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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">Tb3RsxW9PSXV9MLn6GNBbgP</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2015002000071</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2015005050024</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20150024</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Mechanisms Involved in Exercise-Induced Cardioprotection: A Systematic Review</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Borges</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lessa</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos Adriano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff01">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto Oswaldo Cruz</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Laborat&#243;rio de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country>Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8722; Brazil</institution>
          <institution content-type="normalized">Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Juliana Pereira Borges,</bold> Rua Silva Guimar&#227;es 49/607 &#8211; Tijuca. Postal Code 20521-200, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: <email>julipborges@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <label>Author contributions</label>
          <p>Conception and design of the research: Borges JP, Lessa MA. Acquisition of data: Borges JP, Lessa MA. Analysis and interpretation of the data: Borges JP, Lessa MA. Obtaining financing: Borges JP, Lessa MA. Writing of the manuscript: Borges JP, Lessa MA. Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Borges JP, Lessa MA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potential Conflict of Interest</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>27</day>
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>105</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>71</fpage>
      <lpage>81</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Acute myocardial infarction is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Furthermore, research has shown that exercise, in addition to reducing cardiovascular risk factors, can also protect the heart against injury due to ischemia and reperfusion through a direct effect on the myocardium. However, the specific mechanism involved in exerciseinduced cardiac preconditioning is still under debate.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>To perform a systematic review of the studies that have addressed the mechanisms by which aerobic exercise promotes direct cardioprotection against ischemia and reperfusion injury.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>A search was conducted using MEDLINE, Literatura Latino-Americana e do Caribe de Informa&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de, and Scientific Electronic Library Online databases. Data were extracted in a standardized manner by two independent researchers, who were responsible for assessing the methodological quality of the studies.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>The search retrieved 78 studies; after evaluating the abstracts, 30 studies were excluded. The manuscripts of the remaining 48 studies were completely read and, of these, 20 were excluded. Finally, 28 studies were included in this systematic review.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>On the basis of the selected studies, the following are potentially involved in the cardioprotective response to exercise: increased heat shock protein production, nitric oxide pathway involvement, increased cardiac antioxidant capacity, improvement in ATP-dependent potassium channel function, and opioid system activation. Despite all the previous investigations, further research is still necessary to obtain more consistent conclusions.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Myocardial Infarction</kwd>
        <kwd>Exercise/physiology</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Reperfusion Injury/etiology</kwd>
        <kwd>Myocardial Ischemia</kwd>
        <kwd>Heat-Shock Proteins</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="72"/>
        <page-count count="11"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Despite numerous therapeutic advances during the past decade, coronary artery disease (CAD) is still a leading cause of mortality worldwide<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. In Brazil, according to the data from the Brazilian Ministry of Health, cardiovascular diseases account for approximately 20% of all deaths in individuals over 30 years of age, which corresponds to an average of 195,000 deaths per year<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. With regard to public spending on health, approximately R$ 250 million were spent on the treatment of acute myocardial infarction (MI) alone in 2011<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
      <p>In MI, the ultimate therapeutic goal is to restore blood flow to the ischemic region as quickly as possible<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref> because the reversibility of the process and extent of tissue damage are directly related to the duration of ischemia. Nonetheless, the biochemical changes caused by the reperfusion process can result in numerous damages, including cell death<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
				<sup>.</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Due to the severity of the clinical outcomes of MI, it is necessary to investigate preventive measures for and/or treatment of the injury. In this sense, epidemiological evidence indicates a strong correlation between physically active individuals and MI survival patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Several studies have demonstrated that exercise not only reduces cardiovascular risk factors but also promotes cardioprotection against ischemia and reperfusion (IR) injury through a direct effect on the myocardium<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
				<sup>-</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Notably, a single exercise session prior to IR injury is sufficient to promote an increase in cardiac output<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> and improve myocardial contractile function during IR injury<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				<sup>-</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. This experimental evidence supports the idea that the cardiac phenotype acquired after exercise is due to specific biochemical adaptations of the myocardium, which are independent of muscle disorders and blood flow<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. However, the specific mechanism involved in exercise-induced cardiac preconditioning is still under debate<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. Therefore, this study aimed to review the pathophysiology of myocardial IR injury and assess the mechanisms by which exercise promotes direct cardioprotection against IR injury.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Bibliographical search</title>
        <p>The electronic databases MEDLINE (accessed via PubMed), Literatura Latino-Americana e do Caribe de Informa&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de (LILACS), and Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO) were searched without date restriction. Studies published in English, Portuguese, or Spanish whose primary target of the investigation was aerobic exercise were included. Data were extracted in a standardized manner by two independent researchers, who were responsible for assessing the methodological quality of the studies. Articles in duplicate, reviews articles, editorials, and articles evaluating the influence of gender and/or age in cardioprotection were excluded. The literature search was conducted in September, 2014, and the search strategy included the following terms: &#8220;cardioprotection&#8221;; &#8220;ischemia reperfusion injury&#8221; or &#8220;ischemia reperfusion&#8221;; and &#8220;exercise,&#8221; &#8220;physical exercise,&#8221; &#8220;exercise training,&#8221; or &#8220;exercise preconditioning&#8221;.</p>
        <p>Article selection was conducted in two stages. First, the abstracts were evaluated, and those that did not fulfill the inclusion criteria of the study were excluded. Second, the remaining articles were completely read and those that did not fulfill the inclusion criteria were excluded.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p>The bibliographical search retrieved 78 studies, of which 30 were excluded after evaluation of the abstracts: 23 were review articles, five investigated the effect of age and/or gender in exercise-induced cardioprotection, one was an editorial, and one addressed the cardioprotective effect of strength exercise. Of the 48 remaining articles, 20 were excluded: 12 for not incorporating exercise as a primary research target and eight because the complete article was not available. Therefore, a total of 28 studies were included in this systematic review.</p>
      <p>For a better presentation of the results, the selected articles were methodologically classified, as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref>, by grouping these studies according to the main cardioprotective mechanism evaluated. Therefore, of the 28 studies selected, 11 investigated the myocardial antioxidant capacity, seven focused on cardiac heat shock proteins (HSPs), four addressed the influence of the nitric oxide (NO) pathway, three studied the increase in ATP-dependent potassium channels (KATP), and three evaluated the involvement of the opioid system in exercise-induced cardioprotection.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t01">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Methodological classification of the selected studies</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="center">Author/year</th>
              <th align="center">Exercise</th>
              <th align="center">Groups</th>
              <th align="center">Main outcomes</th>
              <th align="center">Conclusion</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Nicholson et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>/2013</td>
              <td align="center">Running wheel 4 weeks</td>
              <td align="center">Exe: exercise NO<sub>2</sub>: supplemented nitrite Exe + N0<sub>2</sub> Sed: sedentary</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area and troponin-1: Sed &gt; Exe = Exe + NO<sub>2</sub> &gt; NO<sub>2</sub> Ejection fraction: Sed &lt; Exe = Exe + NO<sub>2</sub> &lt; NO<sub>2</sub> Myoglobin and NFAT: Sed = NO<sub>2</sub> &gt; Exe = Exe + NO<sub>2</sub>
							</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise decreases cardiac myoglobin levels by inhibiting the calcineurin-NFAT pathway. Moderate exercise-induced cardioprotection is due to diminished ability to reduce nitrite to NO.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Akita et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>/2007</td>
              <td align="center">7 consecutive days 60 min/session 60%-70% VO<sub>2max</sub>
							</td>
              <td align="center">Exe: exercise Wild: control Phenol: sympathetic ablation Antioxidant supplemented eNOS<sup>(&#8722;/&#8722;)</sup>: eNOS knockout 1400W: iNOS blockade iNOS<sup>(&#8722;/&#8722;)</sup>: iNOS knockout</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area: Exe &lt; other groups eNOS and iNOS activity: Exe &gt; other groupsOxidative stress: &gt; in Exe andeNOS<sup>(&#8722;/&#8722;)</sup>
							</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise stimulates cardiac sympathetic innervation, causing eNOS activation with consequent iNOS elevation, which acts as a mediator in late cardioprotection.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Hajnal et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>/2005</td>
              <td align="center">1 session 21 min Remaining not reported</td>
              <td align="center">CT: control L-NAME CT: eNOS blockade AEST CT: iNOS blockade Exe: exercise Exe + L-NAME Exe + AEST</td>
              <td align="center">Arrhythmias: less frequent only in ExeInfarcted area: similar among all groups</td>
              <td align="center">NO acts as a catalyst and mediator in exercise-induced late protection against IR injury.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Babai et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>/2012</td>
              <td align="center">1 session 21 min</td>
              <td align="center">CT: control without exercise CT + Phe: phenylephrine CT + AG: iNOS blockade Exe 24 h: 24 h after exercise Exe 48 h: 48 h after exercise Exe 24 h + AG: iNOS blockade 24 h after exercise</td>
              <td align="center">Baroreflex sensitivity: Exe 24 h and 48 h &gt; other groups Survival: Exe 24 h: 70% and CT: 9%</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise-induced cardioprotection is mediated by NO because this effect is abolished by aminoguanidine and iNOS activity increases 24 h after exercise.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Farah et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>/2013</td>
              <td align="center">5 weeks 5 days/week 45 min/session 70% VO2<sub>max25</sub>m/min</td>
              <td align="center">CT: control Exe: exercise Exe + L-NAME: eNOS blockade Exe + L-NIO: more specific eNOS blockade Exe + BH<sub>4</sub>: NO donor</td>
              <td align="center">Nitrite and GMPc levels: similar between groups eNOS function: Exe and BH<sub>4</sub> &gt; other groupsInfarcted area: Exe &lt; other groups Oxidative stress: Exe &gt; other groups</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise results in increased antioxidant capacity, which prevents an excessive synthesis of NO, limiting its binding to O<sub>2</sub>and the consequent formation of peroxynitrite (highly cytotoxic).</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Frasier et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>/2013</td>
              <td align="center">10 consecutive days 60 min/session 15&#8217; at 15 m/min, 30&#8217; at 30 m/min, and 15&#8217; at 15 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">Sed: sedentary Exe: exercise BCNU + Exe: inhibited glutathione reductase Vas2870 + Exe: inhibited NADPH oxidase</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area and arrhythmias: Exe &lt; other groups Antioxidant activity: Exe &gt; other groups</td>
              <td align="center">Adaptive signaling of exercise-induced cardioprotection is triggered by EROS, which increases glutathione reductase activity.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Lee et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>/2012</td>
              <td align="center">5 consecutive days 60 min/session 70% VO2<sub>max30</sub>m/min</td>
              <td align="center">CP: sedentary without IR CIR: sedentary with IR EP: exercise without IR EIR: exercise with IR</td>
              <td align="center">Proapoptotic proteins and EROS: CIR &gt; other groups Functional parameters: CP = EP &gt; EIR &gt; CIR Respiratory function: EIR = CP = EP</td>
              <td align="center">Cardioprotection is partially mediated by beneficial adaptations in mitochondrial phenotype, increasing their resistance to the oxidative damage due to IR injury.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Kavazis et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>/2008</td>
              <td align="center">5 consecutive days 60 min/session 30 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">Sed: sedentary Extr: trained</td>
