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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">KZPQQv7DqsPGZJFDYjSpXCn</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2015000500001</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00001</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20150061</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Special Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Biomarkers in Cardiology - Part 2: In Coronary Heart Disease, Valve
               Disease and Special Situations</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <collab>Expert Group on Biomarkers</collab>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Brazilian Society of Cardiology</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Clinical Cardiology/Heart Failure
               Departments</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Clinical Cardiology/Heart Failure Departments of
               Brazilian Society of Cardiology</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Marcelo W. Montera</bold>, Estrada do Jo&#225;,
               200/301 Bl.2 - S&#227;o Conrado. Postal Code 22610-142, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil.
               E-mail: <email>mmontera@uol.com.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Complete list of authors</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita, RJ; Marcelo Westerlund Montera, RJ; Jo&#227;o David de Souza
                  Neto, CE; Sabrina Bernardez-Pereira, SP; Aguinaldo F. Freitas Jr., GO; Andr&#233;
                  Volschan, RJ; Andreia Biolo, RS; Antonio Carlos Bacelar Nunes Filho, SP; Antonio
                  Carlos Palandri Chagas, SP; Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge, RJ; Dirceu Rodrigues
                  Almeida, SP; Edmundo Arteaga, SP; Edval Gomes dos Santos Junior, BA; Fabio
                  Fernandes, SP; F&#233;lix Jos&#233; Alvares Ramires, SP; Fernando Bacal, SP; Flavio
                  Tarasoutshi, SP; Gilson Soares Feitosa, BA; Humberto Villacorta Junior, RJ; Jo&#227;o
                  Fernando Monteiro Ferreira, SP; Jos&#233; Mauro Vieira Junior, RJ; Lidia Ana Zytynski
                  Moura, PR; Lucas Jos&#233; Tachoti Pires, SP; Luis Claudio Lemos Correia, BA; Luis
                  Eduardo Paim Rohde, RS; Marcelo Rivas, SP; Maria da Consola&#231;&#227;o V. Moreira, MG;
                  Sergio Emanuel Kaiser, RJ; Silvia Moreira Ayub Ferreira, SP; Silvia Marinho
                  Martins, PE; Tania Lema da Rocha Martinez, SP.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>104</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>337</fpage>
      <lpage>346</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>10</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2015</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
                  Commons Attribution NonCommercial License which permits unrestricted noncommercial
                  use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is
                  properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>Cardiovascular diseases are the main causes of mortality and morbidity in Brazil.
               Their primary and secondary preventions are a priority for the health system and
               require multiple approaches for increased effectiveness. Biomarkers are tools used to
               identify with greater accuracy high-risk individuals, establish a faster diagnosis,
               guide treatment, and determine prognosis. This review aims to highlight the
               importance of biomarkers in clinical cardiology practice and raise relevant points
               regarding their application and perspectives for the next few years. This document
               was divided into two parts. This second part addresses the application of biomarkers
               in coronary heart disease, valvular diseases, cardio-oncology, pulmonary embolism,
               and cardiorenal syndrome.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Coronary Artery Disease</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Valve Diseases, Pulmonary Embolism</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardio-Renal Syndrome</kwd>
        <kwd>Biological Markers, Pharmacological</kwd>
        <kwd>Evidence-Based Practice</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="80"/>
        <page-count count="10"/>
      </counts>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec>
      <title>Biomarkers in acute coronary atherosclerotic disease</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagnostic biomarkers</title>
        <p>Advances in the knowledge of the pathophysiology involved in myocardial ischemia,
               such as instability of the atherosclerotic plaque and mediators of inflammation and
               coagulation, have been associated with the emergence of new technologies that detect
               molecules involved at different stages of this process. As a consequence, several
               biomarkers have been incorporated into the laboratory evaluation of acute coronary
               syndromes (ACS). However, cost&#8209;effectiveness is a relevant aspect in a biomarker&#8217;s
               choice since a large proportion of these assays are expensive, and only some have
               accuracy comparable with traditional diagnostic methods.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Comparison between biomarkers - historical perspective</title>
        <p>Measurement of lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) and transaminases (AST), markers that
               increase in association with extensive myocardial necrosis, is no longer recommended
               due to their low specificity when compared with that of creatine kinase (CK)
               isoforms.</p>
        <p>Myoglobin, a component of the contractile apparatus of cardiac myocytes, has low
               molecular weight and rapid release kinetics following myonecrosis. However, the
               diagnostic application of myoglobin has been questioned due to its low specificity to
               diagnose ACS, even in patients admitted within a few hours of developing symptoms of
               angina.</p>
        <p>Until the 1990s, CK isoforms were the gold standard for laboratory diagnosis of acute
               myocardial infarction (AMI). Represented by the MB isoenzyme of CK and by the CK-MB
               mass fraction, they can be detected 4 to 6 hours after the occurrence of necrosis,
               with a peak release about 24 to 48 hours later. Earlier peaks (12 to 24 hours) are
               associated with myocardial reperfusion, and their short half-life may justify their
               use for identification of ischemia as a complication of percutaneous or surgical
               revascularization strategies in the absence of another biomarker with better
                  accuracy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Troponins</title>
        <p>The application of troponin (TPN) has been validated in several clinical trials, and
               this marker has been incorporated into the main guidelines and international
               consensuses as an essential element to diagnose AMI. The role of TPN in determining
               short-and long-term prognoses in ACS has also been confirmed<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. However, the presence of other high-risk criteria may be
               associated with worse clinical course, even with normal levels of TPN<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
        <p>The persistence of high levels of TPN for up to 14 days after an episode of AMI is
               helpful to establish a late diagnosis in patients presenting during a subacute phase.
               However, the detection of myocardial ischemia recurrence during this period may be
               impaired due to the slow decrease in TPN levels, requiring serial blood samples
               showing an increase of more than 20% from previously increased TPN levels, or
               measurement of CK isoforms<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>New strategies for evaluation of troponin</title>
        <p>Despite the definitive role of TPN in the diagnosis and prognosis of ACS, levels of
               this marker increase only ~6&#160;hours after symptoms of ischemia have emerged due to
               characteristics associated with the weight and size of this molecule (21 to 37 kDa).
               This limitation also applies to the CK isoforms, since they require serial blood
               sampling after hospital admission, which may delay the diagnosis in patients with
               atypical symptoms and nonspecific electrocardiogram<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.</p>
        <p>High-sensitivity TPN (hs-TPN) detects TPN levels in the range of ng/L (or pg/mL),
               which identifies the marker even in healthy individuals<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. This ability confers higher sensitivity compared with the
               conventional methodology, in addition to identifying minimal variations in short
               intervals of time, and allowing early recognition of myocardial injury.</p>
        <p>Levels of hs-TPN are often elevated in patients with chronic heart disease.
               Therefore, elevation of hs-TPN in a single sample should not be considered sufficient
               to diagnose AMI. In recent guidelines, the European Society of Cardiology recommended
               confirmation of AMI with a second measurement of hs-TPN 3 hours after the first
               measurement. The second measurement must show levels more than 20% above baseline
               values in patients with high hs-TPN (above the
                        99<underline><sup><underline>th</underline></sup></underline> percentile) on
               admission, and more than 50% in those with normal baseline hs-TPN values. In patients
               with a high probability of ACS in whom AMI is not confirmed with initial hs-TPN
               measurements, hs-TPN should be repeated after 6 hours<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
        <p>TPN has better sensitivity and specificity than myoglobin and CK isoforms, and should
               be used as the biomarker of choice in the evaluation of ACS, preferably in centers
               able to establish a cutoff value greater than the
                  99<sup><underline>th</underline></sup> percentile of the normal population and
               with a turnaround time (time elapsed from blood collection to delivery of the test
               result) &lt; 60 minutes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>New biomarkers</title>
        <p>Episodes of ischemia not leading to cardiomyocyte necrosis may occur without
               substantial TPN elevation, even when associated with instability in the
               atherosclerotic plaque with a risk of coronary occlusion. Biomarkers with the ability
               to identify this initial phase of ACS are promising. The soluble CD40 ligand is an
               active fragment of the endothelial CD40 receptor whose levels increase with platelet
               activation or endothelial inflammation and are associated with increased risk of
               death or heart failure (HF)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Choline, a
               by-product of phospholipase D, can signal instability in the atherosclerotic plaque
               in the presence of endothelial dysfunction. However, based on available evidence,
               these two biomarkers are unable to add prognostic or therapeutic value when compared
               with TPN.</p>
        <p>The heart-type fatty acid binding protein (h-FABP) is a cytoplasmic protein with low
               molecular weight (12 to 15&#160;kDa) which is responsible for the intracellular transport
               of insoluble fatty acids. During myocardial ischemia, h-FABP is released into the
               plasma due to increased permeability of the cardiomyocyte cell membrane. Levels of
               h-FABP may be detected in the blood 90 minutes after an ischemic event, with peak
               elevation after 6 hours, followed by a return to baseline levels after 24 to 30
               hours. Recent studies have confirmed these quick release kinetics in patients
               admitted with chest pain in whom h-FABP was compared with TPN and other biomarkers to
               diagnose ACS. When compared with myoglobin, concentrations of h-FABP are higher in
               the cardiac muscle. This renders greater diagnostic accuracy to h-FABP in patients
               admitted with symptoms lasting less than 6 hours. However, the reduced specificity of
               h-FABP and lack of comparative randomized trials with modern techniques to detect TPN
               require additional studies<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Biomarkers in chronic coronary atherosclerotic disease</title>
      <p>In order to be incorporated into clinical practice in modern days, a biomarker must
            provide additional prognostic information to existing variables. The most applied and
            complementary techniques for this purpose in prospective studies are the C statistic and
            the Net Reclassification Index (NRI). C statistic demonstrates a method's ability to
            identify who will or will not experience an outcome, whereas NRI estimates a marker's
            ability to reclassify individuals into higher&#8209;or lower-risk categories.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>High-sensitivity C-reactive protein</title>
        <p>In ST-segment elevation AMI, levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP)
               are inevitably high and reflect inflammatory activity secondary to myocardial
               necrosis. According to some studies, levels above 10 mg/L on the first day are
               associated with an increased risk of death in 30 or more days, regardless of
               ventricular function<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. In patients with ACS
               without infarction, increased levels of hs-CRP are more consistently associated with
               risk of death and render additional independent prognostic value<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. High levels of hs-CRP 24 hours after hospital admission for
               AMI have been independently associated with risk of ventricular remodeling in the
               following 6&#160;months, although this parameter had little discriminatory ability when
               assessed by C statistic<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. A study with a
               large number of patients admitted to the emergency unit with suspected ACS found no
               advantage in measuring hs-CRP, but demonstrated a five-fold increased risk of death
               in 2 years associated with elevated brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
        <p>A recently published systematic review found a positive association between elevated
               hs-CRP during ACS (with cutoff values between 10 and 15 mg/L) and long-term
               cardiovascular events, with a multivariate odds ratio of 2.5 (95% confidence
               interval: 1.8-3.4). The predictive power for short-term events was inconsistent,
               revealing heterogeneity in the results<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>.
