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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">J3gmrtzP6TZTbv9JgrK8VZc</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2015002100151</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2015005050059</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20150059</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Tramadol Alleviates Myocardial Injury Induced by Acute Hindlimb Ischemia Reperfusion in Rats</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Takhtfooladi</surname>
            <given-names>Hamed Ashrafzadeh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Asl</surname>
            <given-names>Adel Haghighi Khiabanian</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Shahzamani</surname>
            <given-names>Mehran</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Takhtfooladi</surname>
            <given-names>Mohammad Ashrafzadeh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Allahverdi</surname>
            <given-names>Amin</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">4</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Khansari</surname>
            <given-names>Mohammadreza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff05">5</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Islamic Azad University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Pathobiology, Science and Research Branch</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Pathobiology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran - Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Islamic Azad University</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Isfahan University of Medical Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Cardiovascular Surgery</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Tehran - Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Isfahan University of Medical Sciences</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Islamic Azad University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Young Researchers and Elites Club, Science and Research Branch</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Young Researchers and Elites Club, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran - Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Islamic Azad University</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff04">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Islamic Azad University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Surgery, Science and Research Branch</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Surgery, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran - Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Islamic Azad University</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff05">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Islamic Azad University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Physiology, Science and Research Branch</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Physiology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran - Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Islamic Azad University</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Mohammad Ashrafzadeh Takhtfooladi</bold>, Young Researchers and Elites Club, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University. Postal Code 8177613343, Tehran, Iran. E-mail: <email>dr_ashrafzadeh@yahoo.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Takhtfooladi HA, Shahzamani M. Acquisition of data: Takhtfooladi MA. Analysis and interpretation of the data: Takhtfooladi HA, Allahverdi A. Statistical analysis: Khansari M. Obtaining financing: Takhtfooladi MA. Writing of the manuscript: Takhtfooladi MA. Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Khiabanian AH. Supervision / as the major investigador: Shahzamani M. Histological Analysis: Khiabanian AH. Help with technical procedures: Allahverdi A.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>02</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>105</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>151</fpage>
      <lpage>159</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Organ injury occurs not only during periods of ischemia but also during reperfusion. It is known that ischemia reperfusion (IR) causes both remote organ and local injuries.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>This study evaluated the effects of tramadol on the heart as a remote organ after acute hindlimb IR.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>Thirty healthy mature male Wistar rats were allocated randomly into three groups: Group I (sham), Group II (IR), and Group III (IR + tramadol). Ischemia was induced in anesthetized rats by left femoral artery clamping for 3 h, followed by 3 h of reperfusion. Tramadol (20 mg/kg, intravenous) was administered immediately prior to reperfusion. At the end of the reperfusion, animals were euthanized, and hearts were harvested for histological and biochemical examination.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>The levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were higher in Groups I and III than those in Group II (p &lt; 0.05). In comparison with other groups, tissue malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in Group II were significantly increased (p &lt; 0.05), and this increase was prevented by tramadol. Histopathological changes, including microscopic bleeding, edema, neutrophil infiltration, and necrosis, were scored. The total injuryscore in Group III was significantly decreased (p &lt; 0.05) compared with Group II.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>From the histological and biochemical perspectives, treatment with tramadol alleviated the myocardial injuries induced by skeletal muscle IR in this experimental model.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Tramadol/ therapeutic use</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Injuries</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart/physiopathology</kwd>
        <kwd>Reperfusion Injury</kwd>
        <kwd>Rats</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="14"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="30"/>
        <page-count count="9"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Restoration of blood flow after a period of ischemia causes ischemia reperfusion (IR) injury. IR injury is a serious clinical problem that occurs in many diseases and surgeries, such as limb orthopedic surgery, organ transplantation, cardiopulmonary bypass, and hypovolaemic shock<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. During IR, tissues are subjected to destructive proinflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species released by inflammatory cells, leading to inflammatory injury and cell apoptosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. IR also affects the secondary organs, including liver<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>, heart<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>, kidney<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>, lung<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>, and even causes multiple organ failure, which is a common cause of mortality. Therefore, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic agents to attenuate multiple organ injury induced by IR are urgently required.</p>
      <p>Various investigators have demonstrated that the opioid pathway is involved in tissue preservation during hypoxia or ischemia, and this protection is mediated via the delta opioid receptor<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. It has been shown that morphine has cardioprotective effects during IR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Factors, such as respiratory depression and histamine release, are disadvantages of using morphine in the postoperative period of open heart surgery<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