              <td align="center">Antioxidant enzymes and mitochondrial function: ExTr &gt; Sed Expression of proapoptotic proteins: Sed &gt; ExTr</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise induces mitochondrial adaptations that contribute to cardioprotection.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">French et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>/2008</td>
              <td align="center">3 consecutive days 60 min/session 30 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">C: sedentary T: trainedT-AS: trained with anti-MnSOD treatment T-M: trained with sham anti-MnSOD treatment</td>
              <td align="center">MnSOD: T and T-M &gt; T-AS = C Catalase and GPX: similar among groupsInfarcted area and apoptosis: C &gt; T-AS &gt; T = T-M</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise increases the activity of antioxidant enzymes (SOD) that promote cardioprotection by attenuating necrosis/apoptosis</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Lennon et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>/2004</td>
              <td align="center">3 consecutive days 60 min/session 30 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">S-C: sedentary control E-C: trained without treatment E-AS: trained with anti-MnSOD treatment E-MM: trained with sham anti-MnSOD treatment</td>
              <td align="center">MnSOD: E-C = E-MM &gt; E-AS = S-C Antioxidant activity: catalase &gt; in E groupsDouble product: S-C &lt; other groups</td>
              <td align="center">Prevention of exercise-induced elevation of an antioxidant enzyme (MnSOD) does not abolish cardioprotection.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Hamilton et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>/2003</td>
              <td align="center">5 consecutive days 60 min/session 30 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">Untrained control (1) Untrained and antioxidant diet (2) Trained and antioxidant diet (3) Trained and antioxidant diet (4)</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area: 1 &gt; 2 = 3 = 4 Antioxidant activity: 1 = 3 &lt; 2 = 4 HSP72/73: 3 &gt; 1 = 2 = 4 Intraventricular pressure: 4 &gt; 3 &gt; 2 &gt; 1</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise and use of antioxidants can promote cardioprotection independently and the combination of these two strategies does not interfere in the response.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Hamilton etal. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>/2001</td>
              <td align="center">3-5 days 60 min/session70% VO<sub>2max</sub> 30 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">C: control E-cold: exercised at 4&#176;C E-warm: exercised at 25&#176;C</td>
              <td align="center">Intraventricular pressure and MnSOD: E-cold = E-warm &gt; C HSPs: E-warm &gt; E-cold = C GPx: E-cold &gt; E-warm = C</td>
              <td align="center">The protection is not dependent on increased myocardial HSP levels [Remark 1] but rather on increased myocardial antioxidant defense.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Yamashita et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>/1999</td>
              <td align="center">1 session 25-30 min 27-30 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">C: controlEx: exercised (0.5h, 3 h, 24 h, 36 h, 48 h, 60h, and 72 h after exercise)</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area: C = 3 h = 24 h = 72 h &gt; 0.5 h = 36 h = 48 h = 60 h MnSOD activity: 0.5 h = 48 h &gt; other groupsExpression of MnSOD: 48 h &gt; other groups</td>
              <td align="center">The exercise-induced production of EROS, TNF-a, and IL-ip results in MnSOD activation, which plays an important role in biphasic cardioprotection against IR injury.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Esposito et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>/2011</td>
              <td align="center">10 weeks 3 days/week 60 min/session 60% or 80% VO<sub>2max</sub>
							</td>
              <td align="center">UNT: untrained Low: low-intensity exercise High: high-intensity exercise High-det: untrained after high-intensity exercise</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area: High &lt; Low = High-det &lt; UNT HSP70 and MnSOD: High &gt; Low &gt; High-det &gt; UNT</td>
              <td align="center">The cardioprotective benefits of exercise are proportional to its intensity and occur via HSPs and antioxidant defense.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Lennon et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>/2004</td>
              <td align="center">3 consecutive days 60 min/session 55% or 75% VO<sub>2max</sub>
							</td>
              <td align="center">C: sedentary control Mod: exercise at 55% VO<sub>2max</sub>High: exercise at 75% VO<sub>2max</sub>
							</td>
              <td align="center">Cardiac function: High = Mod &gt; C MnSOD: High &gt; Mod = C HSP72: High &gt; Mod &gt; C</td>
              <td align="center">Moderate- and high-intensity exercise promotes similar protection against IR injury.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Murlasits et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>/2007</td>
              <td align="center">5 consecutive days 60 min/session 70% VO<sub>2max</sub>
							</td>
              <td align="center">C: sedentary control Trained</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area: C &gt; Trained HSP72: Trained &gt; C Grp78, Grp94, calreticulin, ATF3, CHOP, Caspase 12, Noxa, Puma: Trained = C</td>
              <td align="center">The cardioprotective effect of short-duration exercise is not associated with the regulation of stress proteins such as HSPs.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Quindry et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>/2007</td>
              <td align="center">3 consecutive days 60 min/session 30 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">Sed: sedentary W Ex: exercised at 22&#176;C C Ex: exercised at 8&#176;C</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area and Tunnel: Sed &gt; W Ex = C Ex HSP72: W Ex &gt; C Ex = Sed</td>
              <td align="center">The exercise-induced increase in HSP72 levels is not essential for protection against infarction and apoptosis.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Starnes et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>/2005</td>
              <td align="center">16 weeks 5 days/week 40 min/session 55%-60% VO<sub>2max</sub>
							</td>
              <td align="center">Sed: sedentary RUN: exercised</td>
              <td align="center">Cardiac function: Sed = RUN HSP70: RUN &gt; Sed</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise at 55%-60% of VO<sub>2max</sub> induces an increase in HSP70 levels, but this increase is below the threshold for inducing cardioprotection.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Moran et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>/2005</td>
              <td align="center">24 weeks 5 days/week45 min/session25 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">Sed: sedentary Tr: trained</td>
              <td align="center">HSP72: Tr &gt; Sed Oxidative stress and adenosine: Tr = SedMnSOD and GR: Tr &lt; Sed</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise-induced cardioprotection occurs via increase in HSP72 levels and not through the increase of antioxidant or adenosine levels.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Lennon et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>/2004</td>
              <td align="center">3 consecutive days 60 min/session 70% VO<sub>2 max</sub>
							</td>
              <td align="center">CT: control 1, 3, 9, and 18 days after exercise</td>
              <td align="center">Catalase and HSP72: 1 day = 3 days &gt; other groups Cardiac function: 1 day = 3 days = 9 days &gt; 18 days = CT</td>
              <td align="center">Cardioprotection is abolished 18 days after the end of exercise and is not related to HSP72 and catalase.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Harris et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>/2001</td>
              <td align="center">3, 6, and 9 weeks 5 days/week 60 min/session 23&#176;C or 8&#176;C</td>
              <td align="center">Sed: sedentary 3WK, 6WK, and 9WK: exercised for 3/6/9 weeks at 23&#176;C 3WKC, 6WKC, and 9WKC: exercised for 3/6/9 weeks at 8&#176;C</td>
              <td align="center">HSP70: 3WK = 6WK = 9WK &gt; CT = 3WKC = 6WKC = 9WKC Cardiac function: 9WK &gt; SED = 9WKC SOD: 9WK = 9WKC</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise-induced cardioprotection appears to be due to the increase in HSP70 levels.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Taylor et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>/1999</td>
              <td align="center">1 or 3 days, 100 min/ day, 20 m/min at 23&#176;C 1 day, 100 min/day, 20 m/min at 8&#176;C</td>
              <td align="center">CTRL: sedentary control HS: sedentary heated to 42&#176;C 1DR and 3DR: exercised for 1/3 days at 23&#176;C1CR: exercised for 1 day at 8&#176;C</td>
              <td align="center">Cardiac function: CTRL &lt; other groupsHSP72: 1DR = 3DR = HS &gt; 1CR = CTRL</td>
              <td align="center">Acute exercise can produce cardioprotective response without increase in HSP72 levels.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Quindry et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>/2012</td>
              <td align="center">3 days 60 min/session<sup>70% VO</sup>2max30 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">Sed: sedentary control Exe: exercised Ex5HD: exercised with mitochondrial KATP blockade ExHMR: exercised with sarcolemmal KATP blockade</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area: Exe = Ex5HD &lt; ExHMR = Sed MnSOD: Sed &lt; other groups</td>
              <td align="center">Sarcolemmal KATP channels are more important than mitochondrial KATP channels in the prevention of tissue death after exercise.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Quindry et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>/2010</td>
              <td align="center">3 consecutive days 60 min/session 30 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">Sed: sedentary control Exe: exercised Ex5HD: exercised with mitochondrial KATP blockade ExHMR1098: exercised with sarcolemmal KATP blockade</td>
              <td align="center">Arrhythmias: Ex = ExHMR1098 &lt; Ex5HD = Sed MnSOD: Sed &lt; other groups</td>
              <td align="center">Mitochondrial KATP channels promote antiarrhythmic protection as part of exercise-induced cardioprotection.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Brown et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>/2005</td>
              <td align="center">12 weeks Remaining not informed</td>
              <td align="center">Sed: sedentary Tr: trained 5HD: exercised with mitochondrial KATP blockadeHMR1098: exercised with sarcolemmal KATP blockade</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area: HMR1098 &gt; other groupsCalcium content: 5HD &gt; other groups Blood pressure: 5HD &lt; other groups</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise increases the expression of sarcolemmal KATP channels, which when blocked, annuls the cardioprotective benefits of exercise.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Michelsen et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>/2012</td>
              <td align="center">Bicycle 1 session 25 min 4x 2&#8217; 400W + 3&#8217; 250W</td>
              <td align="center">ExPC: exercise-induced preconditioning ExPC + N: exercise-induced preconditioning + opioid blockade rIPC: Remote ischemic preconditioning rIPC + N: Remote ischemic preconditioning + opioid blockade</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area: rIPC &lt; rIPC + N / ExPC &lt; ExPC + N Blood pressure: rIPC &gt; rIPC + N = ExPC &gt; ExPC + N</td>
              <td align="center">Exercise remotely preconditions the heart through the opioid receptor activation-dependent humoral effector.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Galvao et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>/2011</td>
              <td align="center">12 weeks 5 days/week 60 min/sessionn60% VO<sub>2max</sub>
							</td>
              <td align="center">C: control ET: physical training M: morphine IR: ischemia and reperfusion M + N: opioid blockade ET + M ET + N</td>
              <td align="center">Infarcted area: C, M + N, and ET + N &gt; other groups Intraventricular pressure and capillary density: similar between groups</td>
              <td align="center">The chronic effect of exercise in reducing the infarcted area is due to the activation of opioid receptors rather than to increased myocardial perfusion.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">Dickson et al. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>/2008</td>
              <td align="center">1 session 25 min 25 m/min</td>
              <td align="center">Exe: exercise Exe N: exercise with opioid blockade</td>
              <td align="center">Intraventricular pressure: equal between groups Infarcted area: Exe &lt; Exe + N</td>
              <td align="center">Cardioprotection is mediated by an opioid receptor-dependent mechanism.</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn>
            <p>NFAT: nuclear factor of activated T-cell, VO<sub>2max</sub>: maximum oxygen uptake, eNOS: endothelial nitric oxide synthase, iNOS: induced nitric oxide synthase, IR: ischemia and reperfusion, NO: nitric oxide, CGMP: cyclic guanosine monophosphate, O<sub>2</sub>: oxygen, NADPH: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (reduced), ROS: reactive oxygen species MnSOD: manganese superoxide dismutase, GPX: Glutathione peroxidase, SOD: superoxide dismutase, HSP: heat shock protein, TNF-&#945;: tumor necrosis factor alpha, IL: interleukin, Grp: glucose regulated protein, ATF: activating transcription factor, CHOP: CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein homologous protein, GR: glutathione reductase, KATP: ATP-dependent potassium channel</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Notably, when using the aforementioned descriptors in the main scientific search portals, none of the 78 originally retrieved studies were clinical studies, i.e., all intervention studies were performed in animals. Furthermore, in all studies, the outcomes were analyzed after IR injury.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Pathophysiology of ischemia-reperfusion myocardial injury</title>