               According to this same study, only 2 of the 19 prospective studies included in the
               analysis assessed the additional discriminatory ability for new events in
               multivariate models revealing opposite and, therefore, inconsistent results.</p>
        <p>Based on the currently available evidence, the conclusion is that assessment of
               hs-CRP levels in the acute phase of an ACS episode offers little help in identifying
               patients at risk of additional cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events. Between 4
               and 6 weeks after the acute insult, hs-CRP levels return to baseline values, and its
               prognostic value is similar to that described for primary prevention.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>T and I Troponins</title>
        <p>These are highly sensitive and specific markers of myocardial necrosis which have
               also an independent prognostic value after AMI, since their concentrations depend on
               the amount of infarcted muscle. There are several commercially available assays for
               TPN T (TnT), which leads to considerable numerical variability in the results. A
               study with a large number of patients conducted in the era of interventional
               cardiology showed that TnT levels &gt; 1.18 ng/mL the day after an episode of AMI
               were associated with a five-fold increased risk of death, three-fold increased risk
               of recurrent ischemic events, and seven-fold increased risk of HF in 30 days when
               compared with lower TnT levels. These risks remained increased until the second year
               after the index event and were independent of clinical, laboratory, and
               echocardiographic variables<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
        <p>Levels persistently high of TnT 28 days after an episode of AMI have also been
               independently associated with an increased risk of death, ischemic events, and HF in
               a large cohort in which 96% of the patients had previously undergone primary
               angioplasty. In this study, the cutoff value for high TnT was only 0.04 ng/mL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. High-sensitivity TnT had similar independent
               prognostic value for mortality in 1 and 4 years in the acute phase<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> and 7 weeks after the index event<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
        <p>In patients with ST-segment elevation AMI undergoing primary percutaneous
               intervention, TnT levels &#8805; 7 &#181;g/L demonstrated sensitivity of 73% and
               specificity of 84% to predict ventricular remodeling 6 months after the index
                  event<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. In another study, increased levels
               of TPN I (TnI) 6 weeks after an episode of ACS was an independent predictor of
               mortality at 5 years<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. These studies,
               conducted in the modern era, corroborate the results obtained prior to the
               propagation of percutaneous procedures, demonstrating the predictive value of
               increased TPN levels for events after an episode of ACS.</p>
        <p>Thus, based on the available evidence, determination of serum TPNs levels 24 hours
               after the index event, which is already incorporated into universally accepted
               management guidelines, provides relevant prognostic information. Bearing in mind the
               possibility of percutaneous intervention in the initial hours, the determination of
               TPNs 24 hours after the procedure is equally desirable and already established as a
               routine. A new measurement of TPNs days after the event is equally important, but the
               additional measures to adopt in patients at risk become then unclear, once the ideal
               therapeutic regimen is delivered according to established guidelines. Even in those
               individuals reclassified into a lower risk category after measurement of a biomarker
               longer after the index event, it is worth considering if this information would relax
               the measures already adopted in secondary prevention: The answer is still probably
               no.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Brain natriuretic peptide and the N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic
               peptide</title>
        <p>Both BNP and N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT&#8211;pro-BNP) are easily
               measurable in a laboratory and have good reproducibility. Most studies with AMI
               patients, even those without ventricular dysfunction or ST segment elevation,
               describe a positive association between elevated levels of these peptides with
               mortality and reinfarction within the first year after the acute episode<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> and ventricular remodeling 6&#160;months to 1 year
                  later<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.</p>
        <p>According to a recent study, BNP levels &gt; 300 pg/mL determined 96 hours after an
               episode of non&#8211;ST-elevation AMI adds discriminatory value to the Thrombolysis in
               Myocardial Infarction (TIMI) score to determine the risk of death in 1 year<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>. Measurement of NT&#8211;pro-BNP 6 weeks after an
               episode of ACS without ST-segment elevation is predictive of events and adds
               additional discriminatory value to known prognostic factors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>. In another prospective study, levels ~100 pg/mL were
               predictive of AMI in patients with ACS without ST elevation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>.</p>
        <p>Based on available information, it seems appropriate and cost-effective to estimate
               BNP or NT&#8211;pro-BNP close to hospital discharge in patients with ACS, aiming at a more
               refined risk assessment in combination with the clinical markers.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Biomarkers in valvular disease</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarkers of prognosis in mitral stenosis</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Brain natriuretic peptide and the N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic
                  peptide</title>
          <p>In patients with mitral stenosis (MS), there is an increase in BNP and NT&#8211;pro-BNP
                  that correlates with the largest diameter of the left atrium and right ventricle,
                  and with a higher pulmonary arterial systolic pressure (PASP)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. Studies show a direct association between BNP levels with
                  mitral transvalvular gradient during diastole and an inverse association with the
                  valvular area<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. When levels of BNP or
                  NT&#8211;pro-BNP were compared in patients with sinus rhythm or atrial fibrillation
                  (AF), the results were controversial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>.
                  Studies show a correlation between higher levels of NT&#8209;pro&#8209;BNP with greater
                  increases in PASP after exercise, and a direct association between decreases in
                  NT&#8209;pro&#8209;BNP levels after percutaneous mitral commissurotomy and the success rate of
                  the procedure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref> Data collected from patients who underwent
                  interventional procedures have demonstrated a decrease in BNP and NT&#8209;pro&#8209;BNP after
                  percutaneous mitral valvuloplasty in patients in sinus rhythm, but not in those
                  with AF.</p>
          <p>Levels of these markers vary widely among the studies, and cutoff values have not
                  been standardized to support changes in management based on their isolated
                  analysis. Thus, determination of BNP or NT-pro-BNP levels may be considered for
                  complementation in the assessment of MS patients who are unable to undergo stress
                  testing, when the test is indicated, or in those with limited echocardiographic
                  window.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>C-reactive protein</title>
          <p>Studies correlating CRP levels with mitral ring calcification have shown
                  controversial results<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>, whereas those
                  analyzing patients with MS have shown increased CRP in this population when
                  compared with controls<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>. In addition,
                  higher levels of CRP have been associated with a higher degree of valvular
                  stenosis, presence of AF, and atrial spontaneous contrast. Patients with higher
                  CRP levels had lower success rates after percutaneous balloon mitral
                     valvuloplasty<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Despite these
                  evidences, it is still unclear whether CRP measurement is useful for management
                  guidance in MS patients, and whether measures to reduce CRP levels have any impact
                  on the progression of the disease. Therefore, it is not possible at the moment to
                  recommend for or against the measurement of this marker in MS patients.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Prognostic biomarkers in mitral insufficiency</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Brain natriuretic peptide and the N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic
                  peptide</title>
          <p>Similarly to patients with MS, those with mitral insufficiency (MI) also show
                  increase in levels of BNP and NT&#8211;pro-BNP, and the correlation of increased levels
                  of these markers with MI severity varies among the studies. In contrast, their
                  correlation with the occurrence and intensity of HF symptoms is better
                  established. Some studies have shown a direct association of BNP or NT&#8211;pro-BNP
                  levels with PASP at rest or after stress echocardiography<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>. In general, studies examining these markers in patients
                  with AF found a correlation between their levels and the occurrence of this
                     arrhythmia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>.</p>
          <p>More recently, studies showed a correlation between BNP levels and clinical
                  outcomes. In a study including 269 asymptomatic patients with severe AMI and left
                  ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) &gt; 60%, BNP levels &gt; 105 pg/mL were
                  associated with a higher risk of progression to the composite outcome of HF,
                  ventricular dysfunction or death<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>. A study
                  including 135 asymptomatic patients with moderate to severe AMI in sinus rhythm
                  and without ventricular dysfunction demonstrated that those with BNP &lt; 40 pg/mL
                  had higher event-free survival in up to 2 years of follow-up<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
          <p>Therefore, despite the variation in cutoff values among studies, BNP measurement
                  may be considered complementary to clinical and echocardiographic evaluations in
                  patients with limited echocardiographic window, or when the cause of the symptoms
                  is questionable, with low levels of this marker suggesting in asymptomatic
                  patients a better outcome.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prognostic biomarkers in tricuspid valvulopathy</title>
          <p>Data on biomarkers in patients with tricuspid valvular disease are very scarce.