      <p>Tramadol is a narcotic-like pain reliever drug as it has an unusual mechanism of action involving opioid, noradrenaline, and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine) systems of analgesia. It is certainly useful in the treatment of chronic and acute pain. Although it does not cause respiratory depression, the problems of nausea when used in clinically effective analgesic doses for severe pain and the risk of intra-operative awareness may represent significant disadvantages of tramadol<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Recent research discloses that tramadol decreases lipid peroxidation and regulates noradrenalin uptake; therefore, these therapeutic properties are used for the management of myocardial ischemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
      <p>In the past few years, the administration of tramadol was shown to protect against IR injuries in local and remote organs<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. However, the role of tramadol in reducing injury in the myocardium after hindlimb IR has not been addressed yet. In this study, the effect of tramadol on myocardial injury after hindlimb IR was assessed by biochemical and histological changes in rats.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <p>Thirty healthy mature male Wistar rats weighing 250&#8211;300 g were purchased from the Pasteur Institute of Iran. All experimental procedures and protocols used in this investigation were reviewed and approved by the Committee of Ethics in Research with Animals at the Islamic Azad University Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. They were kept under constant room temperature of 20&#8211;22&#176;C, relative humidity of 50%&#8211;60%, 12 h/12 h light/dark cycle, with <italic>ad libitum</italic> access to filtrated tap water and commercial food and were placed in individual plastic cages with soft bedding.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Experimental groups</title>
        <p>The rats were randomly divided into three experimental groups of ten rats each (of these ten, five were used for biochemical assays and five for histological analysis): Group I (sham group) was subjected to all procedures, except arterial occlusion. The animals received 2 mL of 0.9% saline via the jugular vein. Group II (IR group) was subjected to IR. Two milliliters of 0.9% saline was administered immediately prior to the reperfusion period. Group III (IR + tramadol group) was subjected to IR. A solution of 20 mg/kg tramadol<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> in 0.9% saline solution was administered, with a total volume of 2 mL.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Anesthesia</title>
        <p>The rats were weighed and anesthetized using an intramuscular injection of ketamine hydrochloride 10% and xylazine hydrochloride 2% (50 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg, respectively).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Surgery</title>
        <p>After induction of anesthesia, the animals were placed on a board, in a dorsal, recumbent position, with their thoracic and pelvic limbs immobilized with adhesive tape. The jugular vein was isolated and catheterized for the administration of heparin, tramadol, and normal saline. The left hindlimb was prepared for sterile surgery. A skin incision was made on medial surface of the left hindlimb and femoral artery was isolated and was clamped with a non-traumatic clamp for 3 h and followed by 3 h of reperfusion. Prior to the occlusion of the femoral artery, 250 IU heparin<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> was administered via the jugular vein in order to prevent clotting. Rats were maintained in a dorsal, recumbent position and kept anesthetized (additional doses were given in case of necessity) throughout the duration of the ischemic period. Body temperature was maintained with a heating pad and monitored using a rectal thermometer. The vascular forceps was removed and the surgical site was routinely closed with 3/0 polypropylene sutures following the ischemic period. Subjects in Group I underwent a surgical procedure similar to the other groups but the femoral artery was not occluded.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Specimen collection</title>
        <p>At the end of the trial, rats were euthanized with an overdose of pentobarbital injection (300 mg/kg, intraperitoneal) and the hearts were rapidly excised.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Histological analysis</title>
        <p>For histological analysis, the hearts were fixed with 10% formalin and then embedded in paraffin and sectioned into 5-&#956;m thick sections and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&amp;E). The sections were examined in a semiquantitative manner, using 250&#215; and 400&#215; magnifications under a light microscope by a pathologist who was blinded to the experiment and data. The histological parameters, such as microscopic bleeding, edema, neutrophil infiltration, and necrosis, were scored according to the classification of Papoutsidakis et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref>. Approximately ten fields of view were examined under each magnification. The total histological score for each specimen was determined by the sum of all the partial scores.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t01">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Histological grading (Papoutsidakis et al.)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>
								</th>
                <th>
                  <bold>0</bold>
                </th>
                <th>
                  <bold>1</bold>
                </th>
                <th>
                  <bold>2</bold>
                </th>
                <th>
                  <bold>3</bold>
                </th>
                <th>
                  <bold>Magnification</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Necrosis</td>
                <td align="center">None or 1-3 dead cells in &lt; 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">&#8804; 3 dead cells per FOV in at least 3 FOV or 4-6 cells in no more than 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">4-6 dead cells per FOV in at least 4 FOV or &gt; 6 cells in no more than 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 6 dead cells in at least 4 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">400&#215;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Polymorphonuclear leucocytes</td>
                <td align="center">None or 1-3 cells in &lt; 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">&#8804; 3 cells per FOV in at least 3 FOV or 4-6 cells in no more than 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">4-6 cells per FOV in at least 4 FOV or &gt; 6 cells in no more than 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 6 cells in at least 4 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">400&#215;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Eosinophils</td>
                <td align="center">None or 1-3 cells in &lt; 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">&#8804; 3 cells per FOV in at least 3 FOV or 4-6 cells in no more than 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">4-6 cells per FOV in at least 4 FOV or &gt; 6 cells in no more than 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 6 cells in at least 4 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">400&#215;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Loss of striation</td>