        <p>In recent decades, several efforts have been made to elucidate the pathogenesis of IR injury. The ischemia-related events are highly complex, characterized by numerous rapid metabolic and biochemical changes in the myocardium that result in myocardial damage<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>). During ischemia, oxygen supply to the mitochondria is blocked, interrupting the Krebs cycle and leaving almost no energy available from oxidative phosphorylation. Therefore, to fulfill the myocardial energy demand, cellular ATP is generated via glycolysis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. However, this change in cellular metabolism is accompanied by an increase in cytosolic lactate levels and a reduction in intracellular pH. This occurs in such a way that, 30 min after ischemia, the hydrogen ion (H<sup>+</sup>) concentration in the cytosol markedly increases and the cellular pH may reach up to 5.5&#8211;6.0<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>. To compensate for the low pH, intracellular water accumulates, thus causing cellular edema<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. Taken together, these changes activate an ATP-independent membrane ion transporter, known as the Na<sup>+</sup>/H<sup>+</sup>exchanger, which regulates intracellular pH and volume while promoting an efflux of H<sup>+</sup> and an influx of sodium ions (Na<sup>+</sup>) into the cell. Owing to the increase in cytosol Na<sup>+</sup>concentration, the reverse activation of the Na<sup>+</sup>/calcium ion (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) exchanger occurs, resulting in the efflux of Na<sup>+</sup>in exchange for the influx of Ca<sup>2+</sup> into the cell<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>.</p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Metabolic and biochemical changes in the myocardium in response to ischemia and reperfusion</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Adapted from: Hausenloy et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>
					</attrib>
          <attrib>ROS: reactive oxygen species; SR: sarcoplasmic reticulum; MPTP: mitochondrial permeability transition pore.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-01-0071-50024-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
        <p>In parallel, decreased ATP levels disrupt the activity of active pumps that are important in homeostasis, such as Na<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup> ATPase and SERCA. The function of Na<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup> ATPase is to remove Na<sup>+</sup> and to allow the entry of K<sup>+</sup> to maintain the resting electric potential of the cell, whereas SERCA is responsible for &#8220;recapturing&#8221; the Ca<sup>2+</sup> released in the cytosol back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum after muscle contraction. Therefore, the inactivity of these pumps results in additional Na<sup>+</sup>and Ca<sup>2+</sup>overload, which prevents cell repolarization and culminates in contractile dysfunction<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. Furthermore, high levels of Ca<sup>2+</sup> in the cytosol activate certain enzymes, such as phospholipases, proteases (particularly calpain), endonucleases, and ATPases, which are associated with lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, contractile protein impairment, cell function loss, and ultimately, cell death<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
        <p>During reperfusion, the damage caused by ischemia is exacerbated because the restoration of the oxygen flow promotes the release of ROS in the mitochondria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. The production of ROS and Ca<sup>2+</sup>overload are the main factors contributing to IR-induced cell damage because they culminate in mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) opening<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. The opening of this pore results in the loss of the action potential in the mitochondrial membrane and uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation, triggering ATP depletion and cell death. Moreover, MPTP opening acts as a chemical attractor for neutrophils, resulting in dysfunctions in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (in the ryanodine receptors) associated with the increase and/or maintenance of the calcium overload and exacerbation of the deleterious effects caused by calcium-activated enzymes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. The acidic condition (pH &lt; 7.0), characteristic of ischemia, prevents MPTP opening and cardiomyocyte hypercontraction. However, during reperfusion, the lactate washout and restoration of physiological pH results in MPTP opening. Although required for the reversal of ischemia, the restoration of blood flow can ultimately be more harmful than the ischemia process itself<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
        <p>In light of this major clinical problem, the development of therapeutic approaches aimed at the treatment of IR injury has gained relevance in the biomedical sector. In this sense, Murry et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> observed that four 5-min periods of myocardial ischemia interspersed with 5 min of reperfusion protected the myocardium against subsequent longer periods of ischemia. From this observation, which became known as &#8220;infarction preconditioning,&#8221; numerous studies have investigated other possible cardioprotective strategies, including (1) myocardial ischemic post-conditioning, in which short periods of ischemia during the initial minutes of reperfusion after prolonged arterial occlusion could reduce the infarcted area<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>; (2) exercise-induced preconditioning, characterized by inducing a cardiac phenotype that is resistant to myocardial injury after exercise<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>; and (3) pharmacological preconditioning, which advocates the use of drug agents (such as adenosine and cyclosporin A)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref> as intracellular pathway modulators to reduce the myocardial necrosis area due to IR injury.</p>
        <p>Exercise-induced preconditioning, the object of the present review, is the only treatment strategy that can be performed regularly to protect the heart against IR injury<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Mechanisms of exercise-induced myocardial preconditioning</title>
        <p>In 1978, McElroy et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> demonstrated that regular physical activity could provide cardioprotection. In that study, mice were subjected to physical training that consisted of swimming (1 h/session, 5 days/week, 5 weeks). After irreversible occlusion of the left coronary artery, a 30% reduction of the infarcted area was observed in trained mice when compared with the sedentary control. A similar result was found by Brown et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>, whose protocol comprised 20 weeks of training on the treadmill and resulted in a 25% reduction in the infarcted area among the trained animals after 1 h of ischemia and 2 h of reperfusion. In addition, the authors also reported an improvement in cardiac function after physical training due to better maintenance of intraventricular pressure during IR.</p>
        <p>Aerobic exercise undeniably protects the heart against IR injury, both by attenuating tissue death and by promoting greater maintenance of cardiac function. However, the mechanism by which this occurs is still unclear<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. According to the retrieved studies, the main proposed mechanisms include increased production of heat shock proteins (HSPs)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>, involvement of the NO pathway<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>, increased cardiac antioxidant activity associated with decreased ROS production in myocardial mitochondria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
					<sup>-</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>, improved sarcolemmal and mitochondrial KATP channel function<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
					<sup>-</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>, and activation of the opioid system<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>HSPs</title>
        <p>Several proteins have been demonstrated to play an important role in maintaining homeostasis at least at the cellular level. When the body is exposed to stress (for example, during hypoxia, hyperthermia, ischemia, and acidosis), the synthesis of these proteins may be compromised<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>. In response to these factors, the body synthesizes HSPs, which help maintain homeostasis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
        <p>HSPs are classified into several groups according to their molecular weight: 8&#8211;32 kDa, 40&#8211;60 kDa, 70 kDa, 90 kDa, and 100&#8211;110 kDa<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>. Several HSP families, including HSP10, HSP60, and HSP90, are associated with cardioprotective effects; however, the HSP70 family deserves greater attention<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. The most prominent members of the HSP70 family are HSP73 and HSP72. HSP73 is constitutively synthesized in all cells, and its levels slightly increase slightly after a stressful event. Conversely, HSP72 can only be detected after a stressful event<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>, particularly IR injury.</p>
        <p>The reviewed studies indicate that acute aerobic exercise can increase myocardial HSP70 levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. However, although the mechanism by which this occurs remains unclear, studies have associated this increase with thermal stress, hypoxia, reduction in intracellular pH, oxidative stress, depletion of glucose, and/or increase in cytosolic calcium levels. Previous studies have suggested that the increase in exercise-induced HSP72 expression is associated with protection against IR injury<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>, and this could explain the exercise-induced preconditioning. Nonetheless, in the studies by Taylor et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> and Quindry et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>, animals were trained in a cold environment and at room temperature to prevent an increase in HSP72 levels. Both studies found that, regardless of the level of HSP72, the two animal groups showed cardioprotection against IR injury. Although the increase in HSP72 expression can promote a cardioprotective response, this increase is not a prerequisite for exercise-induced cardioprotection.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Involvement of the NO pathway</title>
        <p>After ischemia, the heart immediately uses endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) for the immediate release of NO, along with an increase in the induced NO synthase (iNOS) levels, to convert a more defensive cell phenotype through an increment in NO biosynthesis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Considering that exercise promotes the release of eNOS through shear stress, NO may play an important role in exercise-induced cardioprotection against IR injury<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>, acting as a trigger and mediator of late stage preconditioning (after 24 h)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. In this sense, Babai et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> demonstrated that even a single exercise session conferred cardioprotection against NO-mediated IR. Further evidence for this was contributed by Farah et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>, who observed that exercise-induced cardioprotection was abolished when using an eNOS blocker. In this context, Nicholson et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>demonstrated that exercise could moderately increase the heart&#8217;s ability to reduce nitrite to NO, which probably contributed to exercise-induced cardioprotection.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Increased antioxidant capacity</title>
        <p>The human body has a highly complex antioxidant system, composed primarily of enzymatic agents that function synergistically to protect cells and organ systems from damage caused by oxidative stress. Among them, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione peroxidase should be highlighted<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
        <p>Although widely studied, there is still no consensus on the effect of exercise on the activity of myocardial antioxidant agents<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. The transient release of ROS during exercise has been demonstrated to trigger a specific adaptation that increases the antioxidant capacity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>. Some authors have shown that exercise can increase the levels of catalase<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> and glutathione peroxidase<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>, whereas others have found no differences in these levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>. There is a greater consensus regarding the role of exercise in promoting increased SOD activity, specifically the mitochondrial isoform manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. However, because exercise-induced cardioprotection is a multifactorial process, it may be associated with factors other than the increased antioxidant capacity. To address this question, Yamashita et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> used a technique with antisense oligonucleotides for MnSOD gene silencing and demonstrated that the inhibition of the increased cardiac MnSOD expression induced by exercise resulted in the loss of cardioprotection. In contrast, Lennon et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> used the same silencing technique and observed that cardioprotection was still present even after preventing the increase in MnSOD expression. Therefore, it is clear that further research is necessary to elucidate the role of antioxidant enzymes in exercise-induced cardioprotection.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>KATP channels</title>
        <p>The KATP channels, highly expressed in the sarcolemma and mitochondria, have been associated with a cardioprotective effect<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>. These channels are believed to act as sensors to identify the cellular ionic and bioenergetic balance to preserve cardiac homeostasis during metabolic stress situations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>. To perform this function, they control the amount of ATP available in the cytosol. The KATP channels are closed in the presence of cytosolic ATP. However, the decreased ATP levels due to metabolic stress (such as ischemia) stimulate their opening<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>. The opening of the sarcolemmal KATP channels causes an efflux of K<sup>+</sup> from cardiomyocytes, resulting in hyperpolarization of the cardiac cell and a decrease in the number of action potentials<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>. This limits the entrance of Ca<sup>2+</sup>through type-L channels and prevents intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> accumulation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Collectively, there is a decrease in cardiac metabolic demand, decreasing the electron transport chain activity, thereby preventing ROS production<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>.</p>
        <p>The beneficial cardioprotective role of sarcolemmal KATP channels in ischemic and pharmacological preconditioning<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> has also been observed in exercise preconditioning<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>. Brown et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> demonstrated that a 12-week training program increased the expression of these channels in cardiomyocytes, and their pharmacological blockade prevented the cardioprotective effect of exercise against IR injury. Similarly, Quindry et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> stressed the importance of sarcolemmal KATP channels in the prevention of tissue death after exercise.</p>
