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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">pBCmNnQtzW7HBHj3kFXd47N</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2015002400519</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20150142</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Atrial Fibrillation and Non-cardiovascular Diseases: A Systematic Review</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>C&#225;tia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Provid&#234;ncia</surname>
            <given-names>Rui</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Jo&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gon&#231;alves</surname>
            <given-names>Lino Manuel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Coimbra</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Coimbra</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade de Coimbra</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Hospitalar e Universit&#225;rio de Coimbra</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Coimbra</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia &#8211; Centro Hospitalar e Universit&#225;rio de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: C&#225;tia Andreia dos Santos Ferreira</bold>, Travessa do Cancel&#227;o, 9. Postal Code 3020-229, Coimbra &#8211; Portugal E-mail:   <email>catiaspferreira@hotmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and Writing of the manuscript: Ferreira C; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Provid&#234;ncia R, Ferreira MJ, Gon&#231;alves LM.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>105</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>519</fpage>
      <lpage>526</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>31</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common cardiac arrhythmia and is associated with an unfavorable prognosis, increasing the risk of stroke and death. Although traditionally associated with cardiovascular diseases, there is increasing evidence of high incidence of AF in patients with highly prevalent noncardiovascular diseases, such as cancer, sepsis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, obstructive sleep apnea and chronic kidney disease. Therefore, considerable number of patients has been affected by these comorbidities, leading to an increased risk of adverse outcomes.</p>
        <p>The authors performed a systematic review of the literature aiming to better elucidate the interaction between these conditions.</p>
        <p>Several mechanisms seem to contribute to the concomitant presence of AF and noncardiovascular diseases. Comorbidities, advanced age, autonomic dysfunction, electrolyte disturbance and inflammation are common to these conditions and may predispose to AF.</p>
        <p>The treatment of AF in these patients represents a clinical challenge, especially in terms of antithrombotic therapy, since the scores for stratification of thromboembolic risk, such as the CHADS<sub>2</sub> and CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc scores, and the scores for hemorrhagic risk, like the HAS-BLED score have limitations when applied in these conditions.</p>
        <p>The evidence in this area is still scarce and further investigations to elucidate aspects like epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and treatment of AF in noncardiovascular diseases are still needed.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Atrial Fibrillation / mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>Arrhythmias / therapeutic use</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasms</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common cardiac arrhythmia, occurring in 1.5-2.0% of the general population<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. The presence of AF is associated with unfavorable prognosis. In addition to be associated with a five-fold higher risk<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref> of stroke and a three-fold incidence of congestive heart failure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>, FA also contributes to higher mortality. Even in the absence of valvular heart diseases or pre-existing cardiovascular disease, AF doubles the mortality risk in men (multivariate OR, 2.4 [95% CI, 1.8 to 3.3]) and in women (multivariate OR, 2.2 [95% CI, 1.6 to 3.1])<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>, suggesting that AF is a prognostic marker in noncardiovascular diseases.</p>
      <p>Although often underestimated, noncardiovascular diseases are closely associated with AF, either as a risk factor for AF development<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>or as cause of death<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. The aim of this review was to present the association between AF and noncardiovascular diseases, by describing its underlying mechanisms and its therapeutic and prognostic implications.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <p>A systematic review was undertaken using Pubmed database for articles published up to February 2015, using the terms &#8220;atrial fibrillation&#8221;, combined with some of the noncardiovascular diseases frequently associated with AF supplementary material (MS).</p>
      <p>Particular emphasis has been given to more prevalent diseases and those with stronger causal association with mortality in patients with AF. Thus, five conditions were more extensively explored: cancer, sepsis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), and chronic kidney disease (CKD).</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>A great variety of conditions are currently associated with AF (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Due to the increased mortality caused by FA, not only the risk factors, but also specific causes of death are important to identify. A study on mortality based on the subjects from The Randomized Evaluation of Long-Term Anticoagulant Therapy (RE-LY) trial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref> verified that the majority of deaths are not related to stroke in anticoagulated atrial fibrillation patients. Although cardiac diseases continue to be the most common causes of death, noncardiovascular deaths accounted for 35.8% of all deaths. In this category, cancer was the most frequent cause of death, followed by respiratory failure (5.7%) and infection (4.45%)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t01">
        <label>Tabela 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Fatores de risco associados &#224; fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (adaptado de Kirchhof e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>)</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <tbody>
            <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Conventional risk factors</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Advanced age</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Male gender</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Coronary disease</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Hypertension (&gt; 140/90 mmHg)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Heart failure</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Valvular heart diseases</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Diabetes mellitus</td>
            </tr>
            <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
              <td align="left">Hyperthyroidism</td>
            </tr>
            <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
              <td align="left">
                <bold>Less established risk factors</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Dilation of left atrium</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Atrial conduction delay / PR interval</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Hypertrophy of left ventricle</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Diastolic dysfunction of left ventricle</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Obesity</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Obstructive sleep apnea</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Genetic factors</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Arterial pressure / increased pulse pressure</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Chronic kidney disease</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Inflammation</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Increased natriuretic peptides</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Excessive resistance exercise</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Excessive alcohol consumption</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left">Height</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Therefore, when assessing less established risk factors for AF, several noncardiovascular diseases are identified, notably cancer, sepsis, COPD, OSA and CKD. Since the number of patients suffering from these conditions is limited in large-scale studies, most of data in the following sections have been collected from epidemiological records and studies.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Cancer</title>
        <p>Although cancer has been recently associated with AF, there are few studies confirming this association. Guzzetti et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>one of the first groups to investigate such association, reported that FA was present in 3.6% of colorectal cancer (CRC) patients or breast cancer patients and in 1.6% of controls, corresponding to at least two times higher likelihood of having AF in patients with cancer (p &lt; 0.01)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
        <p>In a cohort study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>, the prevalence of AF at the moment of cancer diagnosis (2.4%) and the percentage of patients who developed AF after cancer diagnosis (1.8%)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref> were determined in 24,125 recently diagnosed patients. Erichsen et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>, in a case-control study, observed that in patients with AF, 0.59% had a CRC diagnosis within 90 days before their AF diagnosis, compared with only 0.05% of controls (adjusted OR = 11.8; 95% CI 9.3-14.9).</p>
