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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">TZVGTgv5bwXcjrNmWJJv3Qp</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2015002400448</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20150133</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Obesity: A Growing Multifaceted Problem</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Paula S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Minicucci</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zornoff</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo A. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff01">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho &#8211; UNESP, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
          <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Paula S. Azevedo</bold> Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica - Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Distrito de Rubi&#227;o J&#250;nior, s/n, Postal Code 18618-970, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail:   <email>paulasa@fmb.unesp.br</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>105</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>448</fpage>
      <lpage>449</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Obesity / complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Overweight / physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Dyslipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Public Health</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Overweight and obesity are defined as body mass index (BMI) of 25-29.9 kg/m<sup>2</sup> and &#8805; 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, respectively. It is an alarming public health problem worldwide. Brazilian data show that 52.5% of Brazilians are overweight, and 17.9%, obese<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. In the USA, 35% of the adults are obese<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
    <p>One major problem of obesity is its common association with arterial hypertension, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance and diabetes in the metabolic syndrome context<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. The adipose tissue plays a relevant role in the secretion of inflammatory and humoral mediators, which can favor the increase in blood pressure and insulin resistance<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. This area has witnessed several advances, mainly related to epigenetic changes. Obese individuals, for example, show DNA hypermethylation in a specific region that encodes adiponectin, favoring lower secretion of that compound and exacerbating metabolic disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
    <p>Obesity, either independently or not, is recognized as an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease and heart failure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. However, not all aspects of that association have been clarified. For example, a Brazilian national case series of 4050 asymptomatic patients undergoing exercise stress echocardiography has shown a greater prevalence of hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia, family history and sedentary lifestyle among obese individuals. However, on multivariate analysis adjusted for confounding factors, obesity has not associated with myocardial ischemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. On the other hand, in patients with acute coronary syndrome, the abdominal circumference measure has associated with recurring angina, but not with other complications during hospitalization<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>.</p>
    <p>Regarding the association of obesity and heart failure, in a case series with participants of the Framinghan study, an elevation of 1 kg/m<sup>2</sup> has increased by 5% the risk of developing heart failure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. In fact, cardiac remodeling, clinically detected as left ventricular hypertrophy and left atrial enlargement, is observed in obese individuals<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. There are several hypotheses relating obesity to cardiac remodeling, and consequently to myocardial dysfunction. Experimental studies have suggested the participation of insulin resistance, altering the energetic metabolism and favoring the intracardiac accumulation of lipids, a phenomenon described as lipotoxicity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. In addition, changes in calcium transport, in collagen and in epicardial fat have been reported as potential mechanisms responsible for obesity-induced cardiac remodeling, associated with myocardial dysfunction<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. It is worth noting that genetic changes, such as ALK7 gene polymorphism, which encodes the TGF-beta receptor, can be related to ventricular remodeling in patients with metabolic syndrome<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. On the other hand, experimental studies have not identified the participation of the glycolytic pathway<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> or imbalance between phosphorylated and total phospholamban<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>, but have reported a reduction in the expression of type-I collagen in high-fat diet-induced obese rats<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. Another important, although less studied, aspect is the possibility of right ventricular remodeling, caused by pulmonary hypertension, resulting from the restriction imposed by obesity or coexistence of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Thus, the precise pathophysiological mechanisms associated with remodeling in obesity remain to be elucidated.</p>