        <p>However, the role of mitochondrial KATP channels in cardioprotection is more controversial. With regard to the cardioprotective mechanisms, evidence indicates that their opening causes mitochondrial matrix alkalinization, decreased ROS production, decreased mitochondrial Ca<sup>2+</sup> accumulation, and improved energy production in the mitochondria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Nevertheless, Brown et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> used a mitochondrial KATP channel inhibitor and concluded that these channels were not essential mediators of exercise-induced cardioprotection against IR injury. In contrast, Quindry et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>, by inhibiting the mitochondrial KATP channels, observed that the protection against arrhythmia in trained mice was lost. Thus, the hypothesis that mitochondrial KATP channels, in addition to the sarcolemmal channels, can promote cardioprotection after exercise cannot be excluded.</p>
        <p>Although the association of exercise-induced cardioprotection with the opening of KATP channels is well established, the intracellular signaling cascade triggered in response to exercise and responsible for the opening of these channels remains unclear. In a simplified manner, KATP channels are believed to be associated with opioids and protein kinase C, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Because the opioid system is influenced by exercise<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>, this system may be mediating exercise-induced cardioprotection.</p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figure 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Schematic diagram of a possible signaling pathway involved in opioid- and KATP channel-induced cardioprotection</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Adapted from: Schultz et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>
					</attrib>
          <attrib>PKC: Protein kinase C</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-01-0071-50024-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Opioid system</title>
        <p>Opioid peptides have been used to treat pain for hundreds of years. However, investigations of the cardioprotective properties of opioids began recently, when Schultz et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> demonstrated, in 1995, that myocardial preconditioning, a phenomenon that can help reduce myocardial ischemic injury, includes opioid receptors among its mediators. These studies led to the discovery that morphine (an exogenous opioid agent), in addition to treating the pain associated with MI, may also aid in the reduction of the MI area. Since then, the opioid system and the drugs that act on it have gained importance owing to its effect on the cardiovascular system<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>. Endogenous opioid peptide levels increase during stressful situations, such as during ischemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>. Previous studies have demonstrated that the levels of beta-endorphins (an endogenous opioid agent) increase in patients with myocardial ischemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> and after coronary angioplasty<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>. Therefore, the increase in opioid peptide levels in infarcted ventricular tissue may be due to a compensatory mechanism that counteracts the high levels of catecholamines released during ischemia to minimize the infarcted area<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>.</p>
        <p>Notably, hibernation of animals, a period characterized by a marked decrease in metabolism, heart rate, and respiratory rate, is induced by a substance of opioid nature, the hibernation-inducing factor<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>. The use of DADLE, a widely used opioid agonist and the hibernation-inducing factor, has been demonstrated to be effective in extending organ survival and tissue preservation before organ transplantation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>.</p>
        <p>Exercise and other stress conditions can increase the levels of opioid agents<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>. Howlett et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> demonstrated that acute bouts of running exercise markedly increased beta-endorphin levels in young women and that this pattern was not changed 8 weeks after physical training. These authors reported that exercise was the first physiological stimulus capable of increasing the levels of another endogenous opioid agent, enkephalin. With regard to the impact of exercise in the expression of opioid receptors, a transient increase of these receptors in the heart immediately after an acute exercise session has been demonstrated<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Furthermore, during an incremental exercise test in humans, the blockade of opioid receptors by naloxone decreased test time, VO<sub>2max</sub>, and maximal heart rate observed in response to exercise<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>; therefore, healthy individuals, when subjected to maximum test and naloxone injection, ended the maximum stress test primarily because of the perception of fatigue rather than physiological limitation.</p>
        <p>Despite this analgesic effect of the opioid system, the role of this system in cardiovascular function in response to exercise cannot be excluded. Although the relationship of opioids with the cardioprotective effect of exercise has been little studied, it has been demonstrated that a 50% reduction in the infarcted area, associated with a single exercise session (25 min at 25 m/min), was completely abolished after the pharmacological blockade of opioid receptors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Furthermore, Michelsen et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> and Galv&#227;o et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> showed that exercise-induced cardioprotection is mediated by an opioid receptor-dependent mechanism.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>From experimental research to clinical practice</title>
        <p>Over the years, various therapeutic interventions have been tested to prevent reperfusion injury in patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>. Among them, remote myocardial ischemic conditioning is noteworthy for its broader application in clinical practice. This strategy may be reproduced in humans through the use of a sleeve cuff to induce small IR cycles in the arm, a procedure that would protect the heart from IR injury<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>. However, these results are still incipient mostly because of the difficulty of translating the cardioprotection obtained from animal studies into clinical practice. In addition, the infarction models adopted in animals do not adequately represent the typical cardiac patient with regard to age, comorbidities, drug therapy, and infarction pathophysiology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>.</p>
        <p>With regard to exercise-induced cardioprotection against IR injury and its mechanisms, the intervention is required before the ischemic event, which in case of myocardial infarction is impossible to predict, making clinical research even more difficult. This explains the fact that all the evidence retrieved on this subject was obtained from studies with animal models, primarily mice and dogs. However, to establish associations and clinical implications, Zdrenghea et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> showed that exercise-induced ST-segment depression was markedly attenuated in high-risk patients during consecutive exercise sessions. Similarly, Lambiase et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref> trained CAD patients prior to PCI and observed that ST-segment deflation, common in PCI, decreased in these patients. These results indicate the promising use of exercise in the promotion of clinical cardioprotection, making it a future research target.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Despite the considerable research on this subject, the mechanisms responsible for exercise-induced cardioprotection against IR injury have not been completely elucidated. In view of the serious clinical complications due to IR injury and considering that physical exercise is the only known sustained cardiac preconditioning strategy against this type of injury, it is important to better understand the pathways involved in this mechanism. In light of the studies included in this review, the main mechanisms include increase in the HSP production<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>, involvement of the NO pathway<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>, increase in the cardiac antioxidant capacity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
				<sup>-</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>, increase in KATP channel function<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
				<sup>-</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>, and activation of the opioid system<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
      <p>Although previous evidence indicates that exercise-induced cardioprotection is more directly associated with antioxidant capacity and the role of KATP channels, along with the opioid system, further research is necessary to obtain more consistent conclusions.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by CNPQ and FAPERJ.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by Juliana Pereira Borges, from Instituto Oswaldo Cruz.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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          </addr-line>
          <country>Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8722; Brasil</institution>
          <institution content-type="normalized">Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Juliana Pereira Borges,</bold> Departamento Oz&#243;rio de Almeida. Avenida Brasil 4365 &#8211; Manguinhos. CEP 21040-900. Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>julipborges@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Borges JP, Lessa MA. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Borges JP, Lessa MA. An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Borges JP, Lessa MA. Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento: Borges JP, Lessa MA. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Borges JP, Lessa MA. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Borges JP, Lessa MA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>O infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; a principal causa de mortalidade e de morbidade na popula&#231;&#227;o mundial. Por outro lado, pesquisas j&#225; demonstraram que o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico, al&#233;m de reduzir os fatores de risco cardiovascular, tamb&#233;m &#233; capaz de promover cardioprote&#231;&#227;o contra les&#245;es por isquemia e reperfus&#227;o, por meio de um efeito direto no mioc&#225;rdio. No entanto, o mecanismo espec&#237;fico envolvido no pr&#233;-condicionamento card&#237;aco induzido pelo exerc&#237;cio ainda &#233; alvo de discuss&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Realizar uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica acerca dos estudos que se debru&#231;aram sobre os mecanismos pelos quais o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico aer&#243;bio promove cardioprote&#231;&#227;o direta contra les&#245;es por isquemia e reperfus&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Foi realizada uma pesquisa nas seguintes bases de dados: MEDLINE, LILACS e SciELO. Os dados foram extra&#237;dos de forma padronizada, por dois investigadores independentes, respons&#225;veis pela avalia&#231;&#227;o da qualidade metodol&#243;gica dos manuscritos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>A busca inicial resultou em 78 estudos, dos quais, ap&#243;s revis&#227;o dos resumos, 30 foram exclu&#237;dos. Os 48 manuscritos restantes foram lidos na &#237;ntegra e, destes, 20 foram exclu&#237;dos, restando 28 estudos inclu&#237;dos nesta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>Com base nos estudos selecionados, os seguintes mecanismos est&#227;o potencialmente envolvidos na resposta cardioprotetora do exerc&#237;cio: aumento na produ&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas de choque t&#233;rmico; envolvimento da via do &#243;xido n&#237;trico; aumento na capacidade antioxidativa card&#237;aca; melhora na fun&#231;&#227;o dos canais de pot&#225;ssio dependentes de ATP; e ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema de opi&#243;ides. Apesar de todo o investimento j&#225; realizado, ainda &#233; necess&#225;rio mais investimento em trabalhos futuros, para obten&#231;&#227;o de conclus&#227;o mais consistente.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
        <kwd>Exerc&#237;cio/fisiologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Traumatismo por Reperfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica/etiologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Isquemia Miocardica</kwd>
        <kwd>Prote&#237;nas de Choque T&#233;rmico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Apesar dos in&#250;meros avan&#231;os terap&#234;uticos obtidos na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada, a doen&#231;a coronariana (DAC) ainda representa uma das principais causas de mortalidade na popula&#231;&#227;o mundial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. No Brasil, segundo o Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de, as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por cerca de 20% de todas as mortes em indiv&#237;duos acima de 30 anos, o que corresponde, em m&#233;dia, a 195 mil mortes por ano<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. No que se refere ao gasto p&#250;blico com a sa&#250;de, s&#243; em 2011, foi registrado cerca de R$250 milh&#245;es despendidos somente para o tratamento do infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
        <p>Em situa&#231;&#245;es de IAM, o objetivo terap&#234;utico principal &#233; restabelecer o fluxo sangu&#237;neo para a regi&#227;o isqu&#234;mica o mais rapidamente poss&#237;vel<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>, uma vez que a reversibilidade do processo e a extens&#227;o dos danos ao tecido relacionam-se diretamente com a dura&#231;&#227;o da isquemia. Entretanto, as altera&#231;&#245;es bioqu&#237;micas causadas pelo processo de reperfus&#227;o podem resultar em in&#250;meros preju&#237;zos, incluindo morte celular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Devido &#224; gravidade do quadro cl&#237;nico que o IAM representa, &#233; necess&#225;rio o investimento em medidas preventivas e/ou para tratamento de seus danos. Nesse sentido, evid&#234;ncias epidemiol&#243;gicas indicam forte correla&#231;&#227;o entre indiv&#237;duos ativos e aqueles que sobrevivem ao IAM<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Diversas pesquisas j&#225; demonstraram que o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico, al&#233;m de reduzir os fatores de risco cardiovascular, tamb&#233;m &#233; capaz de promover cardioprote&#231;&#227;o contra les&#245;es por Isquemia e Reperfus&#227;o (IR), por meio de um efeito direto no mioc&#225;rdio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
