. O achado mais importante do presente estudo foi que a resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade promove disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica leve, e que este resultado se relacionou com dano na fase de contra&#231;&#227;o. Acreditamos que este seja o primeiro estudo a relatar o papel do tr&#226;nsito de Ca<sup>+2</sup> no mioc&#225;rdio de ratos RO.</p>
        <p>Dietas hiperlip&#237;dicas t&#234;m sido utilizadas h&#225; d&#233;cadas para caracterizar a obesidade e resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade em roedores<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. Utilizando ratos machos alimentados com uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica saturada por 20 semanas, estes estudos relataram que 42,5% e 40% dos ratos foram classificados como PO e RO, respectivamente. Al&#233;m disso, Carroll e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref> encontraram que 12 semanas de uma dieta moderada em gorduras identificou 37,5% e 31,25% de ratos PO e RO, respectivamente. A dieta hiperlip&#237;dica utilizada no presente estudo foi suficientemente intensa e longa para promover obesidade em 64,8% dos ratos (PO), enquanto que 35,2% dos ratos n&#227;o desenvolveram obesidade (RO). A literatura revela que a resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade &#233; caracterizada por ganho de PC e adiposidade em um ritmo semelhante ou menor do que aquele em ratos alimentados com ra&#231;&#227;o padr&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. Os achados deste estudo mostram que os animais RO apresentaram PC final e dep&#243;sitos de gordura significativamente menores em compara&#231;&#227;o aos do grupo PO, mas com caracter&#237;sticas semelhantes &#224;s dos ratos C. Al&#233;m disso, o &#237;ndice de adiposidade foi 60,5% menor no grupo RO em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo PO. Esses resultados est&#227;o de acordo com os achados de v&#225;rios outros estudos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>.</p>
        <p>Estudos anteriores mostraram que a resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade pode ocorrer devido a um aumento no gasto energ&#233;tico total, bem como a uma redu&#231;&#227;o na ingesta alimentar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>. Joo e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> observaram uma express&#227;o aumentada de algumas enzimas termog&#234;nicas e express&#227;o reduzida de enzimas lipog&#234;nicas nos tecidos adiposos de ratos RO alimentados com uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica. A resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade tamb&#233;m mostrou supress&#227;o da lipog&#234;nese e acelera&#231;&#227;o da oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos na gordura visceral<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. Os autores sugeriram que estas caracter&#237;sticas provavelmente contribuem para o fen&#243;tipo anti-obesidade em ratos. Al&#233;m disso, Jackman e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14 </xref>demonstraram que para manter a homeostasia corporal, os animais RO tendem a diminuir sua ingesta alimentar e/ou a aumentar seu gasto de energia.</p>
        <p>Muitos experimentos t&#234;m demonstrado que os dist&#250;rbios induzidos em ratos alimentados com uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica se assemelham a comorbidades humanas causadas pela obesidade, tais como intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose, resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, hipertens&#227;o e dislipidemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. Nos modelos RO, t&#234;m ocorrido controv&#233;rsias sobre a presen&#231;a de comorbidades<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. No presente estudo, n&#227;o houve altera&#231;&#245;es normalmente associadas com obesidade em ratos RO, pois a dieta hiperlip&#237;dica n&#227;o foi capaz de promover mudan&#231;as nos perfis de glicose, lip&#237;dios, insulina, leptina ou press&#227;o arterial. Nossos dados corroboram os de outros estudos nos quais a eleva&#231;&#227;o dessas vari&#225;veis e/ou presen&#231;a de comorbidades tamb&#233;m n&#227;o foi identificada<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. &#201; importante mencionar que Carroll e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref> encontraram um aumento no HOMA-IR em ratos RO em compara&#231;&#227;o com ratos C.</p>
        <p>A an&#225;lise morfol&#243;gica indicou que a resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade n&#227;o induziu remodelamento card&#237;aco como visto na obesidade humana<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Ao inv&#233;s disso, ratos RO apresentaram peso card&#237;aco total e de VE e VD inferior aos de ratos PO. Enquanto que a obesidade promoveu altera&#231;&#245;es nas estruturas card&#237;acas, como o aumento do peso do VE (9%) e VD (21%) em compara&#231;&#227;o aos ratos C, os ratos RO exibiram apenas um leve aumento de 8,1% no peso do VD, sem mudan&#231;a significativa no peso do VE. V&#225;rios fatores t&#234;m sido implicados no desenvolvimento da hipertrofia ventricular em modelos de obesidade, incluindo insulina e leptina<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Nossos resultados sugerem que a leptina e a insulina n&#227;o aumentaram suficientemente para promover remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca em ratos RO.</p>