                <td align="center">None or 1-5 cells in &lt; 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">&#8804; 5 cells per FOV in at least 3 FOV or 5-10 cells in no more than 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">5-10 cells per FOV in at least 4 FOV or &gt; 6 cells in no more than 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 10 cells in at least 4 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">400&#215;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td> Edema</td>
                <td align="center"> None</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 10% of FOV in at least 3 FOV or &gt; 10% in &lt; 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">10%-30% of FOV in at least 3 FOV or &gt; 30% in &lt; 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 30% of FOV in at least 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center"> 250&#215;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Microscopic bleeding</td>
                <td align="center">None</td>
                <td align="center">Present in &lt;10% of FOV in at least 3 FOV or &gt; 10% in &lt; 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">Present in 10%-30% of FOV in at least 3 FOV or &gt; 30% in &lt; 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center"> Present in &gt; 30% of FOV in at least 3 FOV</td>
                <td align="center">250&#215;</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn>
              <p>FOV: fields of view</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Biochemical assays</title>
        <p>Evidence of oxidative stress was determined from heart tissue homogenates using glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities and the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA). Each heart was stored separately at &#8722;80&#176;C until analysis. The tissues were homogenized in 0.1 M phospate buffer (pH 7.4) with an Ultra Turrax homogenizer. The homogenates were centrifuged at 5000 rpm at 4&#176;C for 10 min; the supernatants were removed and assayed for MDA, GPx, and SOD activities. Tissue GPx and SOD activities were measured with a Hitachi 917 autoanalyser using commercial kits. SOD and GPx activities were expressed as U/mg protein in tissue samples. Tissue MDA levels were determined by the thiobarbituric acid method of Okhawa et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> MDA levels were expressed as nmol/mg protein in tissue samples. CAT activities were determined by measuring the decrease in hydrogen peroxide concentration at 230 nm by the method of Beutler<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>. CAT activity was expressed U/mg protein in tissue samples.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>Data were analyzed using SPSS statistical software package (version 18). Distribution of the groups was analyzed with one sample Kolmogorov&#8211;Smirnov test. The results were analyzed using analysis of variance for comparing multiple means (ANOVA) with post-hoc test analysis. Biochemical data were tested using the Kruskal&#8211;Wallis nonparametric test. Data are shown as the mean &#177; standard deviation and the significance level was 5%.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>The experimental procedure was well tolerated and no animals died during the experiment.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Biochemical results</title>
        <p>SOD, CAT, GPx, and MDA levels were measured in the heart tissues after 3 h of reperfusion. The levels of SOD, CAT, and GPx were significantly lower in Group II than those in the other groups (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figures 1</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">3</xref>). The reductions in the levels of these molecules were reversed by intravenous injection of tramadol. In comparison with other groups, tissue MDA levels in group II were significantly increased (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 4</xref>) and this was prevented by tramadol.</p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Superoxide dismutase (SOD; U/mg protein) in heart tissue between the groups studied. IR: ischemia reperfusion; and IR + T: ischemia reperfusion + tramadol. Data were expressed as mean &#177; SD. *: The significant digits in all group were p &lt; 0.001.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Catalase (CAT; U/mg protein) in heart tissue between the groups studied. IR: ischemia reperfusion and IR + T: ischemia reperfusion + tramadol. Data were expressed as mean &#177; SD. *: The significant digits in all group were p &lt; 0.001</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Figure 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Glutathione peroxidase (GPX; U/mg protein) in heart tissue between the groups studied. IR: ischemia reperfusion and IR + T: ischemia reperfusion + tramadol. Data were expressed as mean &#177; SD. *: The significant digits in all group were p &lt; 0.001</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
        <fig id="f04">
          <label>Figure 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Malendialdehyde (MDA; nmol/mg protein) in heart tissue between the groups studied. IR: ischemia reperfusion and IR + T: ischemia reperfusion + tramadol. Data were expressed as mean &#177; SD. *: The significant digits in all group were p &lt; 0.001</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Histological results</title>
        <p>Histopathological changes, including microscopic bleeding, edema, neutrophil infiltration, and coagulative necrosis, were scored. The total injury score in Group III was significantly decreased compared with Group II (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 5</xref>). Representative H&amp;E-stained microscopic images of myocardial tissue from Groups II and III are presented in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figures 6</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">7</xref>, respectively.</p>
        <fig id="f05">
          <label>Figure 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Histological grading between the groups studied. IR: ischemia reperfusion and IR + T: ischemia reperfusion + tramadol. Data were expressed as mean &#177; SD. *: The significant digits in all group were p &lt; 0.001</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
        <fig id="f06">
          <label>Figure 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Photomicrograph of myocardium in the ischemia reperfusion group showing coagulative necrosis. Muscle cells with pyknotic nuclei were stained more deeply with eosin in the area of coagulative necrosis (hematoxylin and eosin staining, bar = 100 &#956;m)</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
        <fig id="f07">
          <label>Figure 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Representative photomicrograph of myocardium in the ischemia reperfusion + tramadol group showing nearly normal structure (hematoxylin and eosin staining, bar = 100 &#956;m)</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf07.jpg"/></fig>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>The local and remote consequences of limb IR injury continue to be a serious clinical problem for general vascular surgeons, interventional radiologists, and cardiologists. Reperfusion of the skeletal muscle causes activation and adhesion of polymorphonuclear neutrophils, with the release of proinflammatory substances and the formation of free radicals, which include nitrogen-derived reactive nitrogen species and oxygen-derived reactive oxygen species, such as superoxide, peroxide, and hydroxyl radicals<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>. In addition, the proinflammatory and injurious factors activated in large amounts after skeletal muscle IR injury circulate via both the venous and lymph systems and induce distant organ injury<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. This distant organ injury may be a component of systemic inflammatory response syndrome, acute respiratory distress syndrome, or multi&#8209;organ dysfunction syndrome, which are initially triggered by muscle-derived inflammatory mediators<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>.</p>