                  Yoon et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> observed that BNP had a
                  direct correlation with right ventricular volume, and an inverse correlation with
                  LVEF in patients with severe isolated tricuspid insufficiency who had undergone
                  surgical treatment. In addition, patients with BNP &lt; 200 pg/mL had lower
                  postoperative mortality at 1 year. However, it is worth mentioning that only five
                  deaths had occurred (one in the BNP&#160;&lt;&#160;200 pg/mL group and four in the BNP
                  &#8805; 200 pg/mL group). Therefore, it is not possible at the moment to
                  recommend the use of biomarkers in the evaluation of patients with isolated
                  tricuspid valvulopathy.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Prognostic biomarkers in aortic stenosis</title>
        <p>The ideal biomarker in aortic stenosis (AoS) should reflect the severity of the
               disease, increase with the progression of the disease, reveal subclinical myocardial
               dysfunction, and identify asymptomatic patients who will develop short- or
               medium-term symptoms. The ideal biomarker should also identify patients with severe
               high-risk AoS who would benefit from surgical treatment before the emergence of
               symptoms, improving their prognosis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Brain natriuretic peptide and the N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic
               peptide</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Disease severity and functional status</title>
          <p>Patients with AoS have increased serum levels of BNP and NT&#8211;pro-BNP, with a direct
                  correlation with pressure gradient, left ventricular mass index, and left
                  ventricular end-systolic pressure, and an inverse correlation with valvular
                     area<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>. This suggests that plasma levels
                  of natriuretic peptides are associated with disease severity and may be used to
                  monitor the progression of the disease.</p>
          <p>Serum levels of NT&#8211;pro-BNP show a direct association with AoS severity and
                  symptoms assessed by functional class. In addition, values of NT&#8211;pro-BNP &lt; 676
                  pg/mL and BNP&#160;&lt;&#160;130&#160;mg/dL have emerged as predictors of event-free survival in
                  a study with 130 patients with severe AoS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>.</p>
          <p>The consistency of the results in these studies demonstrates that natriuretic
                  peptides are associated with severity and symptoms of AoS. In addition, both
                  peptides are predictors of the appearance of symptoms in asymptomatic patients.
                  Therefore, BNPs are biomarkers that may be incorporated in the evaluation of
                  patients with AoS in association with clinical and echocardiographic assessment,
                  especially when it is unclear whether the patient is indeed asymptomatic.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prognosis</title>
          <p>The prognostic role of BNP has been evaluated in several studies. Lim et al.
                  analyzed 70 patients with AoS and demonstrated that BNP values &gt; 97 pg/mL were
                  associated with worse prognosis. In addition, BNP emerged as the only independent
                  predictor of mortality<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>.</p>
          <p>In a cohort of 124 patients with clinically-treated moderate to severe AoS,
                  survival was influenced by the presence of symptoms and levels of BNP. One-year
                  mortality was 6%, 34%, and 60% for each tertile increase in BNP. There were no
                  deaths in patients with BNP &lt; 100 pg/mL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
          <p>BNP had better accuracy than the logistic EuroSCORE to predict perioperative
                  mortality in 144 patients with severe AoS undergoing surgical treatment, with BNP
                  &gt; 312 pg/mL emerging as the only predictor of mortality<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>.</p>
          <p>A recent Brazilian study assessed the long-term (up to 6 years) prognostic value
                  of BNP and NT&#8211;pro-BNP in 64 patients with AoS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. A total of 51 patients underwent surgical treatment, whereas 13
                  were followed up clinically. Mortality rates were 13.7% in the surgical group and
                  62% in the clinical group (p &lt; 0.001). Patients with baseline BNP &gt; 135
                  pg/mL and NT&#8211;pro-BNP &gt; 1150 pg/mL had higher mortality.</p>
          <p>Low-flow and low-gradient AoS has been associated with worse prognosis and higher
                  surgical mortality. One-year survival in patients with BNP &#8805; 550 pg/mL have
                  been reported as 47 &#177; 9% compared with 97 &#177; 3% in those with BNP
                  &lt; 550 pg/mL (p &lt; 0.0001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>.</p>
          <p>Although these studies clearly demonstrate the potential of BNPs as prognostic
                  markers in patients with asymptomatic AoS, it is unclear whether surgery would
                  decrease the mortality in patients with high levels of BNP/NT&#8211;pro-BNP. However, in
                  patients with symptomatic AoS, natriuretic peptides may be incorporated into
                  clinical practice to improve perioperative risk stratification. When the results
                  of the studies are analyzed in combination, BNP levels of 130 pg/mL and NT&#8211;pro-BNP
                  levels of 640 pg/mL may be identified as the best cutoff values to stratify
                  patients with greater severity.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>CRP</title>
          <p>Some studies have reported high levels of CRP in patients with AoS of degenerative
                  etiology, suggesting that inflammation may have a role in the progression of the
                     disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. Imai et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> evaluated retrospectively 135 patients with
                  asymptomatic AoS. Levels of CRP were significantly higher in patients with severe
                  AoS when compared with those in patients with mild or moderate AoS. On
                  multivariate regression analysis, CRP emerged as an independent predictor of AoS
                     severity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>.</p>
          <p>Studies that evaluate the role of CRP in assessing the severity, progression, and
                  prognosis of AoS are scarce and controversial. Therefore, it is not possible at
                  this moment to recommend for or against the use of CRP in these patients.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>High-sensitive troponins</title>
        <p>New (fifth generation) cardiac TPN T assays are known as high-sensitive TPN (hs-TPN)
               assays. These assays identify low levels of circulating TPN and, therefore, have the
               potential to be used for prognostic stratification in patients with stable or
               subclinical cardiovascular disease.</p>
        <p>All 57 patients with AoS and myocardial hypertrophy who were included in a Norwegian
               study showed detectable TPN levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>. Levels
               of TPN correlated with the diameters of the left ventricle, aortic jet velocity,
               pressure gradient and left ventricular mass. The discriminatory capacity,
                  <italic>i.e.</italic>, the prognostic accuracy of hs-TPN, was similar to that of
               NT&#8211;pro-BNP. On multivariate regression, both hs-TPN and NT&#8211;pro-BNP were independent
               predictors of mortality.</p>
        <p>Hs-TPN appears to be a promising biomarker to evaluate the prognosis of patients with
               severe AoS. However, prospective studies with a larger number of patients should be
               conducted before this new biomarker is incorporated into clinical practice.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Prognostic biomarkers in aortic insufficiency</title>
        <p>Pressure overload in the myocardium and myocardial fiber distension trigger the
               release of natriuretic peptides. Serum levels of BNP and NT&#8211;pro-BNP are elevated in
               patients with aortic insufficiency (Aol) and are associated with disease
                  severity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>. Weber et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> have demonstrated that levels of NT&#8211;pro-BNP
               are directly associated with Aol severity and functional class.</p>
        <p>Another study has also shown that NT&#8211;pro-BNP and BNP are associated with symptoms and
               left ventricular function in Aol. Spina et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> evaluated prospectively 89 young patients with Aol of rheumatic
               etiology and demonstrated that BNP had the same ability to predict the occurrence of
               symptoms and requirement of valve replacement when compared with ventricular
               diameters evaluated by echocardiography during a follow-up of 8 years.</p>
        <p>Recently, a study showed a prognostic role for BNP in 294 patients with asymptomatic
               Aol without ventricular dysfunction. The cutoff value that best discriminated the
               patients who presented symptoms, ventricular dysfunction, or death was 130 mg/dL. In
               addition, BNP showed better prognostic ability than echocardiographic parameters,
               such as end-systolic diameter and effective regurgitant orifice<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>.</p>
        <p>Thus, despite the variation in cutoff values among the studies, measurement of
               BNP/NT&#8211;pro-BNP may be considered as a complementary method to the echocardiographic
               and clinical investigations, or to clarify the cause of the symptoms, with low levels
               in asymptomatic patients suggesting a better outcome.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Biomarkers in cardio-oncology</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarkers of response to therapy and cardiotoxicity</title>
        <p>Early diagnosis of cardiotoxicity has a close association with treatment response,
               which reflects a demand for more suitable markers. In this scenario, biomarkers have
               been proposed as an effective alternative, with greater sensitivity and
               specificity.</p>
        <p>The value of TPN in evaluating myocardial damage induced by anthracyclines was
               demonstrated more than a decade ago in animal studies<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>. This use has been confirmed then in several clinical trials.
               Measurement of TPN levels in early and late stages has been shown to detect
               myocardial damage, higher incidence of cardiac events, and subsequent decrease in
               LVEF, particularly in groups with levels persistently increased during
                  chemotherapy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>. More recently, increases in
               TPN levels have been shown to predict substantial increases in the risk of adverse
               cardiac events during use of trastuzumab, a monoclonal antibody<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>. Natriuretic peptides also have been shown in most studies to
               have good sensitivity to detect cardiotoxicity, although some of these studies
               involved small samples and had the assessment of diastolic function as objective<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>.</p>
        <p>New biomarkers have been considered and are currently under investigation. Cytochrome
               C has emerged as an alternative to evaluate mitochondrial damage, with great
               potential for early detection of cardiotoxicity secondary to chemotherapeutic agents.