        <p>The most common and most studied type of AF is the postoperative AF. Thoracic surgery, especially pulmonary resection for lung cancer, is associated with a significant risk of AF, with variable incidence (<inline-supplementary-material xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-suppl01.pdf" mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf">Table S-1</inline-supplementary-material>). According to the Society of Thoracic Surgeons database, 12.6% of 13,906 patients who underwent surgery for lung cancer developed AF after the surgery<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. On the other hand, the prevalence of postoperative AF in patients who underwent elective surgery for CRC was 4.4%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>.</p>
        <p>In addition, AF may also complicate the course of cancer disease as an adverse drug reaction by several mechanisms including cardiotoxicity (MS).</p>
        <p>AF may represent a comorbidity in cancer, since both conditions share several factors predisposing to AF such as advanced age, electrolyte abnormalities, hypoxia, and metabolic disorders. Changes in autonomic nervous system due to the increased sympathetic stimulation by pain or other forms of physical or emotional stress may predispose to AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. In addition, cancer is often associated with a hypercoagulability state and increased thromboembolic risk, which may lead to pulmonary microembolism and AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. AF may also result from an abnormal production of hormone-like peptides and paraneoplastic conditions, including hyperthyroidism and immune reaction against atrial structures<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
        <p>Inflammation plays an important role in carcinogenesis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> and AF may represent an inflammatory complication of cancer (MS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
        <p>AF may also be a direct manifestation of primary neoplasms, metastatic cardiac tumors or tumors of adjacent tissues, such as the lungs and esophagus that invade the heart<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
        <p>AF has a negative impact on prognosis. Patients who developed AF after surgery for lung cancer experienced higher postoperative mortality as compared with patients without AF (6.7% versus 1.0%, p = 0.024) during hospitalization and intensive care unit (ICU) admissions. AF was also associated with higher long-term mortality among patients alive at 5 years from surgery (HR 3.75, 95% CI 1.44-9.08, p = 0.007)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. In patients who underwent surgery for CRC, AF seems also to indicate worse survival<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
        <p>AF is also associated with two-fold increased risk of thromboembolism and six-fold increased risk of heart failure, even after adjusting for well-known risk factors (adjusted HR 1.98, 95% CI 1.6-2.46, p &lt; 0.001 and 6.3, 95% CI 4.83-8.17, p &lt; 0.001, respectively)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
        <p>These findings suggest that both treatment and prevention of AF may be important in cancer patients. However, the treatment of AF in these patients constitutes a challenge, especially in choosing the antithrombotic therapy. Cancer, <italic>per se</italic>, promotes a prothrombotic state, and increases the risk of thromboembolic events in patients with AF. On the other hand, some neoplasms are associated with increased risk of hemorrhage. Also, therapy with warfarin may be problematic in cancer patients due to the concomitant medication or metabolic disorders secondary to cancer, leading to an unpredictable anticoagulant response<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
        <p>Finally, there are no specific recommendations for AF treatment in patients with neoplasms<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. The scores for thromboembolic risk prediction, CHADS<sub>2</sub> or CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VAS<sub>C</sub>, do not include cancer as a variable and may not be appropriate for these patients. An epidemiological study concluded that the CHADS<sub>2</sub> score may be predictive for thromboembolic risk in patients with AF at the moment of cancer diagnosis, but not among those who developed AF after the diagnosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
        <p>Low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) may have an antineoplastic potential and positively influences cancer patients survival, representing a more appropriate alternative than coumarins<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Dalteparin has been associated with a better survival in patients with solid tumors without metastatic diseases and venous thromboembolic events as compared with coumarin derivatives<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. In line with this evidence, the American College of Chest Physicians recommends the use of LMWH instead of warfarin in patients with cancer and thromboembolic disease in the first 3-6 months of antithrombotic therapy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. However, the long-term effect of LMHW on cancer patients is still unknown<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
        <p>Several studies have identified AF following thoracic surgery for lung cancer (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Table 2</xref>). In this context, the brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) has been investigated as a predictive marker of postoperative AF. Both increased preoperative and postoperative values are strong independent predictors of AF (RR 27.9, 95% CI 13.2-58.9, p &lt; 0.001, and RR20.1 95% CI 5.8-69.4, p &lt; 0.001, respectively)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Salvatici et al. identified a cut-off point of 182 ng/L as a predictive marker of postoperative AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>. However, a cut-off point of 30 pg/mL has a 93% specificity to predict AF after thoracic surgery for lung cancer<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>. Echocardiographic indexes may also be useful, especially if they indicate diastolic dysfunction of left ventricle<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t02">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Preditores de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial ap&#243;s resse&#231;&#227;o pulmonar por neoplasia maligna<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Atrial fibrillation predictors after pulmonary resection for malignant neoplasm</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Advanced age</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Male gender</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Prolonged surgery</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Advanced cancer staging</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Surgical complications</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Postoperative blood transfusion requirement</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">History of hypertension and preoperative paroxysmal atrial fibrillation</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Elevated brain natriuretic peptide levels in the preoperative and postoperative periods</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Echocardiographic indexes of diastolic dysfunction of left ventricle</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Some drugs have been studied for the prevention and treatment of postoperative AF (MS).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Sepsis</title>
        <p>New-onset AF is a complication commonly seen in ICUs, drawing more and more attention due to its frequency and impact on patient&#8217;s prognosis (<inline-supplementary-material xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-suppl02.pdf" mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf">Table S-2</inline-supplementary-material>). In the ICUs, AF is particularly common in patients with sepsis, which has been identified as an independent predictor of AF in ICU of cardiac patients (OR 6.5, 95% CI 2.0-21.1, p = 0.002)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>, or surgical patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. In a systematic review, the weighted mean incidence of new-onset AF was 8% (0-14%), 10% (4-23%) and 23% (6-46%) in patients with sepsis, severe sepsis and septic shock, respectively<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>.</p>
        <p>Sepsis is characterized by a systemic release of proinflammatory cytokines, increased levels of circulating catecholamines, electrolyte disturbances, autonomic dysfunction, and may be complicated by organic dysfunction<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. Changes in intravascular volume and cardiovascular compromise frequently lead to hypotension and elevated lactate level<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>. However, risk factors for AF in general population, including advanced age, male gender, Caucasian race, heart failure, and obesity have been associated with AF development in sepsis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. All these characteristics may cause AF in sepsis, although increasing evidence has supported that systemic inflammatory response, <italic>per se</italic>, is the main contributing factor to AF, with increased serum C-reactive protein (CRP) before the onset of AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>.</p>
        <p> New-onset AF in patients with sepsis has been associated with longer stay in the ICU and increased risk for ischemic stroke (adjusted OR 2.70, 95% CI 2.05 to 3.57, p &lt; 0.001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. Most studies have reported increased acute (ICU or in-hospital) mortality, with estimated ORs varying from 1.07 (95% CI 1.04 to 1.11) and 3.28 (95% CI 1.13 to 9.57) for 28-day mortality<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>. Besides, the development of AF during sepsis may have implications after discharge, since a greater risk of hospitalization for heart failure (HR 1.25; 95% CI, 1.16-1.34), ischemic stroke (HR 1.22; 95% CI, 1.10-1.36), and death (HR 1.04; 95% CI,1.01-1.07) has been observed in the following 5 years<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>.</p>