      <p>As far as we know, there are only a few reports demonstrating remote myocardial injury following skeletal muscle IR injury.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref> The results of Takhtfooladi et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> indicated that hindlimb IR induces severe myocardial damage and that N-acetylcysteine has protective effects on the myocardium after hindlimb IR. Their data supported the concept that temporary occlusion of the femoral artery induced myocardial injury in rats<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>.</p>
      <p>Previous studies have shown that the use of tramadol after IR in animals attenuated the oxidative injuries. Nagakannan et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of tramadol against transient forebrain ischemia in rats. Tramadol provides a cardioprotective effect against myocardial IR in isolated rat hearts<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. Wagner et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> suggested that tramadol given to humans in high doses actually caused myocardial injury, with increased troponin 1 and decreased inducible nitric oxide synthases expression, possibly due to the systemic undesirable serotonergic effect on diseased coronary arteries.</p>
      <p>A recent study showed that ischemia for 2 h was sufficient to obtain a considerable degree of injury in skeletal muscles and the intravenous injection of 20 mg/kg tramadol prevented this deleterious effect<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Similarly, tramadol at a similar dose was found to be beneficial on lung injuries induced by skeletal muscle IR when femoral artery clamping was applied<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Furthermore, tramadol (20 mg/kg) was determined to be protective against cerebral injuries caused by hindlimb IR in rats<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. There is growing evidence regarding tramadol&#8217;s beneficial effects in ameliorating IR; however, its role in reducing the damage in heart tissue after skeletal muscle IR has not been addressed yet.</p>
      <p>In our study, the antioxidant potential of tramadol was investigated using MDA, GPx, CAT, and SOD contents in myocardial tissue following acute hindlimb IR. The MDA level is a marker of tissue lipid peroxidation. The amount of MDA accumulation in tissue is an index of the extent of lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. The lower levels of MDA observed in the group receiving tramadol compared with the IR group supports the hypothesis that tramadol may reduce oxidative stress by scavenging peroxyl radicals. GPx activity is known to depend on reduced levels of glutathione, glutathione transferase, and glutathione reductase. Activities of these enzymes play an essential role in the cellular defense against free radicals<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. Data regarding SOD support a possible antioxidant effect of tramadol. The decreased levels of MDA and elevated levels of SOD activity in tissues may be evidence of decreased lipid peroxidation and increased antioxidant capacity.</p>
      <p>The analysis of the myocardium under light microscopy revealed the presence of more edema, neutrophil infiltration, and coagulative necrosis in Group II than in Group III; this shows tramadol&#8217;s tendency to attenuate these injuries, a trend that has statistical significance. This observation was supported by Takhtfooladi et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>, who demonstrated that temporary occlusion of the femoral artery in rats resulted in histological changes.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>The results of this study confirmed that the administration of tramadol significantly decreased myocardial injuries induced by hindlimb IR. This protective effect of tramadol is probably ascribed to anti-inflammatory activity. We underscore the necessity of human studies with tramadol that may be beneficial in preventing remote organ injury, particularly during surgical interventions.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Tramadol Atenua Les&#245;es Mioc&#225;rdicas Induzidas pela Reperfus&#227;o P&#243;s- Isqu&#234;mica Aguda de Membros Posteriores em Ratos</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Takhtfooladi</surname>
            <given-names>Hamed Ashrafzadeh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff06">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Asl</surname>
            <given-names>Adel Haghighi Khiabanian</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff06">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Shahzamani</surname>
            <given-names>Mehran</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff07">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Takhtfooladi</surname>
            <given-names>Mohammad Ashrafzadeh</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff08">3</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Allahverdi</surname>
            <given-names>Amin</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff09">4</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Khansari</surname>
            <given-names>Mohammadreza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">5</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff06">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Islamic Azad University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Pathobiology, Science and Research Branch</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Pathobiology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran - Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Islamic Azad University</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff07">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Isfahan University of Medical Sciences</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Cardiovascular Surgery</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Tehran - Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Isfahan University of Medical Sciences</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff08">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Islamic Azad University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Young Researchers and Elites Club, Science and Research Branch</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Young Researchers and Elites Club, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran - Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Islamic Azad University</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff09">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Islamic Azad University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Surgery, Science and Research Branch</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Surgery, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran - Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Islamic Azad University</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Islamic Azad University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Physiology, Science and Research Branch</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tehran</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="IR">Iran</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Physiology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran - Iran</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Islamic Azad University</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Mohammad Ashrafzadeh Takhtfooladi</bold>, Young Researchers and Elites Club, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University. CEP 8177613343, Tehran, Iran. E-mail: <email>dr_ashrafzadeh@yahoo.