               Genetic investigations may also allow a more customized oncological therapy in the
                  future<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarkers in pulmonary embolism</title>
        <p>Pulmonary embolism (PE) remains a challenge in contemporary medicine, despite the
               improvements in methods for its diagnosis. Due to a low specificity in clinical
               presentation, predictive rules, such as the Wells score, became necessary in PE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> to improve the accuracy of clinical diagnosis
               and a more rational use of diagnostic tests. Use of biomarkers in PE may be useful in
               the diagnosis and prognosis of the disease when management is uncertain.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>D-dimer</title>
        <p>During the acute phase, when patients are stratified based on the likelihood of PE,
               D-dimer measurement has been widely used to select individuals whose diagnosis can be
               excluded with an acceptable margin of error. Levels of D-dimer, a by-product of
               fibrin degradation, are often above normal during thrombus formation and are elevated
               in most patients with PE. However, since several other circumstances may also affect
               D-dimer values, the method is characterized as having high sensitivity, but low
               specificity.</p>
        <p>Studies have shown that results of D-dimer within the normal range exclude with a
               good safety margin the diagnosis of PE in patients with low or moderate clinical
               probability of the disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>. Gingsberg et
                  al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> demonstrated that D-dimer values &lt;
               500 ng/dL have broader application in excluding the diagnosis of PE due to its high
               negative predictive value. Several techniques for measurement of D-dimer have been
               described with different results. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a
               method with high sensitivity, whereas other techniques, particularly latex and whole
               blood agglutination methods, show worse results. Therefore, the identification of the
               technique adopted by the laboratory is fundamental.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Troponin</title>
        <p>The biomarker TPN, which has been well studied in ACSs, has been shown useful for
               risk stratification in patients with PE. The increase in TPN level is independent of
               the presence of obstructive lesions and occurs due to impaired coronary perfusion
               caused by myocardial lesion secondary to acute right ventricular overload. TPN is
               elevated in 30 to 50% of the cases of PE and is associated with a worse prognosis.
               Giannitsis et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> demonstrated that TPN is
               an independent predictor of 30-day mortality. TnT has been detected in 50% of the
               patients and correlated with greater number of in-hospital deaths and
                  complications<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>. Elevations in both TnT and
               TnI have been associated with worse prognosis. Despite the association with right
               ventricular dysfunction, TPN was not helpful in guiding the appropriate therapeutic
               management in hemodynamically stable patients.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Brain natriuretic peptide</title>
        <p>BNP has been used in the emergency room to investigate patients with suspected
                  HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>. The association between elevations in
               BNP and left ventricular dysfunction in patients with PE has been demonstrated by
               Kucher et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>, who showed that values &lt;
               50 pg/mL, which are below the cutoff value used for the left ventricle, would
               discriminate better those patients with a good prognosis. A meta-analysis published
               in 2011 showed that increases in levels of natriuretic peptides correlated with
               short-term mortality in patients with hemodynamically stable PE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>. Although the use of BNP in the differential diagnosis of PE
               in the emergency room showed clinical effectiveness, isolated measurement of BPN,
               similarly to TPN, was not helpful in guiding the therapeutic approach.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Other biomarkers</title>
        <p>In a study published in 2012, Gul et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>
               analyzed the association between h-FABP and the pulmonary artery obstruction index
               determined by chest computed angiotomography, showing this biomarker to be an
               independent predictor of mortality. Also in 2012, a German study with 126 patients
               with hemodynamically stable PE evaluated the value of h-FABP to predict death and
               complications in 30 days, concluding that this biomarker may be useful for risk
               stratification in normotensive patients.</p>
        <p>New biomarkers require more comprehensive studies to be incorporated into clinical
               practice.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarkers in cardiorenal syndrome</title>
        <p>Cardiorenal syndrome (CRS) is highly prevalent in patients with chronic HF and is
               associated with higher morbidity and mortality at 1 year. The syndrome is present in
               approximately 30 to 40% of the patients with acute HF and is a marker of worse
               prognosis, showing association with a higher rate of hospital readmission and
               mortality in 30 days and 6 months after hospital discharge<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>.</p>
        <p>Other situations may present with acute renal failure (ARF), such as cardiac surgery
               and contrast-induced nephropathy associated with cardiac catheterization. Early
               diagnosis of renal injury and monitoring of its progression with specific biomarkers
               are of extreme importance in the prevention and management of CRS. Despite the use of
               traditional biomarkers of renal function to diagnose ARF, they have low accuracy to
               diagnose early changes in renal function<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>.</p>
        <p>Serum levels of urea and creatinine (S-Cr) remain unchanged until renal function is
               decreased to about half, and may have an important influence from several extra-renal
               factors, such as muscle mass, hepatic metabolism, digestive bleeding, and nutritional
               status. Serum levels of new biomarkers of renal dysfunction increase earlier and are
               highly specific, emerging as sensitive markers of organic (more than functional)
               dysfunction in ARF. These biomarkers are associated with the glomerular function
               (cystatin C - Cys-C) and renal injury (neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin -
               NGAL; interleukin 18 - IL-18; and kidney injury molecule-1 - KIM-1)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cystatin C</title>
        <p>Cys-C is an endogenous cysteine proteinase inhibitor produced at constant rates by
               all nucleated cells. It is freely filtered by the glomerulus and reabsorbed in the
               proximal convoluted tubule. Serum levels of Cys-C are associated with early detection
               of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) reduction, are markers of ARF, and are not
               influenced by body weight, age, or gender<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>.</p>
        <p>In patients with AHF, Cys-C demonstrated inferior ability to determine the prognosis
               of type 1 CRS when compared with NGAL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>. In
               these patients, Cys-C was also shown to be an independent marker of in-hospital
               prognosis and death, and hospital readmission at 1 year<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>.</p>
        <p>In outpatients with chronic HF, Cys-C has emerged as an independent prognostic marker
               at 1 year of follow-up<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Kidney injury molecule-1</title>
        <p>KIM-1 is a kidney injury molecule detected in the urine in the presence of ischemic
               or nephrotoxic injury to the proximal tubule cells. In contrast-induced ARF, peak
               levels of KIM-1 occur 24 to 48 hours after catheterization, which are later than peak
               levels observed with other biomarkers (NGAL, IL-18 and Cys-C)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>.</p>
        <p>In patients with chronic HF and apparently normal kidney function, serum levels of
               KIM-1 correlated with the degree of HF and ventricular dysfunction, indicating
               possible renal tubular injury not detected by usual biomarkers. In outpatients, KIM-1
               levels showed weak correlation with GFR, but the prognostic value of KIM-1 levels on
               the development of CRS has not been yet evaluated<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Interleukin-18 (IL-18)</title>
        <p>IL-18 is a pro-inflammatory cytokine activated in several renal disorders, including
               ischemia, inflammatory injury (infectious or not), and malignant diseases. In
               contrast-induced nephropathy, IL-18 diagnosed ARF earlier than serum creatinine and
               emerged as an independent predictive marker of cardiovascular events<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>. No clinical studies have been conducted to
               evaluate the role of IL-18 in the diagnosis and prognosis of CRS in patients with
               acute or chronic HF.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL)</title>
        <p>NGAL, a protein associated with neutrophil granules, is secreted by activated immune
               cells, hepatocytes, colon, lung, myocardium, and renal tubules. It is activated and
               released after ischemic renal injury, renal and systemic infectious aggression, and
               during inflammation and myocardial ischemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>.