					<sup>-</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Interessantemente, j&#225; foi demonstrado que apenas uma &#250;nica sess&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio pr&#233;via &#224; les&#227;o por IR j&#225; era suficiente para promover incremento no d&#233;bito card&#237;aco<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> e melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til do mioc&#225;rdio durante a les&#227;o por IR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					<sup>-</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. Essas evid&#234;ncias experimentais d&#227;o suporte &#224; ideia de que o fen&#243;tipo card&#237;aco adquirido ap&#243;s o exerc&#237;cio ocorre devido a adapta&#231;&#245;es bioqu&#237;micas espec&#237;ficas do mioc&#225;rdio, que s&#227;o independentes de altera&#231;&#245;es musculares e no fluxo sangu&#237;neo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. No entanto, o mecanismo espec&#237;fico envolvido no pr&#233;-condicionamento card&#237;aco induzido pelo exerc&#237;cio ainda &#233; alvo de discuss&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. Diante disso, o objetivo deste trabalho foi revisar a fisiopatologia da les&#227;o por IR mioc&#225;rdica e, em seguida, abordar os achados obtidos quanto aos mecanismos pelos quais o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico aer&#243;bio promove cardioprote&#231;&#227;o direta contra les&#245;es por IR.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Busca bibliogr&#225;fica</title>
          <p>As bases de dados eletr&#244;nicas MEDLINE (acessado via PubMed), Literatura Latino-Americana e do Caribe de Informa&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de (LILACS) e   <italic>Scientific Eletronic Library Online</italic> (ScIELO) foram pesquisadas sem restri&#231;&#227;o de data. Adotaram-se como crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o dos estudos: escritos em ingl&#234;s, portugu&#234;s ou espanhol, e que utilizaram o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico aer&#243;bio como alvo prim&#225;rio da investiga&#231;&#227;o. Os dados foram extra&#237;dos de forma padronizada, por dois investigadores independentes, respons&#225;veis pela avalia&#231;&#227;o da qualidade metodol&#243;gica dos manuscritos. Foram exclu&#237;dos artigos em duplicidade, revis&#245;es, editoriais e aqueles avaliando a rela&#231;&#227;o do sexo e/ou idade com a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o. A busca na literatura foi realizada em setembro de 2014 e a estrat&#233;gia de busca da literatura compreendeu os seguintes termos: "<italic>cardioprotection" AND "ischemia reperfusion injury" OR "ischemia reperfusion" AND "exercise" OR "physical exercise"</italic> OR "exercise training" OR "<italic>exercise preconditioning</italic>".</p>
          <p>A sele&#231;&#227;o dos artigos foi realizada respeitando-se duas etapas. Na primeira, foi realizada leitura dos resumos e foram exclu&#237;dos aqueles que n&#227;o se enquadravam nos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o do estudo. Na segunda etapa, foi realizada a leitura dos estudos restantes na &#237;ntegra e, da mesma forma, foram exclu&#237;dos aqueles que n&#227;o se adequavam aos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>Nossa busca resultou em 78 estudos, dos quais 30 foram exclu&#237;dos pelo resumo: 23 por serem somente estudos de revis&#227;o, 5 por investigarem o efeito da idade e/ou sexo na cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio, um por ser editorial e um por estudar o efeito cardioprotetor do exerc&#237;cio de for&#231;a. Dos 48 artigos restantes a serem lidos na &#237;ntegra, 20 foram exclu&#237;dos: 12 por n&#227;o inclu&#237;rem o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico como alvo prim&#225;rio da investiga&#231;&#227;o e 8 por n&#227;o apresentarem disponibilidade do artigo completo. Dessa forma, foram inclu&#237;dos 28 estudos nesta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica.</p>
        <p>Para melhor apresenta&#231;&#227;o dos resultados, optou-se por classificar metodologicamente os artigos selecionados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Tabela 1</xref>, na qual os trabalhos foram agrupados de acordo com o principal mecanismo cardioprotetor estudado. Dessa forma, dos 28 estudos aqui selecionados, 11 investigaram a capacidade antioxidante mioc&#225;rdica; 7 focaram nas Prote&#237;nas de Choque T&#233;rmico (HSPs) card&#237;acas; 4 verificaram a influ&#234;ncia na via do &#211;xido N&#237;trico (NO); 3 observaram incremento dos Canais de Pot&#225;ssio Dependentes de ATP (canais K<sub>ATP</sub>); e 3 conclu&#237;ram haver envolvimento do sistema de opi&#243;ides na resposta cardioprotetora do exerc&#237;cio.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t02">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o metodol&#243;gica dos estudos selecionados</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="center">Autor/ano</th>
                <th align="center">Exercicio</th>
                <th align="center">Grupos</th>
                <th align="center">Principais desfechos</th>
                <th align="center">Conclus&#227;o</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Nicholson e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>/2013</td>
                <td align="center">Roda de corrida 4 semanas</td>
                <td align="center">Exe: exerc&#237;cio NO<sub>2</sub>: nitrito suplementado Exe + NO<sub>2</sub> Sed: sedent&#225;rio</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de infarto e troponina-1: Sed &gt; Exe = Exe + NO<sub>2</sub> &gt; NO<sub>2</sub> Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o: Sed &lt; Exe = Exe + NO<sub>2</sub> &lt; NO<sub>2</sub> Mioglobina e NFAT: Sed = NO<sub>2</sub> &gt; Exe = Exe + NO<sub>2</sub>
								</td>
                <td align="center">Exerc&#237;cio reduz n&#237;veis card&#237;acos de mioglobina por inibi&#231;&#227;o da via calcineurina/NFAT Modesta cardioprote&#231;&#227;o do exerc&#237;cio devido &#224; reduzida habilidade de diminuir nitrito a &#243;xido n&#237;trico</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Akita e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>/2007</td>
                <td align="center">7 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 60 70% VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub>
								</td>
                <td align="center">Exe: exerc&#237;cio Wild: controle Phenol: abla&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica Antioxidante suplementado eNOS <sup>(-/-)</sup>: knockout para eNOS 1400W: bloqueio da iNOS iNOS <sup>(-/-)</sup>: knockout para iNOS</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de infarto: Exe &lt; demais grupos Atividade da eNOS e iNOS: Exe &gt; demais grupos Estresse oxidativo: &gt; em Exe e eNOS (-/-)</td>
                <td align="center">Exerc&#237;cio estimula inerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica card&#237;aca, provocando ativa&#231;&#227;o da eNOS com consequente eleva&#231;&#227;o da iNOS, que atua como mediadora da cardioprote&#231;&#227;o tardia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Hajnal e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>/2005</td>
                <td align="center">1 sess&#227;o 21 minutos Restante n&#227;o informado</td>
                <td align="center">CT: controle L-NAME CT: bloqueio da eNOS AEST CT: bloqueio da iNOS Exe: exerc&#237;cio Exe + L-NAME Exe + AEST</td>
                <td align="center">Arritmias: menos frequentes em Exe somente &#193;rea de infarto: igual entre todos os grupos</td>
                <td align="center">&#211;xido n&#237;trico funciona como desencadeador e mediador da prote&#231;&#227;o tardia induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio contra IR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Babai e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>/2012</td>
                <td align="center">1 sess&#227;o 21 minutos</td>
                <td align="center">CT: controle sem exerc&#237;cio CT + Phe: fenilefrina CT + AG: bloqueio da iNOS Exe 24h: 24 horas ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio Exe 48h: 48 horas ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio Exe 24h + AG: bloqueio da iNOS</td>
                <td align="center">Sensibilidade barorreflexa: Exe 24h e 48h &gt; demais grupos Sobreviv&#234;ncia: Exe 24h: 70% e CT: 9%</td>
                <td align="center">Cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio &#233; mediada por &#243;xido n&#237;trico, uma vez que esse efeito foi abolido por aminoguanidina e que a atividade da iNOS estava aumentada 24 horas ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Farah e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>/2013</td>
                <td align="center">5 semanas 5 dias/semana 45 minutos/sess&#227;o 70% VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub> 25 m/minutos</td>
                <td align="center">CT: controle Exe: exerc&#237;cio Exe + L-NAME: bloqueio da eNOS Exe + L-NIO: bloqueio da eNOS de forma mais espec&#237;fica Exe + BH<sub>4</sub>: doador de NO</td>
                <td align="center">N&#237;vel de nitrito e GMPc: igual entre gruposFun&#231;&#227;o eNOS: Exe e BH<sub>4</sub> &gt; demais grupos&#193;rea de infarto: Exe &lt; demais grupos Estresse oxidativo: Exe &gt; demais grupos</td>
                <td align="center">Exerc&#237;cio resultou em maior capacidade antioxidante, que preveniu uma s&#237;ntese excessiva de &#243;xido n&#237;trico, limitando sua liga&#231;&#227;o a O<sub>2</sub>, e consequente forma&#231;&#227;o de peroxinitrito (altamente citot&#243;xico)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Frasier e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>/2013</td>
                <td align="center">10 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 15&#8217; a 15 m/minutos, 30&#8217; a 30 m/minuto e 15&#8217; a 15 m/minuto</td>
                <td align="center">Sed: sedent&#225;rio Exe: exerc&#237;cio BCNU + Exe: glutationa redutase inibida Vas2870 + Exe: NADPH oxidase inibida</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de Infarto e arritmias: Exe &lt; demais grupos Atividade antioxidante: Exe &gt; demais grupos</td>
                <td align="center">Sinaliza&#231;&#227;o adaptativa da cardioprote&#231;&#227;o por exerc&#237;cio foi desencadeada pelas EROS que levaram &#224; melhor atividade da glutationa redutase</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Lee e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>/2012</td>
                <td align="center">5 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 70% VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub>30 m/minutos</td>
                <td align="center">CP: sedent&#225;rio sem IR CIR: sedent&#225;rio com IR EP: exerc&#237;cio sem IR EIR: exerc&#237;cio com IR</td>
                <td align="center">Prote&#237;nas pr&#243;-apopt&#243;ticas e EROS: CIR &gt; demais grupos Par&#226;metros funcionais: CP = EP &gt; EIR &gt; CIR Fun&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria: EIR = CP = EP</td>
                <td align="center">Cardioprote&#231;&#227;o &#233; mediada, em parte, por adapta&#231;&#245;es ben&#233;ficas no fen&#243;tipo mitocondrial, tornando-as mais resistentes aos danos oxidativos da IR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Kavazis e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>/2008</td>
                <td align="center"> 5 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 30 m/minutos</td>
                <td align="center">Sed: sedent&#225;rio ExTr:: treinado</td>
                <td align="center">Enzimas antioxidantes e fun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial: ExTr &gt; Express&#227;o de prote&#237;nas pro-apopt&#243;ticas: Sed &gt;</td>
                <td align="center"> Exerc&#237;cio induz a adapta&#231;&#245;es mitocondriais, que contribuem para a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">French e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>/2008</td>
                <td align="center">3 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 30 m/minuto</td>
                <td align="center">C: sedent&#225;rio T: treinado T-AS: treinado com tratamento anti-MnSODT-M: treinado com tratamento sham anti-MnSOD</td>
                <td align="center">MnSOD: T e T-M &gt; T-AS = C Catalase e GPX: grupos iguais &#193;rea de infarto e apoptose: C &gt; T-AS &gt; T = T-M</td>
                <td align="center">Exerc&#237;cio incrementa a atividade de enzimas antioxidantes (SOD) que promovem cardioprote&#231;&#227;o por atenua&#231;&#227;o da necrose/apoptose</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Lennon e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>/2004</td>
                <td align="center">3 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 30 m/minuto</td>
                <td align="center">S-C: sedent&#225;rio controle E-C: treinado sem tratamento E-AS: treinado com tratamento anti-MnSODE-MM: treinado com tratamento sham anti-MnSOD</td>
                <td align="center">MnSOD: E-C = E-MM &gt; E-AS = S-C Atividade antioxidante: catalase &gt; nos grupos E Duplo produto: S-C &lt;</td>
                <td align="center">Preven&#231;&#227;o da eleva&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio de uma enzima antioxidante (MnSOD) n&#227;o aboliu a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Hamilton e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>/2003</td>
                <td align="center">5 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 30 m/minuto</td>
                <td align="center">Controle destreinado (1) Destreinado e dieta antioxidante (2) Treinado e dieta antioxidantes (3) Treinado e dieta antioxidante (4)</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de infarto: 1 &gt; 2 = 3 = 4 Atividade antioxidante: 1 = 3 &lt; 2 = 4 HSP72/73: 3 &gt; 1 = 2 = 4 Press&#227;o intraventricular: 4 &gt; 3 &gt;2 &gt; 1</td>
                <td align="center">Exerc&#237;cio e uso de antioxidantes podem independentemente um do outro promover cardioprote&#231;&#227;o, e a combina&#231;&#227;o dessas duas estrat&#233;gias n&#227;o interfere na resposta</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Hamilton e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>/2001</td>
                <td align="center">3 a 5 dias 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 70% VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub> 30 m/minuto</td>
                <td align="center">C: controle E-cold: exercitado a 4&#186;C E-warm: exercitado a 25&#186;C</td>
                <td align="center">Press&#227;o intraventricular e MnSOD: E-cold = E-warm &gt; C HSPs: E-warm &gt; E-cold = C GPx: E-cold &gt; E-warm = C</td>
                <td align="center">A prote&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o &#233; dependente do aumento de HSP mioc&#225;rdica, mas sim devido ao incremento na defesa antioxidante do mioc&#225;rdio</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Yamashita e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>/1999</td>
                <td align="center">1 sess&#227;o 25 a 30 minutos 27 a 30 m/minutos</td>
                <td align="center">C: controle Ex: exercitado (0,5h, 3h, 24h, 36h, 48h, 60h e 72h ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio)</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de infarto: C = 3h = 24h = 72h &gt; 0,5h = 36h = 48h = 60h Atividade da MnSOD: 0,5h = 48h &gt; demais grupos Express&#227;o da MnSOD: 48h &gt; demais grupos</td>