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Takhtfoo HA, Shahzamani M. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Takhtfoo MA. An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Takhtfoo HA, Allahverdi A. An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Khansari M. Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Takhtfoo MA. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Takhtfoo MA. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Khiabanian AH. Supervis&#227;o / como investigador principal: Shahzamani M. An&#225;lise Histol&#243;gica: Khiabanian AH. Ajuda com procedimentos t&#233;cnicos: Allahverdi A.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>Les&#245;es a &#243;rg&#227;os ocorrem n&#227;o apenas durante per&#237;odos de isquemia, mas paradoxalmente, tamb&#233;m durante a reperfus&#227;o. Sabe-se que a reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica (RPI) causa les&#245;es tanto remotas quanto locais no &#243;rg&#227;o afetado.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Este estudo avaliou os efeitos do tramadol no cora&#231;&#227;o como &#243;rg&#227;o remoto, ap&#243;s RPI aguda dos membros posteriores.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Trinta ratos Wistar, machos, adultos e saud&#225;veis, foram distribu&#237;dos aleatoriamente em tr&#234;s grupos: Grupo I (controle), Grupo II (RPI) e Grupo III (RPI + tramadol). Isquemia foi induzida em ratos anestesiados atrav&#233;s do pin&#231;amento da art&#233;ria femoral esquerda por 3 horas, seguidas de 3 horas de reperfus&#227;o. Tramadol foi administrado (20 mg/kg, IV) imediatamente antes da reperfus&#227;o. Ao final da reperfus&#227;o, os animais foram sacrificados e seus cora&#231;&#245;es coletados para exames histol&#243;gicos e bioqu&#237;micos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>Os n&#237;veis de super&#243;xido-dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) e glutationa-peroxidase (GPx) foram maiores nos grupos I e III que no grupo II (p &lt; 0.05). Em compara&#231;&#227;o aos outros grupos, os n&#237;veis tissulares de malondialde&#237;do (MDA) estavam significativamente mais elevados no grupo II (p &lt; 0.05), o que foi evitado pelo uso de tramadol. Foram pontuadas as altera&#231;&#245;es histopatol&#243;gicas, incluindo micro-hemorragia, edema, infiltra&#231;&#227;o por neutr&#243;filos e necrose. A pontua&#231;&#227;o total das les&#245;es do grupo III foi significativamente menor (p &lt; 0.05) em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo II.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>Do ponto de vista histol&#243;gico e bioqu&#237;mico, o tratamento com tramadol diminuiu as les&#245;es mioc&#225;rdicas induzidas pela RPI da musculatura esquel&#233;tica neste modelo experimental.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Tramadol/uso terap&#234;utico</kwd>
        <kwd>Traumatismos Card&#237;acos</kwd>
        <kwd>Cora&#231;&#227;o/fisiopatolologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Traumatismo por Referfus&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Ratos</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O restabelecimento do fluxo sangu&#237;neo depois de um per&#237;odo de isquemia causa les&#245;es por reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica (RPI). As les&#245;es por RPI s&#227;o um problema cl&#237;nico s&#233;rio, que ocorre em muitas patologias e cirurgias, tais como cirurgias ortop&#233;dicas em membros, transplantes de &#243;rg&#227;os, circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea e choque hipovol&#234;mico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. Durante a RPI, os tecidos s&#227;o submetidos a citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias destrutivas e a esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio, liberadas pelas c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias, que levam a les&#245;es inflamat&#243;rias e apoptose celular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. A RPI tamb&#233;m afeta os &#243;rg&#227;os secund&#225;rios, incluindo o f&#237;gado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>, o cora&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>, os rins<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>, os pulm&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref> e chega mesmo a causar fal&#234;ncia m&#250;ltipla de &#243;rg&#227;os, uma causa comum de mortalidade. Portanto, &#233; urgentemente necess&#225;ria a busca de agentes antioxidantes, anti-inflamat&#243;rios e antiapopt&#243;ticos para atenuar as les&#245;es a m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os que a RPI induz.</p>
        <p>Diversos pesquisadores demonstraram que a via metab&#243;lica opioide est&#225; envolvida na preserva&#231;&#227;o dos tecidos durante a hip&#243;xia ou isquemia e que essa prote&#231;&#227;o &#233; mediada pelo receptor opioide delta<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. Provou-se que a morfina tem efeitos cardioprotetores durante a RPI<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Fatores tais como depress&#227;o respirat&#243;ria e libera&#231;&#227;o de histamina s&#227;o as desvantagens do uso da morfina no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio da cirurgia card&#237;aca de peito aberto<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
        <p>O tramadol &#233; um f&#225;rmaco interessante, pois tem um mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o incomum que envolve os sistemas de analgesia opioide, da noradrenalina e da serotonina (5-hidroxitriptamina). Ele certamente &#233; &#250;til no tratamento de dores cr&#244;nicas e agudas. Embora o tramadol n&#227;o cause depress&#227;o respirat&#243;ria, os problemas de n&#225;usea quando usado em doses analg&#233;sicas clinicamente eficazes contra dores severas, al&#233;m do risco de consci&#234;ncia durante a opera&#231;&#227;o, podem representar desvantagens significativas desse f&#225;rmaco<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Pesquisas recentes revelam que o tramadol diminui a peroxida&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;dios e regula a reabsor&#231;&#227;o de noradrenalina; portanto, essas propriedades terap&#234;uticas s&#227;o usadas no manejo da isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
        <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, o tramadol demonstrou proteger &#243;rg&#227;os locais e remotos contra les&#245;es por RPI<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. Entretanto, o papel do tramadol na redu&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es do mioc&#225;rdio ap&#243;s RPI de membros posteriores ainda n&#227;o foi abordado. Neste estudo, foi examinado o efeito do tramadol em les&#245;es do mioc&#225;rdio ap&#243;s RPI, atrav&#233;s da avalia&#231;&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es bioqu&#237;micas e histol&#243;gicas em ratos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <p>Trinta ratos Wistar machos, saud&#225;veis e adultos, pesando entre 250&#8211;300 g, foram comprados do Instituto Pasteur do Ir&#227;. Todos os procedimentos e protocolos utilizados nesta pesquisa foram revisados e aprovados pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisas com Animais da Faculdade de Medicina Veterin&#225;ria da Universidade Isl&#226;mica Azad. Os animais foram mantidos sob uma temperatura ambiente constante de 20&#8211;22&#730;C, umidade relativa de 50&#8211;60%, ciclos claro-escuro de 12 h/12 h e acesso a &#225;gua de torneira filtrada e ra&#231;&#227;o comercial <italic>ad libitum</italic>. Os ratos foram colocados em gaiolas pl&#225;sticas individuais com assoalho macio.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Grupos experimentais</title>