               Serum NGAL is filtered by the glomerulus and reabsorbed in proximal and (mainly)
               distal tubules along with renal NGAL.</p>
        <p>NGAL may be measured in the plasma and urine. Urinary NGAL has an earlier peak and
               greater accuracy to detect renal dysfunction, with 100% of sensitivity and 98% of
               specificity, and is an early biomarker in the diagnosis of ARF, increasing 24 to 48
               hours before S-Cr<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>.</p>
        <p>Serum NGAL &gt; 140 ng/mL on hospital admission or on the third day after admission
               has been associated with a 7.4-fold increase in CRS risk, with 86% sensitivity and
               54% specificity. NGAL values &lt; 140 ng/mL on admission had a negative predictive
               value of 86% for development of CRS during admission<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>. Similar results have been observed in patients in the emergency room,
               in whom serum NGAL&#160;&gt;&#160;170&#160;ng/mL predicted the development of type 1 CRS with 100%
               sensitivity and 86.7% specificity.</p>
        <p>Serum levels of NGAL determined on hospital discharge in patients with AHF were shown
               superior to BNP as a prognostic marker for mortality and hospital readmission within
               30 days from discharge<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>.</p>
        <p>Among the new biomarkers for CRS detection, NGAL has been the most extensively and
               carefully studied, with focus on its ability to detect renal dysfunction and on the
               prognostic value in patients with acute and chronic HF. However, several points need
               to be clarified for a consistent use of NGAL in early diagnosis of CRS in patients
               with HF in clinical practice: (1) definition of the cutoff values of serum and
               urinary NGAL for the diagnosis of CRS. These values and their "zone of variation" are
               not well established, since the levels of NGAL are influenced by several clinical
               variables other than ARF (age, gender, obesity, previous kidney dysfunction, and type
               of nephrological injury); (2) assessment of the importance of the peak value and the
               pattern of the curve variation in NGAL levels on the prognostic definition of the
               degree&#160;of&#160;ARF.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by ABBOT Diagn&#243;sticos do Brasil.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ref-list>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Biomarcadores em Cardiologia - Parte 2: Na Doen&#231;a Coron&#225;ria, Doen&#231;a
               Valvar e Situa&#231;&#245;es Especiais</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <collab>Grupo de Especialistas em Biomarcadores</collab>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica
               (DCC)</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica (DCC);
               Departamento de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (DEIC)</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Marcelo W. Montera</bold>, Estrada do Jo&#225;,
               200/301 Bl.2 - S&#227;o Conrado. CEP 22610-142, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil. E-mail:
                  <email>mmontera@uol.com.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Lista completa de autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita, RJ; Marcelo Westerlund Montera, RJ; Jo&#227;o David de Souza
                  Neto, CE; Sabrina Bernardez-Pereira, SP; Aguinaldo F. Freitas Jr., GO; Andr&#233;
                  Volschan, RJ; Andreia Biolo, RS; Antonio Carlos Bacelar Nunes Filho, SP; Antonio
                  Carlos Palandri Chagas, SP; Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge, RJ; Dirceu Rodrigues
                  Almeida, SP; Edmundo Arteaga, SP; Edval Gomes dos Santos Junior, BA; Fabio
                  Fernandes, SP; F&#233;lix Jos&#233; Alvares Ramires, SP; Fernando Bacal, SP; Flavio
                  Tarasoutshi, SP; Gilson Soares Feitosa, BA; Humberto Villacorta Junior, RJ; Jo&#227;o
                  Fernando Monteiro Ferreira, SP; Jos&#233; Mauro Vieira Junior, RJ; Lidia Ana Zytynski
                  Moura, PR; Lucas Jos&#233; Tachoti Pires, SP; Luis Claudio Lemos Correia, BA; Luis
                  Eduardo Paim Rohde, RS; Marcelo Rivas, SP; Maria da Consola&#231;&#227;o V. Moreira, MG;</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <p>Doen&#231;as cardiovasculares s&#227;o as principais causas de mortalidade e morbidade no
               Brasil. As preven&#231;&#245;es prim&#225;ria e secund&#225;ria dessas doen&#231;as s&#227;o priorit&#225;rias para o
               sistema de sa&#250;de e requerem m&#250;ltiplas abordagens para aumentar sua efic&#225;cia. Os
               biomarcadores s&#227;o ferramentas utilizadas para identificar com mais precis&#227;o
               indiv&#237;duos de alto risco, diagnosticar com mais rapidez, assim como auxiliar no
               tratamento e na determina&#231;&#227;o do progn&#243;stico. Esta revis&#227;o teve por objetivo ressaltar
               a import&#226;ncia dos biomarcadores na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica da cardiologia, assim como
               levantar os pontos relevantes de sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o e o que h&#225; de promissor para os
               pr&#243;ximos anos. Nesse sentido, este documento foi dividido em duas partes. Esta
               segunda parte aborda a utiliza&#231;&#227;o dos biomarcadores na doen&#231;a coronariana, nas
               doen&#231;as valvares, na cardio-oncologia, na embolia pulmonar e na s&#237;ndrome
               cardiorrenal.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a da Art&#233;ria Coronariana</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a das Valvas Card&#237;acas</kwd>
        <kwd>Embolia Pulmonar</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome Cardiorrenal</kwd>
        <kwd>Marcadores Biol&#243;gicos</kwd>
        <kwd>Pr&#225;tica Cl&#237;nica Baseada em Evid&#234;ncias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarcadores na doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica coronariana aguda</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarcadores de diagn&#243;stico</title>
          <p>A evolu&#231;&#227;o do conhecimento sobre fisiopatologia da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, envolvendo
                  instabilidade da placa de ateroma, mediadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o e coagula&#231;&#227;o, entre
                  outros aspectos, esteve associada ao advento de novas tecnologias, capazes de
                  detectar mol&#233;culas envolvidas em diferentes etapas desse processo.
                  Consequentemente, um elevado n&#250;mero de biomarcadores passou a compor o arsenal
                  para a avalia&#231;&#227;o laboratorial das s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA). Entretanto, um
                  dos aspectos relevantes na escolha do biomarcador &#233; a custo-efetividade, uma vez
                  que grande parte desses ensaios possui elevado custo e apenas alguns apresentam
                  acur&#225;cia compar&#225;vel a de m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos tradicionais.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Compara&#231;&#227;o entre os biomarcadores - perspectiva hist&#243;rica</title>
          <p>A dosagem de Desidrogenase L&#225;tica (DHL) e Transaminases (TGO), subst&#226;ncias que se
                  elevam em condi&#231;&#245;es de extensa necrose mioc&#225;rdica, n&#227;o est&#225; recomendada nos dias
                  de hoje, devido &#224; sua baixa especificidade em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s isoformas da
                  Creatinofosfoquinase (CK).</p>
          <p>A mioglobina &#233; um componente do aparato contr&#225;til do cardiomi&#243;cito, que apresenta
                  baixo peso molecular e r&#225;pida cin&#233;tica de libera&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s mionecrose. No entanto,
                  sua utilidade diagn&#243;stica vem sendo questionada, em virtude da baixa
                  especificidade para o diagn&#243;stico da SCA, mesmo em pacientes admitidos ainda nas
                  primeiras horas dos sintomas anginosos.</p>
          <p>As isoformas da CK constitu&#237;ram o padr&#227;o-ouro para diagn&#243;stico laboratorial do
                  Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) at&#233; a d&#233;cada de 1990. Representadas pela
                  Isoenzima MB da CK (CKMB) e pela CKMB fra&#231;&#227;o massa, podem ser detectadas ap&#243;s 4 a
                  6 horas da ocorr&#234;ncia de necrose e apresentam pico de libera&#231;&#227;o em cerca de 24 a
                  48 horas. Picos precoces (12 a 24 horas) est&#227;o associados &#224; reperfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica,
                  e sua curta meia-vida pode justificar o uso desse biomarcador para reconhecimento
                  de isquemia como complica&#231;&#227;o das estrat&#233;gias de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea ou
                  cir&#250;rgica, na aus&#234;ncia de outro biomarcador com melhor acur&#225;cia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Troponinas</title>
          <p>A Troponina (TPN) teve sua aplica&#231;&#227;o validada em diversos ensaios cl&#237;nicos, sendo
                  incorporada &#224;s principais diretrizes e a consensos internacionais como elemento
                  imprescind&#237;vel para o diagn&#243;stico de IAM. Seu papel na determina&#231;&#227;o do progn&#243;stico
                  a curto e longo prazo nas SCA tamb&#233;m foi confirmado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>, entretanto a presen&#231;a de outros crit&#233;rios de alto risco pode estar
                  associada a pior evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, mesmo quando h&#225; n&#237;veis normais desse
                     biomarcador<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
          <p>A persist&#234;ncia da eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de TPN por at&#233; 14 dias ap&#243;s a ocorr&#234;ncia de
                  IAM &#233; uma caracter&#237;stica que favorece o diagn&#243;stico tardio de pacientes que se
                  apresentem na fase subaguda. No entanto, a recorr&#234;ncia de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica,
                  nesse per&#237;odo, pode ter sua detec&#231;&#227;o prejudicada pela lenta queda dos n&#237;veis de
                  TPN, sendo necess&#225;ria a obten&#231;&#227;o de amostras seriadas, demonstrando eleva&#231;&#227;o &gt;
                  20% em rela&#231;&#227;o a n&#237;veis previamente elevados de TPN ou ao emprego das isoformas da
                  CK para diferenciar essa condi&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Novas estrat&#233;gias para avalia&#231;&#227;o da troponina</title>
          <p>Apesar do papel definitivo desempenhado pela TPN na avalia&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico e
                  progn&#243;stico das SCA, caracter&#237;sticas associadas ao peso e ao tamanho dessa
                  mol&#233;cula (21 a 37&#160;kDa) fazem com que sua eleva&#231;&#227;o ocorra apenas cerca de 6 horas
                  ap&#243;s in&#237;cio dos sintomas isqu&#234;micos. Essa limita&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m ocorre nas isoformas da
                  CK e faz com que coletas seriadas do sangue devam ser realizadas ap&#243;s a admiss&#227;o
                  hospitalar, possibilitando retardo no diagn&#243;stico em pacientes com sintomas
                  at&#237;picos e eletrocardiograma inespec&#237;fico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.</p>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da TPN Ultrassens&#237;vel (TPNus) permite a detec&#231;&#227;o de TPN na faixa de