        <p>Treatment of AF in critically ill patients poses a clinical challenge, with no specific recommendations in the literature. An important question to be discussed is whether the association between AF and stroke may lead to an intervention aimed at preventing such complication, such as the cardioversion, anticoagulation, or both. However, it is difficult to maintain sinus rhythm after cardioversion as sepsis persists, additionally to the fact that the damage may be a result of an indiscriminate use of anticoagulants due to coagulation disorders by patients with sepsis, and invasive procedures to which they are exposed<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. In addition, failure to restore sinus rhythm is associated with increased ICU mortality (71% versus 21%, p = 0.015)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>.</p>
        <p>Therefore, a prophylactic therapy to prevent this complication may be effective, unless patients in higher risk of developing AF during sepsis are appropriately identified (MS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease</title>
        <p>COPD is an independent risk factor for arrhythmias, especially AF, and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. In a large-scale, retrospective, case-control study, patients with COPD had a 4.41 times higher risk of AF (95% CI 4.00-4.87)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> and COPD is present in 10-15% of patients with AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Decreased pulmonary function is an independent risk factor of AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>.</p>
        <p>Numerous pathologic processes including concomitant diseases, age, hypoxia, hypercapnia, acidosis, inflammation, electrolyte disturbances, autonomic dysfunction, and pulmonary hypertension may precipitate new-onset or recurrent AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>. Right atrial electromechanical delay and the duration of atrial depolarization are significantly prolonged, and propagation of depolarization is inhomogeneous in patients with COPD. These may be the mechanisms underlying the development of AF in COPD patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
        <p>Agents used to improve pulmonary function, notably beta-adrenergic agonists and theophyllines can cause tachyarrhythmias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Agents used in the control of AF, particularly sotalol, propafenone, and non-selective &#946;-blockers, may cause bronchospasm<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Pulmonary symptoms in COPD may become worse with AF development, due to excessive, irregular heart rate, as well as reduced diastolic filling of the ventricles<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
        <p>Therefore, AF and COPD frequently coexist and interact. COPD is an independent predictor of AF progression from paroxysmal to persistent AF (OR 1.51, 95% CI 0.95&#8211;2.39, p = 0.088), and is one of the five variables included in the HATCH score, which estimates the probability of this AF progression<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>.</p>
        <p>AF in patients with COPD has a negative impact on prognosis. In a large-scale, retrospective study, a 1.98-fold greater risk of hospitalization in patients with AF was observed (95% CI 1.73&#8211;2.25)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>. AF has been also considered an independent mortality factor in exacerbations of COPD (OR 2.66, 95% CI 1.39-5.09, p = 0.003)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>.</p>
        <p>In contrast to neoplasms and sepsis, pulmonary diseases are included in current recommendations (MS). However, there is no specific recommendations regarding antithrombotic therapy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. There is a significant risk of thromboembolic events in COPD exacerbations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. The last edition of the Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (GOLD guidelines)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> suggests that thromboprophylactic measures in COPD exacerbations, including the use of subcutaneous heparin or LMWH<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
        <p>Catheter ablation may be an effective and safe approach to patients with COPD, although may be associated with increased recurrence rate after ablation (OR 1.9, 95% CI 1.07&#8211;3.557, p = 0.029)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Obstructive Sleep Apnea</title>
        <p>OSA is a common respiratory sleep disorder affecting approximately 10% of population<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>, and is associated with cardiac mortality and morbidity. The Sleep Heart Health Study reported a 4-fold higher prevalence of AF in OSA patients (OR 4.02, 95% CI 1.03&#8211;15.74)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>. The risk of AF increases with the severity of OSA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. In addition, OSA is more prevalent among patients with AF than in general population. A prospective study reported a strong association between these two conditions (adjusted OR 2.19, 95% CI 1.40-3.42, p = 0.0006)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>.</p>
        <p>AF and OSA share several factors and comorbidities, including advanced age, obesity, hypertension, heart failure and heart disease. OSA is also associated with intermittent hypoxia, acidosis, autonomic disorder, oxidative stress and endothelial dysfunction that may be involved in AF pathophysiology. Additionally, OSA increases inflammatory marker levels, such as CRP, interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-&#945;), leading to a proinflammatory state. Obstructive events in OSA cause a negative intrathoracic pressure, contributing to enlargement of atrial chamber, atrial fibrosis and remodeling of pulmonary vessels, which are well-established risk factors of AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>.</p>
        <p>Few studies have investigated the impact of AF on OSA prognosis. OSA is associated with increased risk of stroke<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>. However, it is unclear whether AF increases the risk of stroke in patients with OSA (MS).</p>
        <p>Yaranov et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>, in a retrospective study on 5,138 patients, investigated the impact of OSA on stroke rate in patients with AF, and concluded that ischemic stroke was more frequent in patients with OSA compared with patients without (25.4% versus 8.2%, p = 0.006). Even after controlling for age, male gender, and coronary heart disease, the association between OSA and stroke remained significant, indicating that OSA is an independent risk factor for stroke in patients with AF (adjusted odds ratio of 3.65, 95% CI 1.252 to 10.623)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>. Thus, it becomes relevant to verify whether OSA adds predictive value to the CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VAS<sub>C  </sub>score. The risk of stroke in patients with OSA was 1.62 time higher (95% CI 1.155-2.259) in patients with scores of 0, although the presence of OSA in patients with higher scores did not increase the incidence of stroke. Large-scale, prospective studies are needed to determine the role of OSA on thromboembolic risk in patients with AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>.</p>
        <p>With respect to AF treatment, the presence of OSA significantly reduces the efficacy of pharmacological and nonpharmacological therapies for AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. Current recommendations suggest that sleep study may be considered when OSA in patients with AF is suspected<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. In addition, there is a strong possibility that treatment with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) may have beneficial effects on AF prevention, since it reduces or eliminates many of the mechanisms assumed to associate OSA with AF, markedly hypoxemia, inflammation, sympathetic hyperactivity and hypertension. Also, treatment with CPAP is associated with a lower risk of AF recurrence after cardioversion and ablation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Chronic Kidney Disease</title>
        <p>Patients with CKD are more likely to develop AF (<inline-supplementary-material xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-suppl03.pdf" mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf">Table S-5</inline-supplementary-material>). In The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study, in a cohort of 10,328 individuals with CKD, the incidence of AF was 7.6% during a median follow-up of 10.1 years. The incidence of AF increases as renal function decreases<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>. In addition, CKD is found in nearly 10-15% of AF patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>, and AF is associated with increased risk of developing CKD (HR 1.77, 95%CI 1.5-2.1, p &lt; 0.001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>.</p>
        <p>Regardless of its cause, CKD coexists with a proinflammatory state, which may be implicated in the development of AF. Plasma levels of CRP and IL-6 are elevated in patients with CKD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>. Another mechanism proposed is that pathological activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system may lead to atrial fibrosis and atrial remodeling, creating a substrate for the development of AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>, including the autonomic dysfunction, found in early stages of CKD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>. In addition, hemodialysis therapy induces an increase in P-wave duration, which may favor AF onset<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>.</p>
        <p>Finally, advanced age and white race are independent predictors of AF in CKD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>, and cardiovascular comorbidities frequently associated with CKD are risk factors for the development of AF (MS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