    <p>However, in some clinical situations, patients with overweight and mild obesity have had fewer hospitalizations and lower mortality as compared to those with lower BMI<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>. The same apply to the triceps skinfold, whose values greater than 20 mm have been associated with lower mortality<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>. This has been known as the paradox of obesity, and, although the mechanisms involved are unknown, the following hypotheses have been proposed: the U-shaped behavior, in which the extremes have higher risks; obese patients would be on more optimized treatments; and obese individuals could have a higher metabolic reserve to offset the catabolic changes of a chronic disease, such as heart failure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
    <p>Another point that has been gaining attention recently is the overweight of children and adolescents. A Brazilian study, assessing 4609 children between 6 and 11 years of age, has shown that 24.5% of them are overweight<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. In addition, overweight children and adolescents have a higher prevalence of arterial hypertension and dyslipidemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. This context promotes the early increase of the cardiovascular risk, suggested by the correlation of BMI and insulin resistance, left ventricular mass index and intimal layer thickness of the common carotid artery<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
    <p>Finally yet importantly, the management of the obese patient poses another challenge. Weight regain induced by complex interactions between the hormonal and neuronal pathways, which regulate food intake, lifestyle, food pattern and genetic characteristics, hinders the continuous therapeutic approach of the obese patient<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. Thus, medications or bariatric surgeries are accepted as useful to reduce BMI<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. However, it is worth noting that the ultimate objective of the treatment is change in lifestyle and use of strategies to keep the patient motivated to loose weight<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>.</p>
    <p>Regarding obesity and its association with cardiovascular disease, there are still many gaps to be filled. Likewise, obesity remains a priority for future studies, both clinical and experimental, in an attempt to better understand its pathophysiological mechanisms and its clinical repercussions.</p>
  </body>
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          <year>2014</year>
          <volume>63</volume>
          <issue>25</issue>
          <issue-part>Pt B</issue-part>
          <fpage>2985</fpage>
          <lpage>3023</lpage>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Obesidade: Problema Crescente e com M&#250;ltiplas Facetas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Paula S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Minicucci</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zornoff</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo A. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff02">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; Universidade Estadual Paulista J&#250;lio de Mesquita Filho &#8211; UNESP, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
          <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Paula S. Azevedo</bold> Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica - Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Distrito de Rubi&#227;o J&#250;nior, s/n, CEP 18618-970, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail:   <email>paulasa@fmb.unesp.br</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Obesidade / complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>Sobrepeso / fisiopatologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o; Dislipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>Sobrepeso e obesidade s&#227;o definidos pelo &#237;ndice de massa corp&#243;rea (IMC) de 25-29,9 kg/m<sup>2</sup> e &#8805; 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, respectivamente. Trata-se de problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica mundial, com n&#250;meros alarmantes. Assim, dados brasileiros mostram que 52,5% dos brasileiros est&#227;o acima do peso e 17,9% s&#227;o obesos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. Nos EUA, aproximadamente 35% dos adultos est&#227;o obesos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
      <p>Um dos principais problemas da obesidade &#233; que ela, comumente, se associa a hipertens&#227;o arterial, dislipidemia, resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e diabetes no contexto da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Desse modo, o tecido adiposo exerce papel relevante na secre&#231;&#227;o de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios e humorais, que podem favorecer o aumento da press&#227;o arterial e resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Muitos avan&#231;os est&#227;o surgindo nessa &#225;rea, principalmente relacionados &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es epigen&#233;ticas. Por exemplo, indiv&#237;duos obesos apresentam hipermetila&#231;&#227;o do DNA em uma regi&#227;o espec&#237;fica que codifica a adiponectina, favorecendo menor secre&#231;&#227;o desse composto e exacerbando a doen&#231;a metab&#243;lica no obeso<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
      <p>A obesidade, de forma independente ou n&#227;o, &#233; reconhecida como importante fator de risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. No entanto, nem todos os aspectos dessa associa&#231;&#227;o est&#227;o esclarecidos. Por exemplo, em casu&#237;stica nacional de 4050 pacientes assintom&#225;ticos submetidos ao ecocardiograma com estresse f&#237;sico, observou-se que os indiv&#237;duos obesos apresentavam maior preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o, diabetes, dislipidemia, antecedentes familiares e sedentarismo. No entanto, na an&#225;lise multivariada ajustada para fatores confundidores, a obesidade n&#227;o se associou &#224; isquemia mioc&#225;rdica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Por outro lado, em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda, a medida da circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal associou-se com angina recorrente, mas n&#227;o com outras complica&#231;&#245;es durante a interna&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>.