          <p>Os ratos foram divididos aleatoriamente em tr&#234;s grupos experimentais de dez ratos cada um (entre os 10 de cada grupo, cinco foram usados para provas bioqu&#237;micas e cinco para an&#225;lise histol&#243;gica). O Grupo I (de controle) foi submetido a todos os procedimentos, exceto a oclus&#227;o arterial. Os animais receberam 2 mL de soro fisiol&#243;gico a 0,9% pela veia jugular. O Grupo II foi submetido &#224; RPI. 2 mL de soro fisiol&#243;gico a 0,9% foram administrados imediatamente antes do per&#237;odo de reperfus&#227;o. O Grupo III (IR + tramadol) tamb&#233;m foi submetido &#224; RPI e recebeu uma solu&#231;&#227;o de 20 mg/kg de tramadol<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> em soro fisiol&#243;gico a 0,9%, com um volume total de 2 mL.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Anestesia</title>
          <p>Os ratos foram pesados e anestesiados atrav&#233;s de uma inje&#231;&#227;o intramuscular de cloridrato de cetamina a 10% e cloridrato de xilazina a 2% (respectivamente, 50 mg/kg e 10 mg/kg).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cirurgia</title>
          <p>Depois da indu&#231;&#227;o da anestesia, os animais foram colocados numa plataforma, em dec&#250;bito dorsal, com seus membros tor&#225;cicos e p&#233;lvicos imobilizados com fita adesiva. A veia jugular foi isolada e cateterizada para a administra&#231;&#227;o de heparina, tramadol e soro fisiol&#243;gico comum. O membro posterior esquerdo foi preparado para cirurgia est&#233;ril. Foi feita uma incis&#227;o cut&#226;nea na superf&#237;cie medial do membro posterior esquerdo e a art&#233;ria femoral foi isolada e pin&#231;ada com uma pin&#231;a n&#227;o traum&#225;tica durante 3 h, seguidas de 3 h de reperfus&#227;o. Antes da oclus&#227;o da art&#233;ria femoral, 250 UI de heparina <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> foram administradas pela veia jugular, para evitar a coagula&#231;&#227;o. Os ratos foram mantidos em dec&#250;bito dorsal e anestesiados (doses adicionais foram administradas quando necess&#225;rio) por toda a dura&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo de isquemia. A temperatura corporal foi mantida com uma almofada t&#233;rmica e monitorada com um term&#244;metro retal. O f&#243;rceps vascular foi removido e o local da cirurgia fechado de forma rotineira com suturas 3-0 de polipropileno depois do per&#237;odo de isquemia. Os indiv&#237;duos do Grupo I foram submetidos a um procedimento cir&#250;rgico semelhante ao dos outros grupos, mas a art&#233;ria femoral n&#227;o foi oclu&#237;da.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Coleta de amostras</title>
          <p>Ao final do procedimento, os ratos foram sacrificados com a inje&#231;&#227;o de uma overdose de pentobarbital (300 mg/kg, i.p.), e os cora&#231;&#245;es foram rapidamente extra&#237;dos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise histol&#243;gica</title>
          <p>Para a an&#225;lise histol&#243;gica, os cora&#231;&#245;es foram fixados com formol a 10%, depois inclu&#237;dos em parafina, cortados em se&#231;&#245;es de 5 &#956;m de espessura e corados com hematoxilina e eosina. As se&#231;&#245;es foram examinadas de forma semiquantitativa, usando amplia&#231;&#245;es de 250&#215; e 400&#215; num microsc&#243;pio &#243;ptico por um patologista sem conhecimento do experimento e dos dados. Os par&#226;metros histol&#243;gicos, tais como micro-hemorragia, edema, infiltra&#231;&#227;o por neutr&#243;filos e necrose, foram pontuados de acordo com a classifica&#231;&#227;o de Papoutsidakis <italic>e cols.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>, como mostra a <xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Tabela 1</xref>. Foram examinados aproximadamente dez campos de visualiza&#231;&#227;o em cada amplia&#231;&#227;o. A pontua&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica total de cada amostra foi determinada pela soma de todas as pontua&#231;&#245;es parciais.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t02">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Gradua&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica (Papoutsidakis e cols.)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>
									</th>
                  <th>
                    <bold>0</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th>
                    <bold>1</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th>
                    <bold>2</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th>
                    <bold>3</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th>
                    <bold>Amplia&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                  </th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Necrose</td>
                  <td align="center">Nenhuma ou 1-3 c&#233;lulas mortas em menos de 3 campos de visualiza&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8804; 3 c&#233;lulas mortas por campo em pelo menos 3 campos, ou 4-6 c&#233;lulas mortas em n&#227;o mais que 3 campos </td>
                  <td align="center">4-6 c&#233;lulas mortas por campo em pelo menos 4 campos, ou &gt; 6 c&#233;lulas mortas em n&#227;o mais que 3 campos </td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 6 c&#233;lulas mortas em pelo menos 4 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">400&#215;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Leuc&#243;citos polimorfonucleares</td>
                  <td align="center">Nenhum, ou 1-3 c&#233;lulas em &lt; 3 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8804; 3 c&#233;lulas por campo em pelo menos 3 campos, ou 4-6 c&#233;lulas em n&#227;o mais que 3 campos </td>
                  <td align="center">4-6 c&#233;lulas por campo em pelo menos 4 campos, ou &gt; 6 c&#233;lulas em n&#227;o mais que 3 campos </td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 6 c&#233;lulas em pelo menos 4 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">400&#215;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td> Eosin&#243;filos</td>
                  <td align="center">Nenhum, ou 1-3 c&#233;lulas em &lt; 3 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8804; 3 c&#233;lulas por campo em pelo menos 3 campos, ou 4-6 c&#233;lulas em n&#227;o mais que 3 campos </td>
                  <td align="center">4-6 c&#233;lulas por campo em pelo menos 4 campos, ou &gt; 6 c&#233;lulas em n&#227;o mais que 3 campos </td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 6 c&#233;lulas em pelo menos 4 campos</td>
                  <td align="center"> 400&#215;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Perda de estria&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">Nenhuma, ou 1-5 c&#233;lulas em &lt; 3 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8804; 5 c&#233;lulas por campo em pelo menos 3 campos, ou 5-10 c&#233;lulas em n&#227;o mais que 3 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">5-10 c&#233;lulas por campo em pelo menos 4 campos, ou &gt; 6 c&#233;lulas em n&#227;o mais que 3 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 10 c&#233;lulas em pelo menos 4 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">400&#215;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Edema</td>