        <p>Concomitant presence of AF and CKD is associated with a bad prognosis. AF is associated with a 67% increase in the incidence of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in patients with CKD (HR 1.67, 95% CI 1.46-1.91)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>. In a meta-analysis including 19 studies, the presence of CKD in patients with AF increased the thromboembolic risk (HR 1.46, 95% CI 1.20-1.76, p = 0.0001), particularly in CKD (HR 1.83, p 95% CI 1.56-2.14, p &lt; 0.00001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>.</p>
        <p>AF is also associated with increased mortality, with a 66% increase in relative risk of death at stages 3-5 of CKD (adjusted HR 1.66, 95% CI 1.57-1.77)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>.</p>
        <p>Treatment of AF in CKD consists in a clinical challenge. These patients experience not only higher rates of thromboembolic complications, but also increased hemorrhagic risk, which is exacerbated by warfarin, aspirin, or both<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>. However, when the benefit of anticoagulation is contrasted with the risk of hemorrhage, the risk-benefit ratio tends to favor anticoagulation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>.</p>
        <p>In a meta-analysis, the use of warfarin decreased the incidence of thromboembolic events in CKD patients without ESRD (HR 0.39, 95% CI 0.18-0.86, p &lt; 0.00001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>. Recent data on new anticoagulants have suggested similar efficacy and greater safety compared with warfarin<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>, and their promising role in CKD.</p>
        <p>Current guidelines recommend anticoagulation with warfarin (INR, international normalized ratio 2-3) in patients with nonvalvular AF and CHA2DS2-VASc score &#8805; 2, despite recognizing that anticoagulation increases the hemorrhagic risk in this population (MS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>AF is commonly associated with other noncardiovascular diseases that affect a great number of patients, including cancer, sepsis, COPD, OSA and CKD. Since AF has an adverse prognosis, understanding how these conditions interact and the more appropriate therapies is essential.</p>
      <p>All these conditions and AF share well established risk factors, including cardiovascular comorbidities and advanced age. Additionally, they are all associated with autonomic dysfunction, electrolyte and inflammatory disturbances (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref> and <inline-supplementary-material xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-suppl04.pdf" mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf">Figure S-1</inline-supplementary-material>).</p>
      <fig id="f01">
        <label>Figure 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Common mechanisms of atrial fibrillation development. COPD: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, OSA: Obstructive sleep apnea, CKD: Chronic kidney disease</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Inflammation is a common denominator of all conditions, and maybe one of the most important. First, a case-control study has reported a significant increase in CRP in patients with AF, both in patients with structural heart disease and patients with isolated AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>. Then, in a population-based study, 5,806 subjects were followed up for a mean of 7.8 years, showed that elevated CRP levels were associated with higher prevalence of pre-existing AF (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.2-2.5, p = 0.002) and higher risk for developing future AF (OR 1.31, 95% CI 1.08-1.58, p = 0.005)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>. These studies suggest that systemic inflammatory states, of which CRP is a marker, may induce atrium structural or electrical remodeling, and promote and maintain AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>. In addition to CRP, the increase in other inflammatory markers&#8217; levels, such as TNF-&#945;, IL-2, IL-6 and IL-8 have been also associated with AF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>.</p>
      <p>The combination of AF with these conditions constitutes a therapeutic challenge. Traditionally, anticoagulant therapy in patients with nonvalvular AF is initiated based on stratification of thromboembolic risk using the CHADS<sub>2</sub> and CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc scores, and hemorrhagic risk using the HAS-BLED score. However, these scoring systems have limitations. Both OSA and CKD are independent risks for stroke in patients with AF, and are not included in the thromboembolic scores. In addition, cancer, <italic>per se</italic>, is associated with increased thromboembolic risk. The hemorrhagic score includes renal function only, although hemorrhagic risk is elevated in some cancers and sepsis, and may not be negligible. Therefore, further studies to validate these and other risk stratification tools in these conditions are needed. Similarly, there are no large-scale studies comparing heart rate with cardiac rhythm, catheter ablation and antithrombotic therapy.</p>
      <p>The identification of AF predictors in different pathologies may lead to adoption of prophylactic measures. Although independent risk factors as well as laboratory and echocardiographic markers have been identified in all conditions, their validation in larger samples is still needed for their clinical application.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>The presence of AF in noncardiovascular diseases seems to directly affect their prognosis, and its treatment is still a challenge. Researches in some of these areas are still in initial phase, and further investigations to elucidate aspects like the epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention and treatment of AF in noncardiovascular diseases are still needed.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the diagnosis of a new-onset AF in patients with certain clinical characteristics may justify the screening of some of the diseases previously described. For example, a 50-year old patient who has a strong family history of cancer and develops a new-onset AF in the absence of cardiac disease may justify a cancer screening. Similarly, an obese patient with AF may justify the screening of OSA.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supplementary-material">
        <p>
          <bold>Check out the supplementary material through the link:</bold>
        </p>
        <p>
          <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.arquivosonline.com.br/2015/english/10505/pdf/Supplementary_Material.pdf">http://www.arquivosonline.com.br/2015/english/10505/pdf/Supplementary_Material.pdf</ext-link>
        </p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by C&#225;tia Ferreira, from Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial e Doen&#231;as N&#227;o Cardiovasculares: Uma Revis&#227;o Sistem&#225;tica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: C&#225;tia Andreia dos Santos Ferreira</bold>, Travessa do Cancel&#227;o, 9. CEP 3020-229, Coimbra &#8211; Portugal</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Ferreira C; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Provid&#234;ncia R, Ferreira MJ, Gon&#231;alves LM.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <p>A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) &#233; a arritmia card&#237;aca mais comum e est&#225; associada a um progn&#243;stico desfavor&#225;vel, aumentando o risco de acidente vascular encef&#225;lico e a mortalidade. Apesar de tradicionalmente associada a doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, verifica-se atualmente uma elevada incid&#234;ncia de FA em pacientes portadores de doen&#231;as n&#227;o cardiovasculares bastante prevalentes na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, como c&#226;ncer, sepse, doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica, s&#237;ndrome da apneia obstrutiva do sono e na doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica. Assim, cada vez mais um n&#250;mero consider&#225;vel de doentes &#233; afetado pela concomit&#226;ncia de tais doen&#231;as, acarretamento um maior risco de desfechos adversos.</p>
        <p>Os autores realizaram uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da literatura buscando elucidar a intera&#231;&#227;o entre essas condi&#231;&#245;es.</p>
        <p>Existem diversos mecanismos que parecem contribuir para a presen&#231;a concomitante de FA e doen&#231;as n&#227;o cardiovasculares. Comorbidades em geral, idade avan&#231;ada, disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica, dist&#250;rbio eletrol&#237;tico e inflama&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o comuns a essas doen&#231;as e podem predispor &#224; FA.</p>
        <p>O tratamento de FA nesses pacientes constitui um desafio cl&#237;nico, especialmente em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; terap&#234;utica antitromb&#243;tica, uma vez que os scores de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco tromboemb&#243;lico como o CHADS<sub>2</sub> ou CHADS<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASC, bem como os de risco hemorr&#225;gico como o HAS-BLED, apresentam limita&#231;&#245;es quando aplicados nas doen&#231;as em quest&#227;o.</p>
        <p>As evid&#234;ncias nesta &#225;rea ainda s&#227;o escassas, sendo necess&#225;rias investiga&#231;&#245;es futuras para esclarecer aspectos como a epidemiologia, a patog&#234;nese, a preven&#231;&#227;o e o tratamento da AF nas doen&#231;as n&#227;o cardiovasculares.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial / mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Arritmia / uso terap&#234;utico</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) &#233; o dist&#250;rbio de ritmo card&#237;aco mais comum, ocorrendo em 1,5-2,0% da popula&#231;&#227;o geral<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. A presen&#231;a de FA est&#225; associada a um progn&#243;stico desfavor&#225;vel. Al&#233;m de se associar a um risco de acidente vascular encef&#225;lico (AVE) cinco vezes maior<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref> e a uma incid&#234;ncia tr&#234;s vezes maior de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>, a FA tamb&#233;m contribui para um aumento da mortalidade. Mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as card&#237;acas valvulares e doen&#231;a cardiovascular pr&#233;-existente, a FA duplica a mortalidade em ambos os sexos (OR multivariado 2.4 [IC 95% 1,8-3,3] nos homens e 2,2 [IC 95% 1,6-3,1] nas mulheres)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. Esta evid&#234;ncia parece sugerir que a FA seja um marcador de progn&#243;stico em doen&#231;as n&#227;o cardiovasculares.</p>