                  ng/L (ou pg/mL), ou seja, &#233; capaz de identificar sua presen&#231;a mesmo em indiv&#237;duos
                     sadios<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. Essa condi&#231;&#227;o confere
                  sensibilidade superior a da metodologia convencional, al&#233;m de capacidade de
                  identificar m&#237;nimas varia&#231;&#245;es em curtos intervalos de tempo, al&#233;m de permitir
                  reconhecimento precoce da inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
          <p>N&#237;veis detect&#225;veis de TPNus frequentemente se encontram elevados nos portadores de
                  cardiopatia cr&#244;nica. Dessa forma, a eleva&#231;&#227;o de TPNus em uma &#250;nica amostra n&#227;o
                  deve ser suficiente para confirmar o diagn&#243;stico de IAM. Recente documento da
                     <italic>European Society of Cardiology </italic>recomenda uma segunda dosagem
                  de TPNus ap&#243;s 3 horas, para confirma&#231;&#227;o do IAM. Eleva&#231;&#227;o &gt; 20% em rela&#231;&#227;o aos
                  n&#237;veis basais nos pacientes com TPNus elevada na admiss&#227;o (acima do 99&#176; percentil)
                  e &gt; 50% para aqueles com n&#237;veis basais normais de TPNus, confirma IAM<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
          <p>A TPN possui sensibilidade e especificidade superiores &#224;s da mioglobina e das
                  isoformas da CK, devendo ser utilizada como biomarcador de escolha na avalia&#231;&#227;o
                  das SCA, preferencialmente em centros capazes de estabelecer um valor de corte
                  superior ao 99<underline>&#186;</underline> percentil da popula&#231;&#227;o normal e com um
                     <italic>turn around time </italic>(tempo decorrido desde a coleta at&#233; a
                  libera&#231;&#227;o do resultado do teste) &lt; 60 minutos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Novos biomarcadores</title>
          <p>Epis&#243;dios de isquemia que n&#227;o acarretam necrose do cardiomi&#243;cito podem ocorrer sem
                  eleva&#231;&#227;o significativa da TPN, mesmo quando associados &#224; instabilidade da placa de
                  ateroma, com risco de oclus&#227;o coronariana. Nesse sentido, biomarcadores capazes de
                  identificar essa fase inicial das SCA t&#234;m atua&#231;&#227;o promissora. O CD40 ligante
                  sol&#250;vel &#233; um fragmento ativo oriundo do receptor CD40 endotelial, elevado em
                  condi&#231;&#245;es de ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria ou inflama&#231;&#227;o do endot&#233;lio, e associado a maior
                  ocorr&#234;ncia de morte ou Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (IC)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. A colina &#233; um produto da fosfolipase D que, em condi&#231;&#245;es de
                  disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, pode sinalizar instabilidade da placa de ateroma. No
                  entanto, as informa&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis n&#227;o demonstram valor progn&#243;stico adicional e
                  nem impacto terap&#234;utico desses dois biomarcadores quando comparados a TPN.</p>
          <p>O <italic>Heart-Type Fatty Acid Binding Protein </italic>(hFABP) &#233; uma prote&#237;na
                  citoplasm&#225;tica de baixo peso molecular (12 a 15 kDa), que realiza o transporte
                  intracelular dos &#225;cidos graxos insol&#250;veis. A libera&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica do hFABP em
                  condi&#231;&#245;es de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica ocorre por aumento da permeabilidade da membrana
                  celular do cardiomi&#243;cito, e sua presen&#231;a no sangue pode ser detectada 90 minutos
                  ap&#243;s um evento isqu&#234;mico. O pico de eleva&#231;&#227;o ocorre em 6 horas, com retorno aos
                  n&#237;veis basais ap&#243;s 24 a 30 horas. Essa cin&#233;tica de libera&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida vem sendo
                  confirmada por recentes estudos realizados em pacientes admitidos com dor
                  tor&#225;cica, que compararam o hFABP com TPN e outros biomarcadores para o diagn&#243;stico
                  de SCA. O hFABP ocorre em maiores concentra&#231;&#245;es no tecido muscular card&#237;aco do que
                  a mioglobina. Esse fato pode conferir maior acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica ao hFABP nos
                  pacientes admitidos com sintomas iniciados h&#225; menos de 6 horas, por&#233;m sua reduzida
                  especificidade e a aus&#234;ncia de ensaios randomizados comparativos com t&#233;cnicas mais
                  modernas de detec&#231;&#227;o da TPN s&#227;o argumentos que justificam a necessidade de estudos
                     adicionais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarcadores na doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica coronariana cr&#244;nica</title>
        <p>modernamente, a incorpora&#231;&#227;o de um biomarcador &#224; pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica deve obedecer &#224;
               demonstra&#231;&#227;o de sua capacidade para gerar informa&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas adicionais a
               vari&#225;veis j&#225; conhecidas. As t&#233;cnicas mais empregadas e complementares em estudos
               prospectivos para essa finalidade s&#227;o a estat&#237;stica-C e o &#205;ndice de Melhora de
               Reclassifica&#231;&#227;o (NRI, sigla do ingl&#234;s <italic>Net Reclassification Index</italic>).
               No primeiro caso, temos a demonstra&#231;&#227;o da habilidade de um m&#233;todo em discriminar
               entre quem ir&#225; e quem n&#227;o ir&#225; sofrer um desfecho, ao passo que o outro m&#233;todo
               estimar&#225; a capacidade do marcador em reclassificar indiv&#237;duos para categorias de
               maior ou menor risco.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Prote&#237;na C-reativa ultrassens&#237;vel</title>
          <p>No IAM com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST, os n&#237;veis de Prote&#237;na C-Reativa Ultrassens&#237;vel
                  (PCR-us) refletem atividade inflamat&#243;ria secund&#225;ria &#224; necrose mioc&#225;rdica e s&#227;o
                  necessariamente elevados. Segundo alguns estudos, n&#237;veis acima de 10 mg/L obtidos
                  no primeiro dia associam-se, independentemente da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, a risco
                  aumentado de morte em 30 dias e em prazo mais longo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. Em pacientes acometidos por SCA na aus&#234;ncia de infarto, n&#237;veis
                  elevados de PCR-us teriam associa&#231;&#227;o mais consistente com risco de morte,
                  conferindo valor progn&#243;stico independente e adicional<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. N&#237;veis elevados de PCR-us 24 horas ap&#243;s a admiss&#227;o
                  hospitalar por IAM relacionam-se de forma independente a risco de remodelamento
                  ventricular nos 6 meses subsequentes, mas sua determina&#231;&#227;o teria baixa capacidade
                  discriminat&#243;ria avaliada por estat&#237;stica-C<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Estudo envolvendo expressivo n&#250;mero de pacientes admitidos na
                  unidade de emerg&#234;ncia com suspeita de SCA n&#227;o encontrou vantagem na determina&#231;&#227;o
                  da PCR-us, ao contr&#225;rio do Pept&#237;deo Natriur&#233;tico Cerebral (BNP), cujos n&#237;veis
                  elevados associaram-se a um risco cinco vezes maior de morte em 2 anos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
          <p>Revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica recentemente publicada concluiu pela exist&#234;ncia de associa&#231;&#227;o
                  positiva entre PCR-us elevada durante SCA (ponto de corte entre 10 e 15 mg/L) e
                  eventos cardiovasculares subsequentes no longo prazo, com raz&#227;o de chance
                  multivariada de 2,5 (Intervalo de Confian&#231;a de 95% &#8722; IC95%: 1,8-3,4). O poder
                  preditivo para eventos no curto prazo foi inconsistente, revelando heterogeneidade
                  nos resultados<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Segundo esse mesmo
                  estudo, apenas dois, dentre 19 estudos prospectivos analisados, estudaram a
                  capacidade discriminat&#243;ria adicional para novos eventos em modelos multivariados,
                  com resultados opostos e, desse modo, inconsistentes.</p>
          <p>Com base nas evid&#234;ncias atualmente dispon&#237;veis, conclui&#8209;se que a determina&#231;&#227;o dos
                  n&#237;veis de PCR-us na fase aguda de um epis&#243;dio de SCA pouco contribui para
                  identificar pacientes em risco adicional de eventos cardiovasculares e
                  cerebrovasculares. Ap&#243;s 4 a 6 semanas do insulto agudo, a PCR retorna aos valores
                  basais, e seu significado progn&#243;stico &#233; semelhante &#224;quele descrito para preven&#231;&#227;o
                  prim&#225;ria.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Troponinas T e I</title>
          <p>S&#227;o marcadores altamente espec&#237;ficos e sens&#237;veis de necrose mioc&#225;rdica, e tamb&#233;m
                  se revestem de valor progn&#243;stico independente ap&#243;s IAM, pois suas concentra&#231;&#245;es
                  dependem da quantidade de m&#250;sculo infartado. Existem v&#225;rios ensaios comercialmente
                  dispon&#237;veis para TPN T (TnT), ocasionando variabilidade na express&#227;o dos
                  resultados num&#233;ricos. Estudo realizado em n&#250;mero significativo de pacientes, j&#225; na
                  era da cardiologia intervencionista, demonstrou que n&#237;veis elevados de TnT &gt;
                  1,18 ng/mL no primeiro dia ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio do IAM associaram-se a risco cinco vezes
                  maior de morte, tr&#234;s vezes maior de eventos isqu&#234;micos recorrentes e sete vezes
                  maior de IC em 30 dias quando comparado &#224;queles com TnT pouco elevada. Esses
                  riscos persistem aumentados at&#233; 2 anos ap&#243;s o evento &#237;ndice e s&#227;o independentes de
                  vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas, laboratoriais e ecocardiogr&#225;ficas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
          <p>N&#237;veis de TnT persistentemente elevados 28 dias ap&#243;s um IAM tamb&#233;m associaram-se
                  de forma independente a risco aumentado de morte, eventos isqu&#234;micos e IC numa
                  grande amostra populacional, na qual 96% dos pacientes tinham sido submetidos &#224;
                  angioplastia prim&#225;ria. Nesse estudo, o ponto de corte para TnT elevada era de
                  apenas 0,04 ng/mL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Com o recurso a TnT de
                  alta sensibilidade, o mesmo valor progn&#243;stico independente para mortalidade em 1 e
                  4 anos foi demonstrado na fase aguda<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> e 7
                  semanas ap&#243;s o evento &#237;ndice<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
          <p>Em pacientes acometidos por IAM com eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST submetidos &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o
                  percut&#226;nea prim&#225;ria, n&#237;veis de TnT &#8805; 7 &#181;g/L demonstraram
                  sensibilidade de 73% e especificidade de 84% para a previs&#227;o de remodelamento
                  ventricular 6 meses ap&#243;s o evento &#237;ndice<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>.