</p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; associa&#231;&#227;o entre obesidade e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, em casu&#237;stica utilizando participantes do estudo de Framinghan, observou-se que o aumento de 1 kg/m<sup>2</sup> elevou em 5% o risco para desenvolvimento de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. De fato, observa-se a presen&#231;a de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca em indiv&#237;duos obesos, detectada, clinicamente, por hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e aumento de &#225;trio esquerdo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. Nesse sentido, existem v&#225;rias hip&#243;teses que relacionam a obesidade &#224; remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e, consequentemente, &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. Estudos experimentais sugerem a participa&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica, alterando o metabolismo energ&#233;tico e favorecendo ac&#250;mulo intracard&#237;aco de l&#237;pides, num fen&#244;meno descrito como lipotoxicidade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Adicionalmente, altera&#231;&#245;es no tr&#226;nsito de c&#225;lcio, no col&#225;geno e na gordura epic&#225;rdica foram descritas como potenciais mecanismos respons&#225;veis pela remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzida pela obesidade, associada &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. Devemos considerar, tamb&#233;m, que &#233; poss&#237;vel que altera&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas como, por exemplo, o polimorfismo no gene ALK7, que codifica o receptor de TGF-beta, possam estar relacionadas &#224; remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Por outro lado, estudos experimentais n&#227;o identificaram participa&#231;&#227;o da via glicol&#237;tica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> ou desequil&#237;brio entre a fosfolambam fosforilada e total<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>, mas relataram redu&#231;&#227;o de express&#227;o de col&#225;geno tipo I em ratos obesos por dieta hipercal&#243;rica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. Outro ponto importante, mas menos estudado, refere-se &#224; possibilidade de remodela&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito, causada por hipertens&#227;o pulmonar, decorrente da restri&#231;&#227;o imposta pela obesidade ou coexist&#234;ncia de s&#237;ndrome da apneia obstrutiva do sono<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Portanto, os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos exatos associados &#224; remodela&#231;&#227;o na obesidade permanecem por ser elucidados.</p>
      <p>Aspecto extremamente interessante, entretanto, refere-se ao fato de que, em algumas situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, os pacientes com sobrepeso e obesidade leve apresentam menos interna&#231;&#245;es e menor mortalidade quando comparados aos de menor IMC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>. O mesmo pode ser observado com a prega tricipital, cujos valores acima de 20 mm associaram-se a menor mortalidade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>. Essa situa&#231;&#227;o tem sido chamada de paradoxo da obesidade e, embora n&#227;o se saibam os mecanismos envolvidos, algumas hip&#243;teses foram propostas: comportamento em U, onde os extremos exibem maiores riscos; pacientes obesos estariam com tratamentos mais otimizados; e a possibilidade do indiv&#237;duo obeso apresentar maior reserva metab&#243;lica ao catabolismo imposto pela doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica como, por exemplo, na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
      <p>Outro ponto que vem ganhando destaque nos &#250;ltimos anos s&#227;o as crian&#231;as e adolescentes que merecem aten&#231;&#227;o quanto ao excesso de peso. Assim, estudo brasileiro avaliando 4609 crian&#231;as entre 6 e 11 anos mostrou que 24,5% delas estavam acima do peso<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. Crian&#231;as e adolescentes com sobrepeso apresentam, ainda, maior preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o arterial e dislipidemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. Esse contexto promove cen&#225;rio para aumento de risco cardiovascular precoce, sugerido, por exemplo, pela correla&#231;&#227;o do IMC com resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica, &#237;ndice de massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e espessura da camada &#237;ntima da car&#243;tida comum<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
      <p>Por fim, o manejo do paciente obeso caracteriza outro desafio. O reganho de peso induzido por complexas intera&#231;&#245;es entre vias hormonais e neuronais, que regulam a ingest&#227;o alimentar, h&#225;bitos de vida, alimenta&#231;&#227;o e caracter&#237;sticas gen&#233;ticas, dificulta a abordagem terap&#234;utica cont&#237;nua do paciente obeso<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. Por essa raz&#227;o, aceita-se que medica&#231;&#245;es ou cirurgias bari&#225;tricas possam ser &#250;teis para reduzir o IMC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. No entanto, &#233; necess&#225;rio enfatizar que, atualmente, o objetivo final do tratamento &#233; a mudan&#231;a do estilo de vida e a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias para manter a motiva&#231;&#227;o para a perda de peso<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>.</p>
      <p>Pelo exposto, existem ainda muitas lacunas a serem preenchidas no cap&#237;tulo da obesidade e sua associa&#231;&#227;o com a doen&#231;a cardiovascular. Do mesmo modo, a obesidade permanece como tema priorit&#225;rio para futuros estudos, tanto cl&#237;nicos como experimentais, na tentativa de melhor compreens&#227;o dos seus mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos e suas repercuss&#245;es cl&#237;nicas.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