        <p>A doen&#231;a n&#227;o cardiovascular, embora frequentemente subvalorizada, est&#225; intrinsecamente ligada &#224; FA, quer constituindo um fator de risco para o seu desenvolvimento<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>, quer constituindo uma causa de morte<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. O objetivo desta revis&#227;o &#233; apresentar a associa&#231;&#227;o da FA a doen&#231;as n&#227;o cardiovasculares, explicitando os mecanismos subjacentes e as suas implica&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas e progn&#243;sticas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <p>Foi realizada uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica utilizando as bases de dados Pubmed, abrangendo artigos publicados at&#233; Fevereiro de 2015. Foram realizadas pesquisas combinando o termo &#8220;atrial fibrillation&#8221; com algumas das doen&#231;as n&#227;o cardiovasculares a que a FA frequentemente encontra-se associada ao material suplementar (MS).</p>
        <p>Foi dada especial &#234;nfase &#224;s doen&#231;as com maior preval&#234;ncia e maior associa&#231;&#227;o causal ao aumento da mortalidade em doentes com FA. Assim, cinco condi&#231;&#245;es foram abordadas em maior extens&#227;o: c&#226;ncer, sepse, doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica (DPOC), s&#237;ndrome da apneia obstrutiva do sono (SAOS), e doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica (DRC).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>Uma grande variedade de condi&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o atualmente associadas &#224; FA (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t03">Tabela 1</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Dado o aumento da mortalidade que a FA imp&#245;e, &#233; importante identificar n&#227;o s&#243; os seus fatores de risco, como tamb&#233;m as causas de morte espec&#237;ficas. Um estudo da mortalidade baseado nos participantes do ensaio cl&#237;nico <italic>The Randomized Evaluation of Long-Term Anticoagulant Therapy(RE-LY)</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref> verificou que a maioria das mortes em pacientes em uso de anticoagulantes n&#227;o est&#225; mais relacionada com o AVE. As causas cardiovasculares continuam sendo as mais frequentes, por&#233;m as mortes n&#227;o cardiovasculares representaram 35,8%. Nesta categoria, a causa mais frequente foi o c&#226;ncer (13,9%), seguido de insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria (5,7%) e infec&#231;&#227;o (4,45%)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t03">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Fatores de risco associados &#224; fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (adaptado de Kirchhof e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <tbody>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Fatores de risco convencionais</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Idade avan&#231;ada</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Sexo masculino</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Hipertens&#227;o (&gt; 140/90 mmHg)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Doen&#231;as card&#237;acas valvulares</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Diabetes mellitus</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <td align="left">Hipertireoidismo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                <td align="left">
                  <bold>Fatores de risco menos estabelecidos</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Dilata&#231;&#227;o do &#225;trio esquerdo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Atraso da condu&#231;&#227;o atrial/intervalo PR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Obesidade</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">SAOS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Fatores gen&#233;ticos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Press&#227;o arterial / press&#227;o de pulso aumentada</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Inflama&#231;&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos elevados</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Exerc&#237;cio de resist&#234;ncia excessivo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Consumo de &#225;lcool excessivo</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left">Altura</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Assim, ao analisar os fatores de risco menos estabelecidos, surgem v&#225;rias doen&#231;as n&#227;o cardiovasculares, com destaque para c&#226;ncer, sepse, DPOC, SAOS e DRC. Uma vez que existe um n&#250;mero limitado de doentes com as doen&#231;as selecionadas em estudos de larga escala, a maioria dos dados mencionados nas se&#231;&#245;es seguintes foram recolhidos de registros e estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>C&#226;ncer</title>
          <p>O c&#226;ncer recentemente tem sido associado &#224; FA, por&#233;m existem poucos estudos que estabele&#231;am tal liga&#231;&#227;o. Guzzetti e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>, um dos primeiros grupos a abordar esta associa&#231;&#227;o, verificaram que a FA estava presente em 3,6% dos doentes com diagn&#243;stico de c&#226;ncer colorretal (CCR) ou c&#226;ncer de mama e apenas em 1,6% dos controles. Desta forma, verificou-se uma probabilidade pelo menos duas vezes maior de ocorrer FA nos pacientes portadores de c&#226;ncer (p &lt; 0,01)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
          <p>Posteriormente, um estudo coorte<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>identificou 24 125 doentes com o diagn&#243;stico recente de neoplasia e determinou a preval&#234;ncia de FA no momento do diagn&#243;stico (2,4%), bem como a porcentagem de doentes que desenvolveu FA depois do diagn&#243;stico de c&#226;ncer (1,8%)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Erichsen e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>, em estudo caso-controle, verificaram que entre os doentes com o diagn&#243;stico de FA, 0,59% tiveram o diagn&#243;stico de CCR dentro de um per&#237;odo de 90 dias antes do diagn&#243;stico de FA, comparando com apenas 0,05% dos controles (OR ajustado 11,8, IC 95% 9,3&#8211;14,9).</p>
          <p>A forma de FA associada ao c&#226;ncer mais frequente e mais estudada &#233; a FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria. A cirurgia tor&#225;cica, especialmente a ressec&#231;&#227;o pulmonar no c&#226;ncer de pulm&#227;o (CP), est&#225; associada a um risco significativo de FA, com incid&#234;ncias vari&#225;veis (<inline-supplementary-material xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-suppl01-pt.pdf" mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf">Tabela S-1</inline-supplementary-material>). Recorrendo &#224; base de dados da <italic>The Society of Thoracic Surgeons</italic>, verificou-se que em um grupo de 13 906 doentes submetidos &#224; cirurgia por CP, 12,6% dos doentes desenvolveram FA ap&#243;s a cirurgia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Por outro lado, foi relatada uma preval&#234;ncia de 4,4% de FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria ap&#243;s cirurgia eletiva para CCR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>.</p>
          <p>A FA pode ainda complicar o curso da neoplasia como um efeito adverso da medica&#231;&#227;o, por diversos mecanismos incluindo cardiotoxicidade (MS).</p>
          <p>A FA no c&#226;ncer pode ser considerada uma comorbidade, uma vez que ambos partilham diversos fatores predisponentes como a idade avan&#231;ada, dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, hip&#243;xia e dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos. Altera&#231;&#245;es do sistema nervoso auton&#244;mico por aumento do est&#237;mulo simp&#225;tico causado pela dor ou outras formas de estresse f&#237;sico ou emocional podem predispor &#224; FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, o c&#226;ncer est&#225; geralmente associado a um estado de hipercoagulabilidade com risco tromboemb&#243;lico aumentado, podendo levar a microembolismo pulmonar e consequentemente &#224; FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. A FA pode ainda resultar da produ&#231;&#227;o anormal de pept&#237;deos <italic>hormone-like</italic> e de condi&#231;&#245;es paraneopl&#225;sicas, incluindo hipertireoidismo e rea&#231;&#245;es imunes contra estruturas atriais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
          <p>A inflama&#231;&#227;o tem um papel importante na carcinog&#234;nese<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> e a FA pode representar uma complica&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria do c&#226;ncer (MS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
          <p>A FA pode ainda ser uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o direta de uma neoplasia prim&#225;ria, met&#225;stases card&#237;acas, bem como de tumores de tecidos adjacentes, como pulm&#227;o e es&#244;fago, que invadem o cora&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
          <p>A FA tem um impacto negativo no progn&#243;stico. Em pacientes que desenvolveram FA ap&#243;s cirurgia por CP, verificou-se um aumento da mortalidade p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria em compara&#231;&#227;o a pacientes sem FA (6,7% versus 1,0%, p = 0,024) durante a interna&#231;&#227;o e nas admiss&#245;es na unidade de terapia intensiva (UTI). A FA foi ainda associada a uma mortalidade em longo prazo quase quatro vezes maior nos pacientes vivos cinco anos ap&#243;s a cirurgia (HR 3,75, IC 95% 1,44-9,08, p = 0,007)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Nos doentes submetidos &#224; cirurgia por CCR, a FA parece tamb&#233;m condicionar uma pior sobreviv&#234;ncia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