        <p>O objetivo da presente investiga&#231;&#227;o foi o de estudar as mudan&#231;as no desempenho do mioc&#225;rdio no VE utilizando o m&#233;todo de an&#225;lise do m&#250;sculo papilar isolado. V&#225;rias investiga&#231;&#245;es t&#234;m utilizado atualmente estas manobras para identificar altera&#231;&#245;es nas fases de contra&#231;&#227;o e relaxamento que podem n&#227;o ser observadas em condi&#231;&#245;es basais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. Junto com a aus&#234;ncia de aumento de PC ou gordura nos ratos RO, a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca n&#227;o se alterou significativamente ap&#243;s exposi&#231;&#227;o a uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica em condi&#231;&#245;es basais. Todavia, a resposta mioc&#225;rdica &#224; PPP se mostrou comprometida com mudan&#231;as espec&#237;ficas na fase de contra&#231;&#227;o, mas sem altera&#231;&#245;es na fase de relaxamento. Nossos dados discordam dos de Louis e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref> que demostraram que ratos RO alimentados com uma dieta hiperlip&#237;dica por 17 semanas apresentaram disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca na fase de relaxamento. Apesar da aus&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca nas condi&#231;&#245;es basais, a estimula&#231;&#227;o da PPP forneceu evid&#234;ncias de que o comprometimento da contra&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica visto em ratos RO estava relacionado a mudan&#231;as no tr&#226;nsito intracelular de Ca<sup>+2</sup>. No entanto, h&#225; poucos estudos que relataram um comprometimento do tr&#226;nsito intracelular de Ca<sup>+2</sup> levando &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em roedores RO. Em mi&#243;citos card&#237;acos, o Ca<sup>+2</sup> desempenha um papel importante na performance card&#237;aca e nos processos fisiol&#243;gicos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>. De acordo com B&#246;geholz e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>, h&#225; tr&#234;s maneiras principais de modular a fun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til de miofilamentos, (1) altera&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o citoss&#243;lica de Ca<sup>+2</sup>, (2) mudan&#231;a mec&#226;nica na pr&#233;-tens&#227;o e (3) estimula&#231;&#227;o catecolamin&#233;rgica.</p>
        <p>Uma poss&#237;vel explica&#231;&#227;o para o comprometimento da contra&#231;&#227;o mediado por +dT/dt em ratos RO pode estar relacionada &#224; regula&#231;&#227;o negativa do sistema &#946;-adren&#233;rgico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>, a qual n&#227;o foi observada neste estudo. A inotropia positiva em resposta &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o &#946; envolve v&#225;rias vias como a) fosforila&#231;&#227;o de canais de Ca<sup>+2</sup> da membrana plasm&#225;tica pela prote&#237;na quinase A aumentando a entrada de Ca<sup>+2</sup> para o interior da c&#233;lula, b) fosforila&#231;&#227;o de fosfolambam e receptor de rianodina (RyR), aumentando as reservas de Ca<sup>+2</sup> e libera&#231;&#227;o de Ca<sup>+2</sup> do ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico, respectivamente e c) aumento da velocidade de encurtamento da actomiosina, o que aumenta o ciclo de pontes cruzadas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>. Tem sido relatado que mudan&#231;as no sistema &#946;-adren&#233;rgico podem reduzir os canais de Ca<sup>+2</sup> do tipo L e a atividade da RyR atrav&#233;s da regula&#231;&#227;o dos seus estados de fosforila&#231;&#227;o em modelos de obesidade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Em resumo, os resultados desta investiga&#231;&#227;o demonstram que uma mudan&#231;a leve na fun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica causada pela resist&#234;ncia &#224; obesidade est&#225; relacionada a um comprometimento espec&#237;fico na contra&#231;&#227;o sem altera&#231;&#245;es na fase de relaxamento. Futuros estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para avaliar o dano ao tr&#226;nsito intracelular de Ca<sup>+2</sup>, bem como o sistema &#946;-adren&#233;rgico em modelos de roedores com RO.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado por FAPES/ES.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Bruno Barcellos Jacobsen e Artur Junio Togneri Ferron pela Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <ack>
        <title>Agradecimentos</title>
        <p>Este estudo foi financiado por bolsa da FAPES, ES, Brasil, processo n&#176; 53618009/2011 Este manuscrito foi revisado e editado por nativos em ingl&#234;s (BioMed Proofreading).</p>
      </ack>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