                  <td align="center">Nenhum</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 10 % dos campos em pelo menos 3 campos, ou &gt; 10 % em &lt; 3 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">10-30% dos campos em pelo menos 3 campos, ou &gt; 30% em &lt; 3 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 30% dos campos em pelo menos 3 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">250&#215;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Micro-hemorragia</td>
                  <td align="center">Nenhuma</td>
                  <td align="center">Presente em &lt; 10% dos campos em pelo menos 3 campos, ou &gt; 10% em &lt; 3 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">Presente em 10-30% dos campos em pelo menos 3 campos, ou &gt; 30% em &lt; 3 campos</td>
                  <td align="center"> Presente em &gt; 30% dos campos em pelo menos 3 campos</td>
                  <td align="center">250&#215;</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn>
                <p>FOV: campos de vis&#227;o</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Exame bioqu&#237;mico</title>
          <p>As evid&#234;ncias de estresse oxidativo foram determinadas a partir de homogeneizados de tecido card&#237;aco atrav&#233;s das atividades da glutationa-peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT) e super&#243;xido-dismutase (SOD), e dos n&#237;veis de malondialde&#237;do (MDA). Cada cora&#231;&#227;o foi mantido num recipiente separado a -80&#730;C at&#233; o momento da an&#225;lise. Os tecidos foram homogeneizados numa solu<bold>&#231;</bold>&#227;o tamp&#227;o de fosfato 0,1 M (pH 7.4) com um homogeneizador Ultra Turrax. Os homogeneizados foram centrifugados a 5000 rpm e a +4&#730;C por 10 min, e os sobrenadantes foram removidos e examinados quanto ao MDA e &#224;s atividades de GPx e SOD. As atividades tissulares de GPx e SOD foram medidas com um autoanalisador Hitachi 917, usando <italic>kits</italic> comerciais. As atividades de SOD e GPx foram expressas em U/mg de prote&#237;na nas amostras de tecido. Os n&#237;veis tissulares de MDA foram determinados pelo m&#233;todo do &#225;cido tiobarbit&#250;rico de Okhawa <italic>e cols.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> Os n&#237;veis de MDA foram expressos como nmol/mg de prote&#237;na nas amostras de tecido. As atividades de CAT foram determinadas pela medi&#231;&#227;o da diminui&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o de per&#243;xido de hidrog&#234;nio a 230 nm, pelo m&#233;todo de Beutler<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>. A atividade de CAT foi expressa em U/mg de prote&#237;na nas amostras de tecido.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Os dados foram analisados com o pacote de <italic>software</italic> estat&#237;stico SPSS (vers&#227;o 18). A distribui&#231;&#227;o dos grupos foi analisada com um teste de Kolmogorov&#8211;Smirnov para uma amostra. Os resultados foram submetidos a uma an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia para a compara&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;ltiplas m&#233;dias (ANOVA), com an&#225;lise <italic>post&#8211;hoc</italic> do teste. Os dados bioqu&#237;micos foram submetidos ao teste n&#227;o param&#233;trico de diferen&#231;a Kruskal&#8211;Wallis. Os dados s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o e o n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia foi de 5%.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>O procedimento experimental foi bem tolerado e nenhum animal foi morto durante o experimento.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados bioqu&#237;micos</title>
          <p>Os n&#237;veis de SOD, CAT, GPx e MDA foram medidos nos tecidos card&#237;acos depois de 3 h de reperfus&#227;o. Os n&#237;veis de SOD, CAT e GPx foram significativamente menores no Grupo II que nos outros grupos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figuras 1</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">3</xref>). Por outro lado, a les&#227;o por RPI atenuou os n&#237;veis dessas mol&#233;culas e essa atenua&#231;&#227;o foi revertida pela inje&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de tramadol. Em compara&#231;&#227;o com os outros grupos, os n&#237;veis tissulares de MDA no Grupo II foram significativamente aumentados (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figure 4</xref>), o que foi evitado pelo tramadol.</p>
          <fig id="f08">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>SOD, super&#243;xido-dismutase (U/mg de prote&#237;na) no tecido card&#237;aco entre os grupos estudados. *RPI: reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica; RPI+T: reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica + tramadol. Dados expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o. *: p &lt; 0,00</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          <fig id="f09">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>CAT, catalase (U/mg de prote&#237;na) no tecido card&#237;aco entre os grupos estudados. *RPI: reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica; RPI+T: reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica + tramadol. Dados expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o. *: p &lt; 0,00.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          <fig id="f10">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>GPx, glutationa-peroxidase (U/mg de prote&#237;na) no tecido card&#237;aco entre os grupos estudados. *RPI: reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica; RPI+T: reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica + tramadol. Dados expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o. *: p &lt; 0,00.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          <fig id="f11">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>MDA, malondialde&#237;do (nmol/mg de prote&#237;na) no tecido card&#237;aco entre os grupos estudados. RPI: reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica; RPI+T: reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica + tramadol. Dados expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o. *: p &lt; 0,00.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados histol&#243;gicos</title>
          <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es histopatol&#243;gicas, incluindo micro-hemorragia, edema, infiltra&#231;&#227;o por neutr&#243;filos e necrose coagulativa, foram pontuadas. A pontua&#231;&#227;o total das les&#245;es no Grupo III foi significativamente menor que a do Grupo II (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 5</xref>). Imagens microsc&#243;picas representativas do mioc&#225;rdio nos Grupos II e III, coradas por hematoxilina e eosina, s&#227;o apresentadas nas <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figuras 6</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">7</xref>, respectivamente.</p>
          <fig id="f12">
            <label>Figura 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Gradua&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica entre os grupos estudados. RPI: reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica; RPI+T: reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica + tramadol. Dados expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o. *: p &lt; 0,00</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf05-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          <fig id="f13">
            <label>Figura 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Microfotografia do mioc&#225;rdio no grupo com reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica, mostrando necrose coagulativa. As c&#233;lulas musculares com n&#250;cleos picn&#243;ticos foram coradas mais profundamente pela eosina na &#225;rea de necrose coagulativa (colora&#231;&#227;o por hematoxilina e eosina; tra&#231;o de refer&#234;ncia = 100 &#956;m)</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf06-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          <fig id="f14">