          <p>A FA est&#225; tamb&#233;m associada a um risco duas vezes maior de tromboembolismo e seis vezes maior de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, mesmo ap&#243;s o ajuste para fatores de risco conhecidos (HR ajustado 1,98, IC 95% 1,6-2,46, p &lt; 0,001 e 6,3, IC 95% 4,83-8,17, p &lt; 0,001, respectivamente)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
          <p>Estes achados sugerem que o tratamento e a preven&#231;&#227;o de FA podem ser importantes nos doentes com c&#226;ncer. Contudo, o tratamento da FA nesses pacientes constitui um desafio, especialmente na escolha da terapia antitromb&#243;tica. O c&#226;ncer por si s&#243; cria um estado pr&#243;-tromb&#243;tico, aumentando ainda mais o risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos em pacientes com FA. Por outro lado, certas neoplasias est&#227;o associadas a um risco hemorr&#225;gico aumentado. Ainda, a terapia com varfarina pode ser problem&#225;tica em doentes com c&#226;ncer devido &#224; medica&#231;&#227;o concomitante e aos dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos secund&#225;rios ao c&#226;ncer, levando a uma resposta anticoagulante imprevis&#237;vel<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
          <p>Por fim, n&#227;o existem atualmente recomenda&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas para o tratamento de FA nos doentes com neoplasias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Os   <italic>scores</italic> preditores de risco tromboemb&#243;lico, CHADS<sub>2</sub>ou CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VAS<sub>C</sub>, al&#233;m de n&#227;o inclu&#237;rem a neoplasia como vari&#225;vel, podem n&#227;o ser adequados nesses pacientes. Um estudo epidemiol&#243;gico concluiu que, apesar de o <italic>score</italic> CHADS<sub>2  </sub>ser preditivo do risco tromboemb&#243;lico nos pacientes com FA no momento do diagn&#243;stico do c&#226;ncer, n&#227;o o foi nos pacientes que desenvolveram FA ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
          <p>As Heparinas de Baixo Peso Molecular (HBPM) parecem ter um potencial antineopl&#225;sico, influenciando favoravelmente a sobreviv&#234;ncia dos doentes com neoplasias e, desta forma, podem ser alternativas mais adequadas que os cumar&#237;nicos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. A dalteparina foi associada a uma melhor sobreviv&#234;ncia em doentes com tumores s&#243;lidos sem doen&#231;a metast&#225;tica e eventos tromboemb&#243;licos venosos em compara&#231;&#227;o aos anticumar&#237;nicos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. Em concord&#226;ncia com essas evid&#234;ncias, o uso de HBPM no lugar da varfarina &#233; recomendado pela   <italic>American College of Chest Physicians</italic> nos doentes com c&#226;ncer e doen&#231;a tromboemb&#243;lica nos primeiros 3-6 meses de terapia antitromb&#243;tica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. Por&#233;m, o efeito da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com HBPM nos doentes com c&#226;ncer em longo prazo continua sem evid&#234;ncias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
          <p>V&#225;rios estudos identificaram preditores de FA ap&#243;s cirurgia tor&#225;cica para CP (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t04">Tabela 2</xref>). Neste contexto, o pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico do tipo B (BNP) tem sido investigado como um marcador preditivo de FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria. Tanto valores pr&#233;-operat&#243;rios como p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios elevados s&#227;o fortes preditores independentes de FA (RR 27,9, IC 95% 13,2-58,9, p &lt; 0,001 e 20,1, IC 95% 5,8-69,4, p &lt; 0,001, respetivamente)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Salvatici e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>identificaram o valor de corte de 182 ng/L para BNP como um marcador preditivo de FA p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria. Para a predi&#231;&#227;o de FA ap&#243;s cirurgia tor&#225;cica por CP, no entanto, um valor de 30 pg/mL tem uma especificidade de 93%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>. &#205;ndices ecocardiogr&#225;ficos tamb&#233;m poder&#227;o ser &#250;teis, particularmente os que sugerem disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t04">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Preditores de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial ap&#243;s resse&#231;&#227;o pulmonar por neoplasia maligna<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Preditores de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial ap&#243;s ressec&#231;&#227;o pulmonar por neoplasia maligna</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Idade avan&#231;ada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Sexo masculino</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Cirurgia prolongada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Est&#225;dio de c&#226;ncer avan&#231;ado</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Complica&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Necessidade de transfus&#245;es sangu&#237;neas no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">Hist&#243;ria de hipertens&#227;o e FA parox&#237;stica no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">BNP pr&#233; e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio elevado</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left">&#205;ndices ecocardiogr&#225;ficos de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Alguns f&#225;rmacos foram estudados na preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento da FA p&#243;s-cirurgia (MS).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sepse</title>
          <p>A FA de in&#237;cio recente &#233; uma complica&#231;&#227;o comum nas UTIs, atraindo cada vez mais aten&#231;&#227;o devido a sua frequ&#234;ncia e impacto no progn&#243;stico do doente (<inline-supplementary-material xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-suppl02-pt.pdf" mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf">Tabela S-2</inline-supplementary-material>). Nas UTIs, a FA &#233; particularmente frequente nos pacientes com sepse, condi&#231;&#227;o identificada como um preditor independente de FA em uma UTI de pacientes n&#227;o card&#237;acos (OR 6,5, IC 95% 2,0-21,1, p = 0,002)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>, ou de pacientes cir&#250;rgicos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. Em uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica, a incid&#234;ncia, em m&#233;dia ponderada, de FA de in&#237;cio recente foi de 8% (0-14%), 10% (4-23%) e 23% (6-46%) nos pacientes com sepse, sepse grave e choque s&#233;ptico, respetivamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>.</p>
          <p>A sepse &#233; caracterizada por uma libera&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, n&#237;veis elevados de catecolaminas circulantes, dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos, disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica, e pode ser complicada por disfun&#231;&#227;o org&#226;nica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. Varia&#231;&#245;es do volume intravascular e comprometimento cardiovascular levam frequentemente &#224; hipotens&#227;o e n&#237;veis de lactato elevados<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>. Por outro lado, os fatores de risco para a FA presentes na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, tais como idade avan&#231;ada, sexo masculino, ra&#231;a caucasiana, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e obesidade, tamb&#233;m foram associados com o desenvolvimento de FA na sepse<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. Todas essas caracter&#237;sticas da sepse podem potencialmente desencadear FA, havendo contudo evid&#234;ncia crescente de que a resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica por si s&#243; seja o fator desencadeante predominante, verificando-se um aumento significativo dos n&#237;veis de prote&#237;na C reativa (PCR) antes do desenvolvimento de FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>.</p>
          <p>A FA de in&#237;cio recente nos pacientes com sepse esteve associada a um aumento do tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o na UTI e a um risco aumentado de AVE isqu&#234;mico (OR ajustado 2,70, IC 95% 2,05-3,57, p &lt; 0,001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. A maioria dos estudos constata um aumento da taxa de mortalidade, os OR ajustados estimados variam entre 1,07 (IC 95% 1,04-1,11) a 3,28 (IC 95% 1,13-9,57, p = 0,03) na fase aguda (UTI e intra-hospitalar)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> e 3,28 (IC 95% 1,126-9,574, p = 0,03) na mortalidade dos primeiros 28 dias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, o desenvolvimento de FA durante a sepse pode ter implica&#231;&#245;es ap&#243;s a alta, uma vez que se verificou um aumento do risco de ocorr&#234;ncia de FA e um aumento da hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (HR 1,25, IC 95% 1,16-1,34, p &lt; 0,001), AVE isqu&#234;mico (HR 1,22, IC 95% 1,10-1,36, p &lt; 0,001) e mortalidade (HR 1,04, IC 95% 1,01-1,07, p = 0,009) nos cinco anos seguintes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>.</p>
          <p>O tratamento de FA em doentes em estado cr&#237;tico e com sepse imp&#245;e um desafio cl&#237;nico, n&#227;o existindo recomenda&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas na literatura. Uma importante quest&#227;o a ser discutida &#233; se a associa&#231;&#227;o de FA com AVE deve levar a uma interven&#231;&#227;o para prevenir tal complica&#231;&#227;o, como a cardiovers&#227;o, anticoagula&#231;&#227;o ou ambos. Por&#233;m, &#233; dif&#237;cil manter o ritmo sinusal ap&#243;s a cardiovers&#227;o enquanto a sepse persistir, al&#233;m de o dano poder ser tamb&#233;m resultado da utiliza&#231;&#227;o indiscriminada de anticoagulantes em pacientes com sepse, devido a anomalias da coagula&#231;&#227;o e aos procedimentos invasivos a que s&#227;o frequentemente submetidos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, a falha em restaurar o ritmo sinusal est&#225; associada a um aumento da mortalidade na UTI (71% versus 21%, p = 0,015)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>.</p>