                  Em outro estudo, n&#237;veis elevados de TPN I (TnI) 6 semanas ap&#243;s SCA foram
                  preditores independentes de mortalidade nos 5 anos subsequentes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Esses estudos realizados na era moderna
                  ratificam os resultados obtidos anteriormente &#224; dissemina&#231;&#227;o dos procedimentos
                  percut&#226;neos, demonstrando o valor preditivo para eventos de n&#237;veis elevados de TPN
                  ap&#243;s epis&#243;dio de SCA.</p>
          <p>Assim, com base nas evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis, a determina&#231;&#227;o convencional dos n&#237;veis
                  s&#233;ricos de TPNs 24 horas ap&#243;s o evento &#237;ndice, j&#225; incorporados &#224;s diretrizes de
                  conduta universalmente aceitas, fornece informa&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas relevantes. Tendo
                  em mente a possibilidade de interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea nas primeiras horas, a
                  determina&#231;&#227;o das TPNs 24 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento &#233; igualmente desej&#225;vel e j&#225;
                  constitui rotina. Embora igualmente importante, a repeti&#231;&#227;o dessa dosagem dias
                  ap&#243;s o evento esbarra na incerteza quanto &#224;s medidas adicionais a adotar nos
                  pacientes de risco, uma vez institu&#237;do o esquema terap&#234;utico ideal de acordo com
                  diretrizes estabelecidas. Mesmo naqueles indiv&#237;duos reclassificados como de mais
                  baixo risco ap&#243;s uma dosagem do biomarcador mais distante do evento &#237;ndice, cabe
                  perguntar se essa informa&#231;&#227;o implicaria relaxamento das medidas j&#225; consagradas de
                  preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria: a resposta provavelmente ainda &#233; negativa.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral e seu fragmento N-terminal</title>
          <p>BNP e Fragmento N-Terminal (NT-proBNP) s&#227;o de f&#225;cil determina&#231;&#227;o laboratorial e
                  t&#234;m boa reprodutibilidade. A maioria dos estudos em pacientes acometidos por IAM,
                  mesmo sem disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular ou eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento&#160;ST, descreve uma
                  associa&#231;&#227;o positiva entre n&#237;veis elevados desses pept&#237;deos e a mortalidade ou
                  reinfarto no primeiro ano ap&#243;s o epis&#243;dio agudo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> e com o remodelamento ventricular 6&#160;meses a 1 ano ap&#243;s<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.</p>
          <p>Segundo recente estudo, n&#237;veis de BNP &gt; 300 pg/mL medidos 96 horas ap&#243;s IAM sem
                  eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST t&#234;m valor discriminat&#243;rio adicional ao escore
                     <italic>Thrombolysis In Myocardial Infarction</italic> (TIMI) para determina&#231;&#227;o
                  do risco de morte em 1 ano<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>. A dosagem do
                  NT-proBNP 6 semanas ap&#243;s epis&#243;dio de SCA sem eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST &#233; preditiva
                  de eventos e agrega valor discriminat&#243;rio adicional aos fatores progn&#243;sticos j&#225;
                     conhecidos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>. Em outro estudo
                  prospectivo, n&#237;veis ao redor de 100 pg/mL foram preditivos de IAM em pacientes com
                  SCA sem eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>.</p>
          <p>Com base nas informa&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis, parece adequado e custo-efetivo estimar o
                  BNP ou NT-proBNP pr&#243;ximo &#224; alta hospitalar em pacientes acometidos por SCA, na
                  expectativa de promover uma determina&#231;&#227;o de risco mais refinada e adicional aos
                  marcadores cl&#237;nicos.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarcadores na doen&#231;a valvar</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarcadores de progn&#243;stico na estenose mitral</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral e seu fragmento N-terminal</title>
            <p>Nos pacientes com Estenose Mitral (EM), h&#225; aumento de BNP e NT-proBNP que se
                     correlaciona com o maior di&#226;metro do &#225;trio esquerdo e do ventr&#237;culo direito, e
                     com a maior Press&#227;o Sist&#243;lica Arterial Pulmonar (PSAP)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. Estudos demonstram rela&#231;&#227;o direta entre os n&#237;veis de
                     BNP e os gradientes diast&#243;licos transvalvares mitrais, e rela&#231;&#227;o inversa com a
                     &#225;rea valvar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. Quando comparados os
                     n&#237;veis de BNP ou NT-proBNP entre os pacientes em ritmo sinusal ou Fibrila&#231;&#227;o
                     Atrial (FA), os resultados s&#227;o controversos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>. Estudos mostram correla&#231;&#227;o de maiores n&#237;veis de NT&#8209;proBNP com
                     maiores aumentos de PSAP ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio, al&#233;m de rela&#231;&#227;o direta entre a
                     diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de NT-proBNP ap&#243;s comissurotomia mitral percut&#226;nea e a
                     taxa de sucesso do procedimento<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. Dados
                     levantados com pacientes submetidos a procedimentos intervencionistas
                     demonstraram queda do BNP e do NT&#8209;proBNP ap&#243;s valvuloplastia mitral percut&#226;nea
                     nos pacientes em ritmo sinusal, mas n&#227;o naqueles em FA.</p>
            <p>Existe grande varia&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis desses marcadores entre os estudos, n&#227;o tendo
                     sido padronizados valores de corte a partir dos quais seja poss&#237;vel definir
                     altera&#231;&#245;es de conduta com sua an&#225;lise isolada. Assim, em pacientes com EM, pode
                     ser considerada a dosagem de BNP ou NT-proBNP, visando &#224; complementa&#231;&#227;o da
                     avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com restri&#231;&#227;o ao teste de estresse, em caso de
                     indica&#231;&#227;o do mesmo, ou com limita&#231;&#227;o de janela ecocardiogr&#225;fica.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Prote&#237;na C-reativa</title>
            <p>Os estudos que buscaram correla&#231;&#227;o da PCR com calcifica&#231;&#227;o do anel mitral
                     mostram resultados controversos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. Entre
                     os que analisaram pacientes com EM, h&#225; aumento da PCR nesses pacientes com
                     rela&#231;&#227;o aos controles<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>. Al&#233;m disso,
                     maiores n&#237;veis de PCR correlacionaram-se a maior grau de estenose valvar, &#224;
                     presen&#231;a de FA e de contraste espont&#226;neo atrial. Pacientes com maior PCR
                     tiveram menor taxa de sucesso ap&#243;s valvuloplastia mitral percut&#226;nea por cateter
                        bal&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Apesar desses dados, &#233; ainda
                     incerto se a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de PCR tem alguma utilidade na modifica&#231;&#227;o
                     das condutas diante de pacientes com EM, e se o emprego de medidas que possam &#16416;
                     diminuir os n&#237;veis de PCR tem algum impacto na evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a. Dessa forma,
                     n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel, no momento, recomendar a favor ou contra a utiliza&#231;&#227;o desse
                     marcador nesses pacientes.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarcadores de progn&#243;stico na insufici&#234;ncia mitral</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral e seu fragmento N-terminal</title>
            <p>De forma semelhante aos pacientes com EM, os pacientes com Insufici&#234;ncia Mitral
                     (IM) tamb&#233;m apresentam aumento de BNP e NT-proBNP. A correla&#231;&#227;o desse aumento &#224;
                     gravidade da IM &#233; vari&#225;vel nos estudos, sendo mais bem estabelecida a
                     correla&#231;&#227;o desses n&#237;veis com a presen&#231;a e a intensidade dos sintomas de IC. Em
                     alguns trabalhos, h&#225; rela&#231;&#227;o direta entre os n&#237;veis de BNP ou NT-proBNP e a
                     PSAP em repouso ou ap&#243;s ecocardiografia de estresse<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>. De forma geral, estudos que analisaram esses marcadores
                     em pacientes com FA encontraram correla&#231;&#227;o entre seus n&#237;veis e a presen&#231;a dessa
                        arritmia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>.</p>
            <p>Estudos mais recentes mostraram correla&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de BNP e desfechos
                     cl&#237;nicos. Em estudo com 269 pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com IM importante e Fra&#231;&#227;o
                     de Eje&#231;&#227;o de Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo (FEVE) &gt; 60%, o BNP&#160;&gt;&#160;105 pg/mL
                     correlacionou-se a maior risco de evolu&#231;&#227;o com o desfecho composto de IC,
                     disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular ou &#243;bito<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>.