            <label>Figura 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Microfotografia representativa do mioc&#225;rdio no grupo com reperfus&#227;o p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica + tramadol, mostrando uma estrutura quase normal (colora&#231;&#227;o por hematoxilina e eosina; tra&#231;o de refer&#234;ncia = 100 &#956;m)</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-02-0151-50059-gf07-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>As consequ&#234;ncias locais e remotas de les&#245;es aos membros por RPI continuam sendo um problema cl&#237;nico s&#233;rio para cirurgi&#245;es gerais vasculares, radiologistas intervencionistas e cardiologistas. A reperfus&#227;o do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico provoca ativa&#231;&#227;o e ades&#227;o de neutr&#243;filos polimorfonucleares, com a libera&#231;&#227;o de subst&#226;ncias pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias e a forma&#231;&#227;o de radicais livres, que s&#227;o esp&#233;cies reativas derivadas do nitrog&#234;nio ou do oxig&#234;nio, tais como super&#243;xido, per&#243;xido e radicais hidroxila<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>&#8211;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>. Al&#233;m disto, os fatores de les&#227;o pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios e tissulares, ativados em grandes quantidades ap&#243;s les&#245;es dos m&#250;sculos esquel&#233;ticos por RPI, circulam tanto atrav&#233;s do sistema venoso quanto do linf&#225;tico e induzem les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os distantes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. Essa les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;os distantes &#224;s vezes pode ser um componente de uma s&#237;ndrome de resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica, de desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo ou de disfun&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;ltiplos &#243;rg&#227;os, que inicialmente s&#227;o desencadeadas por mediadores inflamat&#243;rios derivados dos m&#250;sculos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>.</p>
        <p>At&#233; onde sabemos, h&#225; apenas alguns relatos que demonstram les&#245;es remotas do mioc&#225;rdio em seguida a les&#245;es de m&#250;sculos esquel&#233;ticos por RPI.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref> Os resultados de Takhtfooladi <italic>e cols.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> indicam que a RPI de membros posteriores induz danos severos ao mioc&#225;rdio e que a N-acetilciste&#237;na possui efeitos protetores contra les&#245;es do mioc&#225;rdio ap&#243;s RPI de membros posteriores. Seus dados apoiam esta vis&#227;o de que a oclus&#227;o tempor&#225;ria da art&#233;ria femoral induz les&#245;es do mioc&#225;rdio em ratos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>.</p>
        <p>Estudos anteriores demonstraram que o uso do tramadol depois da RPI em animais atenuou as les&#245;es oxidativas. Nagakannan<italic>e e cols.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> demonstraram o efeito neuroprotetor do tramadol contra a isquemia tempor&#225;ria do c&#233;rebro anterior em ratos. O tramadol proporciona um efeito cardioprotetor contra a RPI do mioc&#225;rdio em cora&#231;&#245;es isolados de ratos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. Wagner <italic>e cols.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref> sugeriram que o tramadol administrado a seres humanos em altas doses na verdade provocava les&#245;es do mioc&#225;rdio, com aumento da express&#227;o da troponina 1 e diminui&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o induz&#237;vel das sintases do &#243;xido n&#237;trico, possivelmente devido a um efeito seroton&#233;rgico sist&#234;mico indesej&#225;vel nas art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias doentes.</p>
        <p>Um estudo recente mostrou que uma isquemia de 2 h era suficiente para obter um grau consider&#225;vel de les&#227;o em m&#250;sculos esquel&#233;ticos. A inje&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de 20 mg/kg de tramadol evitou esse efeito delet&#233;rio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. De forma semelhante, descobriu-se que o tramadol, numa dose semelhante, era ben&#233;fico em les&#245;es pulmonares induzidas por RPI de m&#250;sculos esquel&#233;ticos atrav&#233;s do pin&#231;amento da art&#233;ria femoral<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Al&#233;m disto, determinou-se que o tramadol (20 mg/kg) protegia contra les&#245;es cerebrais causadas por RPI de membros posteriores em ratos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. H&#225; evid&#234;ncias crescentes com rela&#231;&#227;o aos efeitos ben&#233;ficos do tramadol na melhora ap&#243;s RPI. Entretanto, seu papel na redu&#231;&#227;o dos danos ao cora&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s RPI de m&#250;sculos esquel&#233;ticos ainda n&#227;o havia sido abordado.</p>
        <p>No nosso estudo, o potencial antioxidante do tramadol foi investigado analisando os teores de MDA, GPx, CAT e SOD no tecido mioc&#225;rdico ap&#243;s RPI aguda de membros posteriores. O n&#237;vel de MDA &#233; um marcador da peroxida&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;dios nos tecidos. A quantidade de MDA acumulado nos tecidos &#233; um indicador da extens&#227;o da peroxida&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;dios e do estresse oxidativo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. A presen&#231;a de n&#237;veis reduzidos de MDA nos grupos que receberam tramadol, comparados aos outros grupos que sofreram RPI, apoia a hip&#243;tese de que o tramadol apresenta efeitos de redu&#231;&#227;o do estresse oxidativo, por remover radicais peroxila. Sabe-se que a atividade de GPx depende de n&#237;veis reduzidos de glutationa, glutationa-transferase e glutationa-redutase. As atividades destas enzimas desempenham um papel essencial na defesa celular contra os radicais livres <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. Os dados quanto &#224; SOD apoiaram a probabilidade de um efeito antioxidante do tramadol. Os teores diminu&#237;dos de MDA e os n&#237;veis aumentados de atividade da SOD nos tecidos podem ser uma evid&#234;ncia de menor peroxida&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;dios e de maior capacidade antioxidante.</p>
        <p>A an&#225;lise do mioc&#225;rdio sob microscopia &#243;ptica revelou a presen&#231;a de edema, infiltra&#231;&#227;o por neutr&#243;filos e necrose coagulativa no Grupo II, onde a incid&#234;ncia dessas les&#245;es foi maior que no Grupo III. Isto demonstra que o tramadol tende a atenuar essas les&#245;es; essa tend&#234;ncia &#233; estatisticamente significativa. Esta observa&#231;&#227;o &#233; apoiada por Takhtfooladi <italic>e cols.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>, que demonstraram que a oclus&#227;o tempor&#225;ria da art&#233;ria femoral de ratos resultou em altera&#231;&#245;es histol&#243;gicas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Os resultados deste estudo confirmaram que a administra&#231;&#227;o de tramadol diminuiu significativamente as les&#245;es mioc&#225;rdicas induzidas pela RPI de membros posteriores. Este efeito protetor do tramadol deve-se provavelmente a uma atividade anti-inflamat&#243;ria. Ressaltamos a necessidade de estudos com o tramadol em seres humanos, que seriam hipoteticamente ben&#233;ficos na preven&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es a &#243;rg&#227;os remotos, em especial durante interven&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