          <p>Assim, iniciar terapia profil&#225;tica para prevenir esta complica&#231;&#227;o pode ser eficaz, desde que seja poss&#237;vel identificar adequadamente os doentes com maior risco de desenvolver FA durante a sepse (MS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Doen&#231;a Pulmonar Obstrutiva Cr&#244;nica</title>
          <p>A DPOC &#233; um fator de risco independente para arritmias, principalmente a FA, e de morbimortalidade cardiovascular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>(<inline-supplementary-material xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-suppl03-pt.pdf" mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf">Tabela S-3</inline-supplementary-material>). Em um estudo em grande escala, caso-controle, retrospectivo, os pacientes com DPOC apresentavam um risco 4,41 vezes maior de FA (IC 95% 4,00-4,87)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>, e a DPOC est&#225; presente em 10-15% dos doentes com FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. A fun&#231;&#227;o pulmonar diminu&#237;da &#233; um fator de risco independente para FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>.</p>
          <p>M&#250;ltiplos processos patol&#243;gicos, como doen&#231;as concomitantes, idade, hip&#243;xia, hipercapnia, acidose, inflama&#231;&#227;o, dist&#250;rbios eletr&#243;litos, disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica e hipertens&#227;o pulmonar podem precipitar FA inicial ou recorrente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>. O atraso eletromec&#226;nico do &#225;trio direito bem como a dura&#231;&#227;o da despolariza&#231;&#227;o atrial nos doentes com DPOC encontram-se significativamente prolongados, e a propaga&#231;&#227;o da despolariza&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o &#233; homog&#234;nea. Esses podem ser os mecanismos subjacentes ao desenvolvimento da FA nos pacientes com DPOC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
          <p>V&#225;rios agentes utilizados para melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o pulmonar, em particular os agonistas &#946;-adren&#233;rgicos e as teofilinas, t&#234;m o potencial de causar taquiarritmias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Alguns f&#225;rmacos usados no controle da FA, como o Sotalol, Propafenona e &#946;-bloqueadores n&#227;o-seletivos podem provocar broncospasmo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Os sintomas pulmonares da DPOC podem piorar com o desenvolvimento de FA, devido &#224; frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca elevada e irregular, e ao preenchimento diast&#243;lico reduzido dos ventr&#237;culos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
          <p>Assim, a FA e a DPOC frequentemente coexistem e interagem, de tal forma que a DPOC constitui um preditor independente da progress&#227;o de FA parox&#237;stica para persistente (OR 1,51, IC 95% 0,95&#8211;2,39, p = 0,088), e uma das cinco vari&#225;veis inclu&#237;das no <italic>score</italic> HATCH que estima essa probabilidade de progress&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>.</p>
          <p>A FA nos doentes com DPOC tem um impacto negativo no progn&#243;stico. Em um estudo retrospectivo de grande escala, verificou-se um risco 1,98 vezes maior de interna&#231;&#227;o nos doentes com FA (IC 95% 1,73&#8211;2,25)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>. A FA foi tamb&#233;m considerada um fator independente de mortalidade nas exacerba&#231;&#245;es de DPOC (OR 2,66, IC 95% 1,39-5,09, p = 0,003)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>.</p>
          <p>Ao contr&#225;rio das neoplasias e da sepse, as doen&#231;as pulmonares s&#227;o especificamente mencionadas nas recomenda&#231;&#245;es atuais (MS). Contudo, n&#227;o h&#225; orienta&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; terapia antitromb&#243;tica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. O risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos nas exacerba&#231;&#245;es de DPOC &#233; significativo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. A &#250;ltima edi&#231;&#227;o da <italic>Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (GOLD guidelines)</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>sugere que medidas tromboprofil&#225;ticas devem ser tomadas na presen&#231;a de uma exacerba&#231;&#227;o, sugerindo heparina subcut&#226;nea ou HBPM<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
          <p>A abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter pode ser realizada de forma segura e eficaz nos doentes com DPOC, embora possa estar associada a uma taxa maior de recorr&#234;ncia ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o (OR 1,9, IC 95% 1,07&#8211;3,557, p = 0,029)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>S&#237;ndrome da apneia obstrutiva do sono</title>
          <p>A SAOS &#233; um dist&#250;rbio respirat&#243;rio do sono comum, que afeta cerca de 10% da popula&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> e est&#225; associado &#224; morbimortalidade cardiovascular (<inline-supplementary-material xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-suppl04-pt.pdf" mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf">Tabela S-4</inline-supplementary-material>). <italic>The Sleep Heart Health Study</italic> reportou uma preval&#234;ncia quatro vezes maior de FA nos doentes com SAOS (OR 4,02, IC 95% 1,03&#8211;15,74)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>. O risco de FA aumenta com a gravidade da SAOS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, a SAOS &#233; mais prevalente entre os doentes com FA do que na popula&#231;&#227;o geral. Um estudo prospectivo revelou uma forte associa&#231;&#227;o entre estas duas condi&#231;&#245;es (OR ajustado 2,19, IC 95% 1,40-3,42, p = 0,0006)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>.</p>
          <p>A FA e a SAOS partilham muitos fatores de risco e comorbidades, incluindo idade avan&#231;ada, obesidade, hipertens&#227;o, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria. A SAOS est&#225; igualmente associada &#224; hip&#243;xia intermitente, acidose, disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica, estresse oxidativo e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial que podem estar envolvidos na fisiopatologia da FA. A SAOS aumenta os n&#237;veis dos marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, incluindo PCR, interleucina 6 (IL-6) e fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;), originado um estado pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio. Os eventos obstrutivos da SAOS geram press&#245;es intrator&#225;cicas negativas altas que podem contribuir para o aumento da c&#226;mara atrial, fibrose atrial e remodela&#231;&#227;o das veias pulmonares, fatores de risco estabelecidos para FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>.</p>
          <p>Poucos estudos abordam o impacto da FA no progn&#243;stico da SAOS. A SAOS est&#225; associada a um risco aumentado de AVE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>. Contudo, ainda n&#227;o &#233; claro se a FA aumenta de fato o risco de AVE nos doentes com SAOS (MS).</p>
          <p>Yaranov e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>, em um estudo retrospectivo com 5138 indiv&#237;duos, investigaram o impacto da SAOS nas taxas de AVE nos doentes com FA, e conclu&#237;ram que AVE isqu&#234;mico era mais frequente nos doentes com SAOS (25,4% versus 8,2%, p = 0,006). Mesmo ap&#243;s controlar idade, sexo masculino e doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria, a associa&#231;&#227;o permaneceu significativa, identificando a SAOS como um fator de risco independente para AVE em doentes com FA (OR ajustado 3,65, IC 95% 1,252 &#8211; 10,623)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>. Por isso, torna-se relevante verificar se a SAOS acrescenta valor preditivo ao   <italic>score</italic> CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VAS<sub>C</sub>. Entre os doentes com <italic>score</italic> de 0, o risco de AVE nos pacientes com SAOS foi 1,62 maior (IC 95% 1,155-2,259) em compara&#231;&#227;o a pacientes sem SAOS. Contudo, a presen&#231;a de SAOS nos pacientes com <italic>scores</italic> mais elevados n&#227;o aumentou as taxas de AVE. Estudos prospectivos em grande escala s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para determinar o papel da SAOS nas ferramentas de risco tromboemb&#243;lico em doentes com FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>.</p>
          <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento, a presen&#231;a de SAOS diminui significativamente a efic&#225;cia de v&#225;rias terapias farmacol&#243;gicas e n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas da FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. As recomenda&#231;&#245;es atuais sugerem que um estudo do sono poder&#225; ser &#250;til se houver suspeita de SAOS em doentes com FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, existe uma forte possibilidade de que tratamento com press&#227;o positiva cont&#237;nua nas vias a&#233;reas (CPAP) possa ter efeitos ben&#233;ficos na preven&#231;&#227;o do desenvolvimento de FA, uma vez que reduz ou elimina muitos dos mecanismos que supostamente ligam a SAOS &#224; FA, destacando-se a hipoxemia, inflama&#231;&#227;o, hiperatividade simp&#225;tica e hipertens&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, a terapia com CPAP est&#225; associada a um menor risco de recorr&#234;ncia de FA ap&#243;s cardiovers&#227;o e abla&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Doen&#231;a Renal Cr&#244;nica</title>
          <p>Doentes com DRC t&#234;m uma maior probabilidade de manifestar FA (<inline-supplementary-material xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-suppl05-pt.pdf" mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf">Tabela S-5</inline-supplementary-material>). No   <italic>Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study</italic>, em uma coorte de 10,328 pessoas com DRC seguidas por um per&#237;odo m&#233;dio de 10,1 anos, a incid&#234;ncia de FA foi de 7,6%. A incid&#234;ncia de FA aumenta com o decl&#237;nio da fun&#231;&#227;o renal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, a DRC est&#225; presente em cerca de 10-15% dos doentes com FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>, e FA esta est&#225; associada a um maior risco de desenvolvimento de DRC (HR 1,77, IC 95% 1,5-2,1, p &lt; 0,001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>.</p>