                <td align="center">A produ&#231;&#227;o de EROS, TNF-a e IL-ip, induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio, leva a ativa&#231;&#227;o de MnSOD, que desempenha importante papel na cardioprote&#231;&#227;o bif&#225;sica contra IR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Esposito e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>/2011</td>
                <td align="center">10 semanas 3 dias/semana 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 60 ou 80% VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub>
								</td>
                <td align="center">UNT: destreinado Low: treino a baixa intensidade High: treino em alta intensidade High-det: destreinado ap&#243;s alta intensidade</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de infarto: High &lt; Low = High-det &lt; UNT HSP70 e MnSOD: High &gt; Low &gt; High-det &gt; UNT</td>
                <td align="center">Benef&#237;cios cardioprotetores do treinamento s&#227;o proporcionais &#224; intensidade, e ocorrem via HSPs e defesa antioxidante</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Lennon e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>/2004</td>
                <td align="center">3 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 55 ou 75% VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub>
								</td>
                <td align="center">C: controle sedent&#225;rio Mod: treino a 55% do VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub> High: treino a 75% do VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub>
								</td>
                <td align="center">Fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca: High = Mod &gt; C MnSOD: High &gt; Mod = C HSP72: High &gt; Mod &gt; C</td>
                <td align="center">Intensidades moderada e alta promoveram prote&#231;&#227;o equivalente contra les&#245;es por IR</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Murlasits e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>/2007</td>
                <td align="center">5 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 70% VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub>
								</td>
                <td align="center">C: controle sedent&#225;rio Treinado</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de infarto: C &gt; Treinado HSP72: Treinado &gt; C Grp78, Grp94, Calreticulina, ATF3, CHOP, Caspase 12, Noxa, Puma: Treinado = C</td>
                <td align="center">O efeito cardioprotetor do exerc&#237;cio de curta dura&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o est&#225; associado a adapta&#231;&#245;es em prote&#237;nas de estresse, tais como HSPs</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Quindry e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>/2007</td>
                <td align="center">3 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 30 m/minuto</td>
                <td align="center">Sed: sedent&#225;rio W Ex: exercitado a 22&#186;C C Ex: exercitado a 8&#186;C</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de infarto e Tunel: Sed &gt; W Ex = C Ex HSP72: W Ex &gt; C Ex = Sed</td>
                <td align="center">Eleva&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio na HSP72 n&#227;o &#233; essencial para prote&#231;&#227;o contra infarto e apoptose</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Starnes e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>/2005</td>
                <td align="center">16 semanas 5 dias/semana 40 minutos/sess&#227;o 55-60% VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub>
								</td>
                <td align="center">Sed: sedent&#225;rio RUN: exercitado</td>
                <td align="center">Fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca: Sed = RUN HSP70: RUN &gt; Sed</td>
                <td align="center">Exerc&#237;cio a 55-60% do VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub> induz ao aumento de HSP70, mas est&#225; abaixo do limiar para induzir &#224; cardioprote&#231;&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Mor&#225;n e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>/2005</td>
                <td align="center">24 semanas 5 dias/semana45 minutos/sess&#227;o 25 m/minuto</td>
                <td align="center">Sed: sedent&#225;rio Tr: treinado</td>
                <td align="center">HSP72: Tr &gt; Sed Estresse oxidativo e adenosina: Tr = Sed MnSOD e GR: Tr &lt; Sed</td>
                <td align="center">A cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo treinamento ocorre via eleva&#231;&#227;o na HSP72 e n&#227;o ao incremento de antioxidantes ou adenosina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Lennon e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>/2004</td>
                <td align="center">3 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 70% VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub>
								</td>
                <td align="center">CT: controle 1, 3, 9 e 18 dias ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio</td>
                <td align="center">Catalase e HSP72: 1 dia = 3 dias &gt; demais grupos Fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca: 1 dia = 3 dias = 9 dias &gt; 18 dias = CT</td>
                <td align="center">A cardioprote&#231;&#227;o, abolida ap&#243;s 18 dias do t&#233;rmino exerc&#237;cio, n&#227;o est&#225; relacionada a HSP72 e catalase</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Harris e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>/2001</td>
                <td align="center">3, 6 e 9 semanas 5 dias/semana 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 23&#186;C ou 8&#186;C</td>
                <td align="center">Sed: sedent&#225;rio 3WK, 6WK e 9WK: exercitados por 3/6/9 semanas a 23 &#186;C 3WKC, 6WKC e 9WKC: exercitados por 3/6/9 semanas a 8 &#186;C</td>
                <td align="center">HSP70: 3WK = 6WK = 9WK &gt; CT = 3WKC = 6WKC = 9WKC Fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca: 9WK &gt; SED = 9WKC SOD: 9WK = 9WKC</td>
                <td align="center">A cardioprote&#231;&#227;o resultante do treinamento f&#237;sico parece ser devida ao aumento na HSP70</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Taylor e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>/1999</td>
                <td align="center">1 ou 3 dias, 100 minutos/dia com 20m/ minuto a 23&#186;C 1 dia, 100 minutos/dia, com 20m/minuto a 8&#186;C</td>
                <td align="center">CTRL: controle sedent&#225;rio HS: sedent&#225;rio aquecido a 42 &#186;C 1DR e 3DR: exercitados por 1/3 dias a 23 &#186;C1CR: exercitado por 1 dia a 8 &#186;C</td>
                <td align="center">Fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca: CTRL &lt; demais gruposHSP72: 1DR = 3DR = HS &gt; 1CR = CTRL</td>
                <td align="center">O exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico agudo pode produzir resposta cardioprotetora sem eleva&#231;&#227;o na HSP72</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Quindry e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>/2012</td>
                <td align="center">3 dias 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 70% VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub> 30 m/minuto</td>
                <td align="center">Sed: controle sedent&#225;rio Exe: exercitado Ex5HD: exercitado com bloqueio dos canais K<sub>ATP</sub> mitocondriais ExHMR: exercitado com bloqueio dos K<sub>ATP</sub> sarcolemais</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de infarto: Ex = Ex5HD &lt; ExHMR = Sed MnSOD: Sed &lt; demais grupos</td>
                <td align="center">Ressaltou maior import&#226;ncia dos canais K<sub>ATP</sub>sarcolemais em detrimento dos mitocondriais para preven&#231;&#227;o de morte tecidual ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Quindry e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>/2010</td>
                <td align="center">3 dias consecutivos 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 30 m/minuto</td>
                <td align="center">Sed: controle sedent&#225;rio Exe: exercitado Ex5HD: exercitado com bloqueio dos canais K<sub>ATP</sub> mitocondriais ExHMR1098: exercitado com bloqueio dos K<sub>ATP</sub> sarcolemais</td>
                <td align="center">Arritmias: Ex = ExHMR1098 &lt; Ex5HD = Sed MnSOD: Sed &lt; demais grupos</td>
                <td align="center">Canais K<sub>ATP</sub> mitocondriais promovem prote&#231;&#227;o antiarr&#237;tmica como parte da cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Brown e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>/2005</td>
                <td align="center">12 semanas Restante n&#227;o informado</td>
                <td align="center">Sed: sedent&#225;rio Tr: treinado 5HD: exercitado com bloqueio dos canais K<sub>ATP</sub> mitocondriais HMR1098: exercitado com bloqueio dos Katp sarcolemais</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de infarto: HMR1098 &gt; demais Conte&#250;do de c&#225;lcio: 5HD &gt; demais gruposPress&#227;o: 5HD &lt; demais grupos</td>
                <td align="center">Exerc&#237;cio aumentou a express&#227;o dos canais K<sub>ATP</sub>sarcolemais, que, quando eram bloqueados, anulavam os benef&#237;cios cardioprotetores do exerc&#237;cio</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Michelsen e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>/2012</td>
                <td align="center">Bicicleta 1 sess&#227;o 25 minutos 4x 2&#8217; 400W + 3&#8217; 250W</td>
                <td align="center">ExPC: pr&#233;-condicionamento por exerc&#237;cioExPC + N: pr&#233;-condicionamento por exerc&#237;cio + bloqueio dos opi&#243;ides rIPC: pre-condicionamento isqu&#234;mico remotor IPC + N: pre-condicionamento isqu&#234;mico remoto</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de infarto: rIPC &lt; rIPC + N /ExPC &lt; ExPC + N Press&#227;o:rIPC &gt; rIPC + N /ExPC &gt; ExPC + N</td>
                <td align="center">O exerc&#237;cio pr&#233;-condiciona remotamente o cora&#231;&#227;o por meio de efetor humoral dependente da ativa&#231;&#227;o de receptores opi&#243;ides</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Galv&#227;o e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>/2011</td>
                <td align="center">12 semanas 5 dias/semana 60 minutos/sess&#227;o 60% VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub>
								</td>
                <td align="center">C: controle ET: treinamento f&#237;sico M: morfina IR: isquemia reperfus&#227;o M + N: bloqueio dos opi&#243;ides ET + M ET + N</td>
                <td align="center">&#193;rea de infarto: C, M + N, e ET + N &gt; demais grupos Press&#227;o intraventricular e densidade capilar: igual entre os grupos</td>
                <td align="center">O efeito cr&#244;nico do exerc&#237;cio em reduzir a &#225;rea de infarto ocorre devido &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o dos receptores opi&#243;ides e n&#227;o devido ao aumento na perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Dickson e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>/2008</td>
                <td align="center">1 sess&#227;o 25 minutos 25 m/minuto</td>
                <td align="center">Exe: exerc&#237;cio Exe + N: exerc&#237;cio com bloqueio dos opi&#243;ides</td>
                <td align="center">Press&#227;o intraventricular: igual entre os grupos &#193;rea de infarto: Exe &lt; Exe + N</td>
                <td align="center">Cardioprote&#231;&#227;o &#233; mediada por um mecanismo dependente de receptor opi&#243;ides</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn>
              <p>NFAT: fator nuclear de c&#233;lulas T ativadas; VO<sub>2m&#225;x</sub>: consumo de oxig&#234;nio m&#225;ximo; eNOS: &#243;xido n&#237;trico-sintase endotelial; iNOS: &#243;xido n&#237;trico-sintase induzida; IR: isquemia e reperfus&#227;o; NO: &#243;xido n&#237;trico; GMPc: monofosfato c&#237;clico de guanosina; O2: oxig&#234;nio; NADPH: nicotinamida adenina dinucle&#243;tido fosfato; EROS: esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio; MnSOD: super&#243;xido dismutase com cofator mangan&#234;s; GPx: glutationa peroxidase; SOD: super&#243;xido dismutase; HSP: prote&#237;nas de choque t&#233;rmico; GPx: glutationa peroxidase; TNF-&#945;: fator de necrose tumoral alfa; IL: interleucina; Grp, ATF, CHOP: prote&#237;nas de estresse; GR: glutationa redutase; Katp: canais de pot&#225;ssio dependentes de ATP.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Vale a pena ressaltar que, ao utilizar os descritores j&#225; mencionados nos principais portais de busca cient&#237;fica, nenhum dos 78 estudos inicialmente encontrados era de pesquisa cl&#237;nica, ou seja, todos os estudos que inclu&#237;am interven&#231;&#227;o foram realizados em animais. Em todos os estudos, os desfechos foram analisados ap&#243;s les&#227;o por IR.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fisiopatologia da les&#227;o por isquemia e reperfus&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio</title>
          <p>Muito se t&#234;m estudado nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas no intuito de definir a patog&#234;nese da les&#227;o por IR. H&#225; grande complexidade na sucess&#227;o de eventos relacionados &#224; isquemia, caracterizada por uma s&#233;rie de altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas e bioqu&#237;micas abruptas no mioc&#225;rdio que levam ao dano card&#237;aco<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 1</xref>). Durante a isquemia, o suprimento de oxig&#234;nio destinado &#224; mitoc&#244;ndria cessa, interrompendo o ciclo de Krebs e fazendo com que quase nenhuma energia seja dispon&#237;vel a partir da fosforila&#231;&#227;o oxidativa. Portanto, no intuito de suprir a demanda energ&#233;tica do mioc&#225;rdio, o ATP celular &#233; gerado pela glic&#243;lise<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. No entanto, essa altera&#231;&#227;o do metabolismo celular &#233; acompanhada por um aumento nos n&#237;veis de lactato citos&#243;lico e redu&#231;&#227;o do pH intracelular. Isso ocorre de maneira que, ap&#243;s 30 minutos de isquemia, a concentra&#231;&#227;o i&#244;nica de hidrog&#234;nio no citosol aumenta de forma t&#227;o significativa que o pH celular pode chegar a 5,5 a 6,0<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">42</xref>. A fim de compensar o baixo pH, ocorre ac&#250;mulo intracelular de &#225;gua, causando incha&#231;o ou edema celular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. Em conjunto, essas altera&#231;&#245;es ativam um transportador de &#237;ons de membrana independente de ATP, chamado trocador de Na<sup>+</sup>/H<sup>+</sup>, cuja fun&#231;&#227;o &#233; regular o pH e o volume intracelular, promovendo simultaneamente efluxo de &#237;ons de Hidrog&#234;nio (H<sup>+</sup>) e influxo de S&#243;dio (Na+) na c&#233;lula. Em fun&#231;&#227;o do aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o de Na<sup>+</sup> no citosol, ocorre ativa&#231;&#227;o reversa do trocador de Na<sup>+</sup>/Ca<sup>2+</sup>, que passa a excluir Na<sup>+</sup> em troca da entrada de c&#225;lcio (Ca2+) na c&#233;lula<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>.</p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas e bioqu&#237;micas ocorridas no mioc&#225;rdio em resposta &#224; isquemia e &#224; reperfus&#227;o.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Adaptado de: Hausenloy e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>
						</attrib>
            <attrib>EROS: esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio; RS: ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico; MPTP: poro de transi&#231;&#227;o de permeabilidade mitocondrial (mitochondria permeability transition pore).</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-01-0071-50024-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          <p>Em paralelo, a redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de ATP interrompe a atividade de bombas ativas importantes na homeostase i&#244;nica, como Na<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup> ATPase e SERCA. A fun&#231;&#227;o da Na<sup>+</sup>/K<sup>+</sup> ATPase &#233; excluir o Na+ e permitir a entrada do K+, no intuito de manter o potencial el&#233;trico de repouso da c&#233;lula, enquanto a SERCA &#233; respons&#225;vel por &#8220;recapturar&#8221; o Ca<sup>2+</sup> liberado no citosol de volta para o ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico ap&#243;s a contra&#231;&#227;o muscular. Portanto, a inatividade dessas bombas resulta em sobrecarga adicional de Na<sup>+</sup> e Ca<sup>2+</sup>, o que inviabiliza a repolariza&#231;&#227;o celular e culmina em disfun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, n&#237;veis elevados de Ca<sup>2+</sup> no citosol ativam enzimas, como as fosfolipases, proteases (principalmente a calpa&#237;na), endonucleases e ATPases, que est&#227;o associadas a peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica, produ&#231;&#227;o de Esp&#233;cies Reativas de Oxig&#234;nio (EROs), disfun&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas contr&#225;teis, perda da fun&#231;&#227;o celular e, em &#250;ltima inst&#226;ncia, morte celular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
          <p>Durante a reperfus&#227;o, os danos da isquemia s&#227;o exacerbados, pois a restaura&#231;&#227;o do fluxo de oxig&#234;nio gera uma descarga de EROs na mitoc&#244;ndria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. A produ&#231;&#227;o de EROs e a sobrecarga de Ca<sup>2+</sup> s&#227;o os principais fatores contribuintes para os danos celulares induzidos pela IR, pois culminam na abertura do poro de transi&#231;&#227;o de permeabilidade mitocondrial (MPTP)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. A abertura desse poro implica em perda do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o da membrana da mitoc&#244;ndria, desacoplamento da fosforila&#231;&#227;o oxidativa, desencadeando em deple&#231;&#227;o de ATP e morte celular. Al&#233;m disso, sua abertura age tamb&#233;m como atrativo qu&#237;mico do neutr&#243;filo, que, por sua vez, causa disfun&#231;&#227;o do ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico (como o receptor de rianodina), associada a aumento e/ou manuten&#231;&#227;o da sobrecarga de c&#225;lcio e exacerba&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos delet&#233;rios causados pelas enzimas ativadas pelo c&#225;lcio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. A condi&#231;&#227;o &#225;cida (pH &lt; 7,0), caracter&#237;stica da isquemia, previne a abertura do MPTP e a hipercontratura do cardiomi&#243;cito, no entanto, durante a reperfus&#227;o, o <italic>wash out  </italic>do lactato e a restaura&#231;&#227;o do pH fisiol&#243;gico faz com haja abertura do MPTP. Apesar de necess&#225;ria para a revers&#227;o da isquemia, a restaura&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo, portanto, pode, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, ser mais delet&#233;ria que o pr&#243;prio processo de isquemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
          <p>Tendo em vista o grave problema cl&#237;nico exposto, o desenvolvimento de abordagens terap&#234;uticas que visam ao tratamento das les&#245;es por IR passou a ser preocupa&#231;&#227;o do setor biom&#233;dico. Nesse sentido, Murry e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> observaram que quatro pequenos per&#237;odos de 5 minutos de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica intercalados com 5 minutos de reperfus&#227;o eram capazes de proteger o mioc&#225;rdio contra longos per&#237;odos de isquemia subsequentes. A partir dessa observa&#231;&#227;o, que ficou conhecida como &#8220;pr&#233;-condicionamento do mioc&#225;rdio&#8221;, in&#250;meros estudos se debru&#231;aram sobre outras poss&#237;veis estrat&#233;gias de cardioprote&#231;&#227;o, como: (1) p&#243;s-condicionamento isqu&#234;mico do mioc&#225;rdio, no qual curtos per&#237;odos de isquemia, durante os minutos iniciais da reperfus&#227;o, ap&#243;s prolongada oclus&#227;o arterial, seriam capazes de reduzir a &#225;rea de infarto<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>; (2) pr&#233;-condicionamento pelo exerc&#237;cio, caracterizado por induzir um fen&#243;tipo card&#237;aco resistente a les&#245;es mioc&#225;rdicas ap&#243;s a realiza&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>; (3) pr&#233;-condicionamento farmacol&#243;gico, que preconiza a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de agentes f&#225;rmacos (tais como a adenosina e cicloesporina A)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>como moduladores das vias intracelulares para redu&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea de necrose devido &#224; les&#227;o por IR.</p>
          <p>O pr&#233;-condicionamento obtido pelo exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico, alvo central dessa revis&#227;o, &#233; a &#250;nica estrat&#233;gia que representa um tratamento que pode ser realizado de forma regular, com o intuito de proteger o cora&#231;&#227;o contra les&#245;es por IR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Mecanismos do pr&#233;-condicionamento do mioc&#225;rdio por exerc&#237;cio</title>
          <p>J&#225; em 1978, McElroy e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> demonstraram que a pr&#225;tica regular de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos &#233; capaz de conferir cardioprote&#231;&#227;o. Nesse estudo, ratos foram submetidos a treinamento f&#237;sico de nata&#231;&#227;o (1 hora/sess&#227;o, 5 dias/semana, 5 semanas) e, ap&#243;s oclus&#227;o irrevers&#237;vel da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria esquerda, foi verificada redu&#231;&#227;o de 30% na &#225;rea de infarto nos animais treinados em compara&#231;&#227;o aos sedent&#225;rios. Resultado similar foi encontrado por Brown e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> que, ap&#243;s 20 semanas de treinamento na esteira, encontraram 25% de redu&#231;&#227;o na &#225;rea de infarto dos ratos treinados em resposta a 1 hora de isquemia e a 2 horas de reperfus&#227;o. Em adi&#231;&#227;o, os autores tamb&#233;m relataram melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca com o treinamento f&#237;sico devido &#224; maior manuten&#231;&#227;o dos valores de press&#227;o intraventricular durante a IR.</p>
          <p>Parece ineg&#225;vel que o treinamento f&#237;sico aer&#243;bio proteja o cora&#231;&#227;o contra insultos de IR, tanto por atenua&#231;&#227;o da morte tecidual quanto por maior manuten&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. No entanto, o mecanismo pelo qual isso ocorre ainda &#233; motivo de debate<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. De acordo com os estudos levantados, os principais mecanismos propostos envolvem aumento na produ&#231;&#227;o de HSP<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>; envolvimento da via do NO<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>; aumento na capacidade antioxidativa card&#237;aca, associado &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o na produ&#231;&#227;o de EROs nas mitoc&#244;ndrias do mioc&#225;rdio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
						<sup>-</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>; melhora na fun&#231;&#227;o canais K<sub>ATP</sub> presentes no sarcolema e mitoc&#244;ndria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
						<sup>-</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>; e ativa&#231;&#227;o no sistema de opi&#243;ides<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prote&#237;nas de choque t&#233;rmico</title>
          <p>J&#225; foi demonstrado que, ao menos a n&#237;vel celular, diversas prote&#237;nas desempenham importante papel na manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase. Quando o organismo &#233; exposto a situa&#231;&#245;es de estresse (por exemplo, hip&#243;xia, hipertermia, isquemia e acidose), a s&#237;ntese dessas prote&#237;nas pode ser comprometida<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>. Em resposta, o organismo sintetiza prote&#237;nas, chamadas de &#8220;Prote&#237;nas de Choque T&#233;rmico&#8221; (do ingl&#234;s <italic>Heat Shock Protein</italic>), que auxiliam na manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
          <p>As HSPs s&#227;o classificadas em v&#225;rios grupos de acordo com seu peso molecular: 8 a 32 kDa; 40 a 60-kDa; 70 a 90 kDa; e 100 a 110 kDa<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>. Sabe-se que v&#225;rias fam&#237;lias, como a HSP10, a HSP60 e a HSP90, est&#227;o associadas a efeitos cardioprotetores; no entanto, a fam&#237;lia da HSP70 &#233; a que merece maior destaque<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Os membros mais proeminentes da fam&#237;lia das HSP70 s&#227;o a HSP73 e a HSP72. A HSP73 &#233; sintetizada em todas as c&#233;lulas de forma constitutiva e, ap&#243;s epis&#243;dio de estresse, sofre ligeiro aumento. De forma contr&#225;ria, a HSP72 s&#243; pode detectada ap&#243;s um evento estressante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>, principalmente como les&#245;es por IR.</p>
          <p>Como visto nos estudos revisados, atualmente o exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bio agudo &#233; considerado um est&#237;mulo capaz de elevar o n&#237;vel de HSP70 mioc&#225;rdicas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. No entanto, o mecanismo pelo qual isso ocorre ainda n&#227;o &#233; claro, mas os autores o associaram a estresse t&#233;rmico, hip&#243;xia, redu&#231;&#227;o no pH intracelular, estresse oxidativo, deple&#231;&#227;o de glicose e/ou aumento citos&#243;lico de c&#225;lcio. Estudos pr&#233;vios sugeriram que o aumento na express&#227;o de HSP72 induzido pelo exerc&#237;cio est&#225; associado &#224; prote&#231;&#227;o contra les&#245;es por IR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>, tornando esta uma forte hip&#243;tese para justificar o pr&#233;-condicionamento induzido pelo exerc&#237;cio. No entanto, no estudo de Taylor e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> e Quindry e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>, com o intuito de evitar o aumento da HSP72, os animais foram exercitados no frio e em temperatura ambiente. Ambos os autores verificaram que, independente do n&#237;vel de HSP72, os dois grupos apresentaram cardioprote&#231;&#227;o contra les&#227;o por IR. Apesar da eleva&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o da HSP72 ser capaz de promover resposta cardioprotetora, esse aumento, portanto, n&#227;o &#233; um pr&#233;-requisito para se obter cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Envolvimento da via do &#243;xido n&#237;trico</title>
          <p>Ap&#243;s isquemia, o cora&#231;&#227;o utiliza a NO-Sintase Endotelial (eNOS) prontamente para uma &#8220;descarga&#8221; imediata de NO, ao passo que ocorre aumento na NO-Sintase Induzida (iNOS) para convers&#227;o de um fen&#243;tipo celular mais defensivo por meio de um incremento na bioss&#237;ntese de NO<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Tendo em vista a capacidade que o exerc&#237;cio tem de aumentar a libera&#231;&#227;o de eNOS por meio de   <italic>shear stress</italic>, o NO pode desempenhar importante papel de cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio contra les&#245;es IR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>, funcionando como desencadeador e mediador da fase tardia do pr&#233;-condicionamento (ap&#243;s 24 horas)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Nesse sentido, Babai e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> mostraram que mesmo uma &#250;nica sess&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio conferiu cardioprote&#231;&#227;o contra IR mediada por NO. Evid&#234;ncia adicional dessa contribui&#231;&#227;o veio de Farah e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>, que, ao utilizarem um bloqueador de eNOS, perceberam que a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio foi abolida. Ainda nesse contexto, em estudo bastante interessante de Nicholson e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>, foi mostrado que o exerc&#237;cio &#233; capaz de elevar modestamente a capacidade do cora&#231;&#227;o de reduzir nitrito a NO, o que provavelmente contribuiu para a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Aumento da capacidade antioxidante</title>
          <p>O organismo possui um sistema antioxidante altamente complexo, composto principalmente de agentes n&#227;o enzim&#225;ticos, que trabalham sinergicamente para proteger as c&#233;lulas e os sistemas org&#226;nicos contra danos causados por estresse oxidativo. Destacam-se, entre eles, a Super&#243;xido Dismutase (SOD), a catalase e a glutationa peroxidase<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
          <p>Apesar de j&#225; ter sido largamente estudado, ainda n&#227;o h&#225; um consenso acerca do efeito do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico na atividade dos agentes antioxidantes do mioc&#225;rdio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. J&#225; foi demonstrado que a libera&#231;&#227;o transiente de EROs, que ocorre durante o exerc&#237;cio, desencadeia uma adapta&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica capaz de elevar a capacidade antioxidante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>. Nesse sentido, alguns autores mostraram que o exerc&#237;cio foi capaz de elevar os n&#237;veis de catalase<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> e glutationa peroxidase<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>, enquanto outros n&#227;o encontraram diferen&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>. Maior consenso existe quanto ao papel do exerc&#237;cio em promover aumento na atividade da SOD, mais especificamente da isoforma encontrada na mitoc&#244;ndria, a MnSOD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. No entanto, como a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio &#233; um processo multifatorial, que est&#225; associado a diferentes elementos, &#233; poss&#237;vel que n&#227;o esteja relacionada somente ao aumento na capacidade antioxidativa. No intuito de responder essa quest&#227;o, Yamashita e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> utilizaram uma t&#233;cnica com oligonucleot&#237;deos antissenso para silenciamento gen&#233;tico da MnSOD e demonstraram que a inibi&#231;&#227;o do aumento da express&#227;o da MnSOD card&#237;aca induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio resulta na perda da cardioprote&#231;&#227;o. Por&#233;m, de forma contr&#225;ria, Lennon e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> utilizaram a mesma t&#233;cnica de silenciamento e, por sua vez, mostraram que, mesmo ap&#243;s prevenir o aumento na MnSOD, a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o ainda era observada. Portanto, fica claro que investimento adicional &#233; necess&#225;rio para entender melhor a real participa&#231;&#227;o das enzimas antioxidantes na cardioprote&#231;&#227;o associada ao exerc&#237;cio.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Canais de pot&#225;ssio dependentes de ATP</title>