          <p>A DRC, independentemente da sua causa, coexiste com um estado pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio que pode estar envolvido no desenvolvimento da FA. Os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de PCR e IL-6 est&#227;o elevados nos doentes com DRC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>. Outro mecanismo proposto &#233; que a ativa&#231;&#227;o patol&#243;gica do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona possa levar &#224; fibrose atrial e &#224; remodela&#231;&#227;o atrial, criando um substrato para a instala&#231;&#227;o de FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>, tal como a disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica presente desde fases precoces da DRC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>. Ainda, nas sess&#245;es de hemodi&#225;lise, verifica-se que o procedimento induz um prolongamento da dura&#231;&#227;o da onda p e uma redu&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de pot&#225;ssio que podem favorecer o aparecimento de FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>.</p>
          <p>Finalmente, a idade avan&#231;ada e a ra&#231;a branca s&#227;o preditores independentes de FA na DRC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>, e as comorbidades cardiovasculares frequentemente associadas &#224; DRC constituem fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento de FA (MS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
          <p>A presen&#231;a concomitante destas duas entidades est&#225; associada a um mau progn&#243;stico. A presen&#231;a de FA foi associada a um aumento em 67% da incid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a renal terminal (DRT) em doentes com DRC (HR 1,67, IC 95% 1,46-1,91)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>. Em uma meta-an&#225;lise que incluiu 19 estudos, a presen&#231;a de DRC entre os doentes com FA resultou em um aumento do risco tromboemb&#243;lico (HR 1,46, IC 95% 1,20-1,76, p = 0,0001), particularmente na DRT (HR 1,83, IC 95% 1,56-2,14, p &lt; 0,00001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>.</p>
          <p>A FA tamb&#233;m foi associada a um aumento da mortalidade, com um risco relativo de morte aumentado em 66% nos est&#225;dios 3-5 de DRC (HR ajustado 1,66, IC 95% 1,57-1,77)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>.</p>
          <p>O tratamento da FA na DRC &#233; um complexo desafio cl&#237;nico. Apesar de existir um aumento da incid&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es tromboemb&#243;licas nestes doentes, existe simultaneamente um risco hemorr&#225;gico aumentado. Este risco &#233; exacerbado ainda mais pela varfarina, aspirina ou ambos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>. No entanto, quando o benef&#237;cio da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o &#233; contraposto ao risco de hemorragia, o rela&#231;&#227;o de risco-benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico tende em favor da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>.</p>
          <p>Em uma meta-an&#225;lise, a varfarina diminuiu a incid&#234;ncia de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos em pacientes com DRC sem DRT (HR 0,39, IC 95% 0,18-0,86, p &lt; 0,00001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>. Dados recentes relacionados aos novos anticoagulantes sugeriram uma efic&#225;cia equivalente &#224; varfarina e com um melhor perfil de seguran&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>, e um papel promissor na DRC.</p>
          <p>As recomenda&#231;&#245;es atuais favorecem a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral com varfarina (&#237;ndice internacional normalizado, INR 2-3) em doentes com FA n&#227;o-valvular com CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VAS<sub>C</sub> &#8805; 2 e com DRT ou em hemodi&#225;lise, reconhecendo, por&#233;m, que a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o traz um risco hemorr&#225;gico significativo nesta popula&#231;&#227;o (MS)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec sec-type="discussion">
          <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
          <p>A FA frequentemente surge associada a outras doen&#231;as n&#227;o cardiovasculares que afetam um grande n&#250;mero de doentes, tais como o c&#226;ncer, sepse, DPOC, SAOS e DRC. Uma vez que a FA est&#225; associada a um progn&#243;stico adverso, &#233; fundamental compreender como essas condi&#231;&#245;es interagem e quais as modalidades de tratamento mais adequadas.</p>
          <p>Todas as doen&#231;as referidas compartilham com a FA fatores de risco estabelecidos, incluindo comorbidades cardiovasculares e idade avan&#231;ada. Al&#233;m disso, todas est&#227;o associadas a disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica, dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos e inflamat&#243;rios (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref> e <inline-supplementary-material xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-suppl06-pt.pdf" mimetype="application" mime-subtype="pdf">Figura S-1</inline-supplementary-material>).</p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Mecanismos comuns no desenvolvimento de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. DPOC: Doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica, SAOS: S&#237;ndrome da apneia obstrutiva do sono, DRC: Doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-05-0519-50142-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          <p>A inflama&#231;&#227;o &#233; um denominador comum a todas as condi&#231;&#245;es podendo ser um dos mais importantes. Inicialmente, em um estudo de caso-controle, foi descrita uma eleva&#231;&#227;o significativa da PCR nos pacientes com FA, constatada tanto nos doentes com cardiopatia estrutural como nos pacientes com FA isolada<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>. Mais tarde, um estudo de base populacional com 5 806 sujeitos seguidos por um per&#237;odo m&#233;dio de 7,8 anos, revelou que valores elevados de PCR estavam associados a uma maior preval&#234;ncia de FA pr&#233;-existente (OR 1,8, IC 95% 1,2-2,5, p = 0,002) e maior risco de desenvolvimento futuro de FA (OR 1,31, IC 95% 1,08-1,58, p = 0,005)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>. Estes estudos sugerem que os estados inflamat&#243;rios sist&#234;micos, dos quais a PCR &#233; um marcador, podem induzir remodela&#231;&#227;o estrutural ou el&#233;trica dos &#225;trios e assim promover e manter a FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>. Al&#233;m da PCR, o aumento de outros marcadores inflamat&#243;rios como o TNF-&#945;, IL 2, IL 6 e IL 8 tamb&#233;m foi associado &#224; FA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>.</p>
          <p>A combina&#231;&#227;o da FA com essas condi&#231;&#245;es constituiu um desafio terap&#234;utico. Tradicionalmente, a decis&#227;o de iniciar terap&#234;utica anticoagulante em doentes com FA n&#227;o-valvular baseia-se na estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco tromboemb&#243;lico pelos   <italic>scores</italic> CHADS<sub>2</sub> e CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc e do risco hemorr&#225;gico pelo <italic>score</italic> HAS-BLED. Por&#233;m, ambos os   <italic>scores</italic> apresentam limita&#231;&#245;es. A SAOS e a DRC s&#227;o fatores de risco independentes de AVE nos pacientes com FA, e n&#227;o s&#227;o considerados nos   <italic>scores</italic> tromboemb&#243;licos. Al&#233;m disso, o c&#226;ncer, por si s&#243;, est&#225; associado a um risco tromboemb&#243;lico superior. Apenas a fun&#231;&#227;o renal anormal &#233; inclu&#237;da no <italic>score</italic> hemorr&#225;gico, por&#233;m esse risco tamb&#233;m est&#225; aumentado e n&#227;o &#233; desprez&#237;vel em alguns c&#226;nceres e na sepse. Assim, mais estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para validar estas ou outras ferramentas de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco nestas doen&#231;as. Da mesma forma, n&#227;o existem estudos de grande escala que comparem a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com o ritmo card&#237;aco, a abla&#231;&#227;o com cateter e a terapia antitromb&#243;tica.</p>
          <p>A identifica&#231;&#227;o de preditores para a instala&#231;&#227;o de FA nas diferentes patologias poder&#225; permitir a ado&#231;&#227;o de medidas profil&#225;ticas. Embora em todas as doen&#231;as se tenham identificado fatores de risco independentes, bem como alguns marcadores laboratoriais e ecocardiogr&#225;ficos, se faz necess&#225;ria a valida&#231;&#227;o em amostras maiores antes que possam ser adotadas na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>A presen&#231;a de FA nas doen&#231;as n&#227;o cardiovasculares parece afetar diretamente seu progn&#243;stico, e seu tratamento ainda &#233; um desafio. As pesquisas em algumas destas &#225;reas ainda est&#227;o em fase inicial, e investiga&#231;&#245;es futuras s&#227;o necess&#225;rias a fim de esclarecer aspectos como a epidemiologia, a patog&#234;nese, a preven&#231;&#227;o e o tratamento da FA.</p>
        <p>Assim, o diagn&#243;stico de uma FA de in&#237;cio recente em doentes com determinado tipo de caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas pode justificar a realiza&#231;&#227;o de uma triagem de algumas das doen&#231;as anteriormente descritas. Por exemplo, um indiv&#237;duo de 50 anos com forte hist&#243;ria familiar de neoplasia que desenvolve FA de in&#237;cio recente, na aus&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca, pode justificar um rastreio oncol&#243;gico. Da mesma forma, um indiv&#237;duo obeso que desenvolve FA poder&#225; justificar a realiza&#231;&#227;o de rastreamento de SAOS.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de Disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de C&#225;tia Ferreira pela Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