          <p>Os canais K<sub>ATP</sub>, altamente expressos no sarcolema e na mitoc&#244;ndria, t&#234;m sido associados a efeito cardioprotetor<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>. Acredita-se que esses canais atuem como sensores capazes de identificar o equil&#237;brio i&#244;nico e bioenerg&#233;tico celular, no intuito de preservarem a homeostase card&#237;aca durante situa&#231;&#245;es de estresse metab&#243;lico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>. Para desempenhar tal fun&#231;&#227;o, seu funcionamento &#233; baseado na quantidade de ATP dispon&#237;vel no citosol. Os canais K<sub>ATP</sub> ficam fechados durante presen&#231;a abundante de ATP citos&#243;lico, mas a diminui&#231;&#227;o de ATP, em decorr&#234;ncia de estresse metab&#243;lico (como exemplo a isquemia), estimula sua abertura<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>. Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos canais K<sub>ATP</sub> presentes no sarcolema, uma vez abertos, h&#225; efluxo de K<sup>+</sup> do cardiomi&#243;cito, que provoca a hiperpolariza&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula card&#237;aca e a redu&#231;&#227;o no n&#250;mero de potenciais de a&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>. Isso limita a entrada de Ca<sup>2+</sup> por meio dos canais tipo &#8211; L e evita o ac&#250;mulo intracelular de Ca<sup>2+</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Coletivamente, ocorre redu&#231;&#227;o na demanda metab&#243;lica card&#237;aca, fazendo com que a atividade na cadeia de transporte de el&#233;trons seja diminu&#237;da, evitando, assim, a produ&#231;&#227;o de EROs<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>.</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m do efeito ben&#233;fico cardioprotetor que os canais K<sub>ATP</sub> sarcolemais exercem no pr&#233;-condicionamento isqu&#234;mico e farmacol&#243;gico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>, j&#225; foi demonstrado papel tamb&#233;m no exerc&#237;cio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>. Brown e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> demonstraram que 12 semanas de treinamento f&#237;sico aumentaram a express&#227;o desses canais em cardiomi&#243;citos, e seu bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico impediu o efeito cardioprotetor do exerc&#237;cio contra a les&#227;o por IR. De forma similar, Quindry e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>tamb&#233;m ressaltaram import&#226;ncia dos canais K<sub>ATP</sub> sarcolemais para preven&#231;&#227;o de morte tecidual ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio.</p>
          <p>No entanto, mais obscuro &#233; o papel dos canais K<sub>ATP</sub> mitocondriais na cardioprote&#231;&#227;o. Quanto aos seus mecanismos cardioprotetores, evid&#234;ncias indicam que sua abertura causa alcaliniza&#231;&#227;o da matriz mitocondrial, redu&#231;&#227;o na produ&#231;&#227;o de EROs, redu&#231;&#227;o no ac&#250;mulo de Ca<sup>2+</sup>mitocondrial e melhora na produ&#231;&#227;o de energia na mitoc&#244;ndria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Apesar disso, Brown e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> utilizaram um inibidor dos canais K<sub>ATP</sub> mitocondriais e conclu&#237;ram que esses canais n&#227;o eram mediadores essenciais da cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo treinamento f&#237;sico contra les&#227;o por IR. Em contrapartida, Quindry e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>, ao inibirem os canais K<sub>ATP</sub> mitocondriais, verificaram que a prote&#231;&#227;o contra arritmias de ratos exercitados era anulada. Dessa forma, n&#227;o pode ser descartada a hip&#243;tese de que os canais K<sub>ATP</sub> mitocondriais, em adi&#231;&#227;o aos sarcolemais, tamb&#233;m sejam capazes de promover cardioprote&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico.</p>
          <p>Apesar de j&#225; estar bem consolidada a rela&#231;&#227;o da cardioprote&#231;&#227;o pelo exerc&#237;cio com a abertura dos canais K<sub>ATP</sub>, a cascata de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o intracelular que ocorre em resposta ao exerc&#237;cio e que resulta na abertura desses canais ainda n&#227;o foi esclarecida. De forma simplificada, acredita-se que os canais K<sub>ATP</sub>est&#227;o associados aos opi&#243;ides e &#224; Prote&#237;na Quinase C (PKC), como demonstrado na   <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 2</xref>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. O fato do sistema dos opi&#243;ides sofrer influ&#234;ncia com o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref> o torna um poss&#237;vel candidato como mediador da cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio.</p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Diagrama esquem&#225;tico de poss&#237;vel via de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o envolvida na cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelos canais KATP e opi&#243;ides.</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Adaptado de: Schultz e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>
						</attrib>
            <attrib>PKC: prote&#237;na quinase C; Gi/o: prote&#237;na G.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-105-01-0071-50024-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sistema de opi&#243;ides</title>
          <p>Os pept&#237;deos opi&#243;ides t&#234;m sido usados no tratamento da dor por centenas de anos. No entanto, estudos para a investiga&#231;&#227;o das propriedades cardioprotetoras dos opi&#243;ides s&#243; come&#231;aram mais recentemente, quando Schultz e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>, em 1995, mostraram que o pr&#233;-condicionamento do mioc&#225;rdio, fen&#244;meno j&#225; descrito aqui pela capacidade de reduzir a les&#227;o isqu&#234;mica do mioc&#225;rdio, tem como um dos seus mediadores os receptores opi&#243;ides. Estes estudos levaram &#224; descoberta de que a morfina (um agente opi&#243;ides ex&#243;geno), al&#233;m de tratar a dor associada ao IAM, tamb&#233;m pode auxiliar na redu&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea do IAM. Desde ent&#227;o, o sistema opi&#243;ides e as drogas que nele atuam est&#227;o ganhando destaque, devido a um efeito no sistema cardiovascular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>. J&#225; &#233; sabido que os n&#237;veis de pept&#237;deos opi&#243;ides end&#243;genos aumentam durante situa&#231;&#245;es de estresse, como, por exemplo, durante a isquemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>. De fato, estudos j&#225; demonstraram que a beta-endorfina (um agente opi&#243;ides end&#243;geno) estava aumentada em pacientes com isquemia mioc&#225;rdica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> e ap&#243;s angioplastia coronariana<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>. Dessa forma, foi especulado que o aumento nos n&#237;veis de pept&#237;deos opoides em tecidos ventriculares infartados pode ocorrer em fun&#231;&#227;o de um mecanismo compensat&#243;rio, para contrapor o alto n&#237;vel de catecolaminas liberadas durante a isquemia, no intuito de minimizar a &#225;rea de infarto<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>.</p>
          <p>Interessantemente, a hiberna&#231;&#227;o de animais, per&#237;odo conhecido por reduzir significativamente o metabolismo, a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e a frequ&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria, &#233; induzida por uma subst&#226;ncia de natureza opi&#243;ides, chamada &#8220;fator indutor de hiberna&#231;&#227;o&#8221;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>. J&#225; foi demonstrado que o uso de DADLE, um agonista de opi&#243;ides amplamente utilizado, bem como o fator indutor de hiberna&#231;&#227;o, s&#227;o igualmente eficazes em estender o tempo de sobreviv&#234;ncia de &#243;rg&#227;os e preserva&#231;&#227;o de tecidos antes de transplante de &#243;rg&#227;os<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>.</p>
          <p>Sabe-se, atualmente, que o exerc&#237;cio, assim como outras situa&#231;&#245;es de estresse, &#233; capaz de aumentar o n&#237;vel de agentes opi&#243;ides<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>. De fato, Howlett e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> demonstraram que sess&#245;es agudas de exerc&#237;cio de corrida induziram ao aumento significativo na libera&#231;&#227;o de beta-endorfina em jovens mulheres, e que esse padr&#227;o n&#227;o era alterado ap&#243;s 8 semanas de treinamento f&#237;sico. Nesse estudo, o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico foi tamb&#233;m mostrado como o primeiro est&#237;mulo fisiol&#243;gico capaz de elevar a libera&#231;&#227;o de outro agente opi&#243;ides end&#243;geno, a encefalina. No que se refere ao impacto do exerc&#237;cio na express&#227;o dos receptores opi&#243;ides, j&#225; foi demonstrado aumento transit&#243;rio imediatamente ap&#243;s uma sess&#227;o aguda de exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico no cora&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. J&#225; foi demonstrado que o bloqueio dos receptores opi&#243;ides por naloxona, durante teste incremental m&#225;ximo em humanos, reduziu o tempo de teste, o consumo m&#225;ximo de oxig&#234;nio e a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca m&#225;xima observada em resposta ao esfor&#231;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>. Portanto, os autores conclu&#237;ram que indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, quando submetidos a teste m&#225;ximo e inje&#231;&#227;o de naloxona, finalizavam o teste m&#225;ximo mais em fun&#231;&#227;o da percep&#231;&#227;o de cansa&#231;o que propriamente de limita&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica.</p>
          <p>Apesar desse efeito analg&#233;sico do sistema opi&#243;ides, o papel desse sistema no funcionamento cardiovascular, em resposta ao exerc&#237;cio, n&#227;o pode ser descartado. Apesar de a rela&#231;&#227;o dos opi&#243;ides com o efeito cardioprotetor do exerc&#237;cio ter sido pouco estudada, j&#225; foi demonstrado que a redu&#231;&#227;o de 50% na &#225;rea de infarto associada a uma sess&#227;o de exerc&#237;cio (25 minutos a 25 m/minuto) foi completamente abolida ap&#243;s o bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico dos receptores opi&#243;ides<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, Michelsen e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>, bem como o estudo de Galv&#227;o e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>, indicaram que a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio &#233; mediada por um mecanismo dependente de receptor opi&#243;ides.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Da pesquisa experimental &#224; pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica</title>
          <p>Ao longo dos anos, diversas interven&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas com o intuito de prevenir a les&#227;o por reperfus&#227;o em pacientes j&#225; foram testadas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>. Dentre elas, o condicionamento isqu&#234;mico remoto do mioc&#225;rdio merece destaque por sua maior aplica&#231;&#227;o na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. J&#225; foi demonstrado que essa estrat&#233;gia pode ser reproduzida em humanos por meio da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de uma bra&#231;adeira com manguito para induzir a pequenos ciclos de IR no bra&#231;o, que viriam a proteger o cora&#231;&#227;o contra les&#245;es por IR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>. No entanto, os resultados a esse respeito ainda s&#227;o muito incipientes &#8722; muito em raz&#227;o da dificuldade de se traduzir a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o obtida de estudos com experimenta&#231;&#227;o animal para a cl&#237;nica. Um dos principais aspectos fica por conta dos modelos de infarto adotados em animais, que n&#227;o representam adequadamente o t&#237;pico paciente cardiopata, no que se refere a idade, comorbidades, medica&#231;&#245;es e fisiopatologia do infarto<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>.</p>
          <p>Em se tratando de cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio contra les&#245;es por IR e seus mecanismos, dada a necessidade da interven&#231;&#227;o ser aplicada antes do evento isqu&#234;mico, o que, no caso do infarto mioc&#225;rdio, &#233; imposs&#237;vel prever, torna-se ainda mais dif&#237;cil sua aplica&#231;&#227;o na pesquisa cl&#237;nica. Isso justifica o fato de a totalidade das evid&#234;ncias pesquisadas sobre o tema terem sido advindas de estudos com modelos animais, principalmente ratos e c&#227;es. No entanto, a fim de estabelecer vincula&#231;&#245;es e implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, foi encontrado o estudo de Zdrenghea e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>, que mostraram que a depress&#227;o no segmento ST induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio foi significativamente atenuada em pacientes de alto risco durante sess&#245;es subsequentes de exerc&#237;cio. Na mesma linha, Lambiase e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref> exercitaram pacientes com DAC previamente &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea e observaram que a defla&#231;&#227;o no segmento ST comum do procedimento foi reduzida. Apesar de poucos, esses resultados j&#225; indicam uma perspectiva promissora que o exerc&#237;cio possui em promover cardioprote&#231;&#227;o na cl&#237;nica, tornando-o alvo de pesquisas futuras.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Apesar de todo o investimento realizado, ainda &#233; incipiente o conhecimento acerca dos mecanismos respons&#225;veis pela cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio contra les&#245;es por IR. Tendo em vista o grave problema cl&#237;nico que as les&#245;es por IR representam e que a pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos &#233; considerada a &#250;nica estrat&#233;gia de pr&#233;-condicionamento sustentada capaz de proteger o cora&#231;&#227;o contra esse tipo de les&#227;o, torna-se importante entender melhor as vias envolvidas nesse efeito. Tendo em vista os estudos levantados nesta revis&#227;o, as principais linhas est&#227;o associadas a aumento na produ&#231;&#227;o de HSPs<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>; envolvimento da via do NO<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>; aumento na capacidade antioxidativa card&#237;aca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>
					<sup>-</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>; melhora na fun&#231;&#227;o dos canais K<sub>ATP</sub>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>
					<sup>-</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>; e ativa&#231;&#227;o no sistema de opi&#243;ides<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
        <p>Apesar de evid&#234;ncias pr&#233;vias levarem a crer que a cardioprote&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio est&#225; mais diretamente associada &#224; capacidade antioxidativa e ao papel dos canais K<sub>ATP</sub> juntamente ao sistema de opi&#243;ides, ainda &#233; necess&#225;rio maior investimento em trabalhos futuros para obten&#231;&#227;o de conclus&#227;o mais consistente.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pelo CNPQ e FAPERJ.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de Juliana Pereira Borges pelo Instituto Oswaldo Cruz.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