                     Trabalho com 135 pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com IM moderada a importante, em
                     ritmo sinusal e sem disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular demonstrou que aqueles com BNP &lt;
                     40 pg/mL tiveram maior sobrevida livre de eventos em at&#233; 2 anos de
                        acompanhamento<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
            <p>Dessa forma, apesar de varia&#231;&#227;o dos valores de corte entre os estudos, pode ser
                     considerada a dosagem de BNP de forma complementar &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o
                     cl&#237;nico-ecocardiogr&#225;fica nos pacientes com janela ecocardiogr&#225;fica limitada, ou
                     quando h&#225; d&#250;vida sobre a etiologia dos sintomas, sendo que baixos n&#237;veis desse
                     marcador sugerem, em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos, melhor evolu&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarcadores de progn&#243;stico na valvulopatia tric&#250;spide</title>
          <p>S&#227;o muito escassos os dados sobre biomarcadores em pacientes com valvopatia
                  tric&#250;spide. Yoon e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> observaram
                  correla&#231;&#227;o direta do BNP com os volumes do ventr&#237;culo direito e inversa com a FEVE
                  em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide importante isolada submetidos a
                  tratamento cir&#250;rgico. Al&#233;m disso, os pacientes com BNP &lt; 200&#160;pg/mL tiveram
                  menor mortalidade p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria em 1 ano. Cabe observar, entretanto, que houve
                  apenas cinco &#243;bitos (um no grupo BNP &lt; 200 pg/mL e quatro no grupo BNP&#160;
                  &#8805;&#160;200&#160;pg/mL). Assim, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel, no momento, recomendar a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de
                  biomarcadores na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com valvopatia tric&#250;spide isolada.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarcadores de progn&#243;stico na estenose a&#243;rtica</title>
          <p>O biomarcador ideal na Estenose A&#243;rtica (EAo) seria aquele que reflete a gravidade
                  da doen&#231;a, aumenta com a progress&#227;o da mesma, revela disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica
                  subcl&#237;nica e discrimina os pacientes assintom&#225;ticos que desenvolver&#227;o sintomas no
                  curto/m&#233;dio prazo. O biomarcador ideal poderia, ainda, identificar pacientes com
                  EAo importante de alto risco, que se beneficiariam do tratamento cir&#250;rgico antes
                  do surgimento dos sintomas, melhorando o progn&#243;stico.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral e seu fragmento N-terminal</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Gravidade da doen&#231;a e status funcional</title>
            <p>os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos dos BNP e NT-proBNP encontram-se elevados em pacientes
                     portadores de EAo. Esse aumento correlaciona-se com gradiente press&#243;rico,
                     &#237;ndice de massa ventricular esquerda e press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do ventr&#237;culo
                     esquerdo, e inversamente com a &#225;rea valvar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>. Isso sugere que os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos dos pept&#237;deos
                     natriur&#233;ticos est&#227;o associados &#224; gravidade da doen&#231;a e podem ser utilizados
                     para monitorar a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a.</p>
            <p>Os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos do NT-proBNP apresentam correla&#231;&#227;o direta com a gravidade da
                     EAo, assim como com os sintomas avaliados pela classe funcional. Al&#233;m disso,
                     valores de NT&#8209;proBNP &lt; 676 pg/mL e BNP &lt; 130 mg/dL foram preditores de
                     sobrevida livre de sintomas em um estudo com 130 pacientes com EAo
                        importante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>.</p>
            <p>A consist&#234;ncia dos resultados desses estudos demonstrou que os pept&#237;deos
                     natriur&#233;ticos est&#227;o relacionados &#224; gravidade e aos sintomas de pacientes com
                     EAo. Al&#233;m disso, ambos os pept&#237;deos s&#227;o preditores do surgimento de sintomas em
                     pacientes assintom&#225;ticos. Assim, os BNP s&#227;o biomarcadores que podem ser
                     incorporados na avalia&#231;&#227;o dos portadores de EAo em associa&#231;&#227;o com a avalia&#231;&#227;o
                     cl&#237;nica e ecocardiogr&#225;fica, especialmente quando existem d&#250;vidas se o pacientes
                     &#233; verdadeiramente assintom&#225;tico.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Progn&#243;stico</title>
            <p>O papel progn&#243;stico dos BNP foi avaliado em diversos estudos. Lim e cols.
                     estudaram 70 pacientes com EAo e demonstraram que valores de BNP &gt; 97 pg/mL
                     estavam relacionados a pior progn&#243;stico, assim como o BNP foi o &#250;nico preditor
                     independente de mortalidade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>.</p>
            <p>Em coorte de 124 pacientes portadores de EAo moderada a importante manejados
                     clinicamente, a sobrevida foi influenciada pela presen&#231;a de sintomas e n&#237;veis
                     de BNP. A mortalidade em 1 ano foi de 6%, 34% e 60% para cada aumento do tercil
                     de BNP. Nenhum &#243;bito aconteceu em pacientes com BNP &lt; 100 pg/mL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
            <p>O BNP apresentou melhor acur&#225;cia que o EuroSCORE log&#237;stico em predizer
                     mortalidade operat&#243;ria em 144 pacientes com EAo importante submetidos ao
                     tratamento cir&#250;rgico, com valores de BNP &gt; 312 pg/mL sendo o &#250;nico preditor
                     de mortalidade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>.</p>
            <p>Recente estudo brasileiro avaliou o valor progn&#243;stico do BNP e NT-proBNP a
                     longo prazo (at&#233; 6 anos) em 64 pacientes portadores EAo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. Realizaram tratamento cir&#250;rgico 51 pacientes, enquanto
                     13 permaneceram em acompanhamento cl&#237;nico. A mortalidade no grupo cir&#250;rgico foi
                     de 13,7% e de 62% no grupo cl&#237;nico (p &lt; 0,001). Pacientes com BNP &gt; 135
                     pg/mL e NT-proBNP &gt; 1150 pg/mL no in&#237;cio do acompanhamento apresentaram
                     maior mortalidade.</p>
            <p>Os pacientes portadores de EAo de baixo fluxo e baixo gradiente representam um
                     subgrupo de pacientes com pior progn&#243;stico e maior mortalidade operat&#243;ria. Os
                     pacientes que apresentam BNP &#8805; 550 pg/mL apresentam sobrevida em 1 ano
                     de 47 &#177; 9% comparados a 97 &#177; 3% naqueles com BNP &lt; 550 pg/mL
                     (p &lt; 0,0001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>.</p>
            <p>Embora esses estudos claramente demonstrem o potencial dos BNP como marcadores
                     progn&#243;sticos em pacientes com EAo assintom&#225;ticos, n&#227;o sabemos se operar
                     pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com altos n&#237;veis de BNP/NT-proBNP diminui a
                     mortalidade. No entanto, nos pacientes com EAo sintom&#225;ticos, os pept&#237;deos
                     natriur&#233;ticos podem ser incorporados na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica para melhor
                     estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco perioperat&#243;rio. Analisando em conjunto os resultados
                     dos estudos, podemos identificar como melhores pontos de corte para
                     estratificar os pacientes de maior gravidade os valores de 130 pg/mL para o BNP
                     e de 640 pg/mL para o NT-proBNP.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>PCR</title>
            <p>alguns estudos relatam n&#237;veis elevados de PCR em pacientes com EAo de etiologia
                     degenerativa, sugerindo que a inflama&#231;&#227;o pode ter um papel na progress&#227;o da
                        doen&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. Imai e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> avaliaram, de forma retrospectiva, 135
                     pacientes com EAo assintom&#225;tica. Os n&#237;veis de PCR eram significativamente
                     maiores nos portadores de EAo importante quando comparados &#224; EAo leve ou
                     moderada. Ap&#243;s regress&#227;o multivariada, a PCR foi preditor independente da
                     gravidade da EAo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>.</p>
            <p>S&#227;o escassos os dados que avaliam o papel da PCR na avalia&#231;&#227;o da gravidade,
                     progress&#227;o e progn&#243;stico de pacientes com EAo, e mostram resultados
                     controversos. Dessa forma, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel, no momento, recomendar a favor ou
                     contra a utiliza&#231;&#227;o desse marcador nesses pacientes.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Troponina ultrassens&#237;veis</title>
          <p>Os novos ensaios de TPN card&#237;aca T (quinta gera&#231;&#227;o) s&#227;o conhecidas como TPNus.
                  Eles conseguem identificar baixos n&#237;veis de TPN circulantes e, portanto, t&#234;m
                  potencial para serem utilizados na estratifica&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica de pacientes com
                  doen&#231;a cardiovascular est&#225;vel ou subcl&#237;nica.</p>
          <p>Estudo noruegu&#234;s avaliou o comportamento da TPNus em 57 pacientes com EAo e
                  hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>. Todos os
                  pacientes apresentaram n&#237;veis detect&#225;veis de TPN. Os n&#237;veis de TPN se
                  correlacionaram com di&#226;metros do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, velocidade de jato a&#243;rtico,
                  gradiente press&#243;rico e massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. A capacidade discriminativa,
                  ou seja, a acur&#225;cia progn&#243;stica da TPNus foi semelhante ao NT-proBNP. E, ap&#243;s
                  regress&#227;o multivariada, tanto a TPNus quanto o NT-proBNP foram preditores
                  independentes de mortalidade.</p>
          <p>A TPNus parece ser um biomarcador promissor na avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica de pacientes
                  com EAo importante. No entanto, precisamos esperar estudos prospectivos com maior
                  n&#250;mero de pacientes para considerar a utiliza&#231;&#227;o desse novo biomarcador na pr&#225;tica
                  cl&#237;nica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarcadores de progn&#243;stico na insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica</title>
          <p>Sobrecarga de press&#227;o mioc&#225;rdio e distens&#227;o das fibras mioc&#225;rdicas s&#227;o est&#237;mulos
                  suficientes para provocar a libera&#231;&#227;o dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos. Os n&#237;veis
                  s&#233;ricos de BNP e NT-proBNP encontram-se elevados em pacientes portadores de
                  Insufici&#234;ncia A&#243;rtica (IAo) e est&#227;o associados &#224; gravidade da doen&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>. Weber e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> demonstram que os n&#237;veis de NT-proBNP apresentaram
                  correla&#231;&#227;o direta com a gravidade da IAo, assim como a classe funcional.</p>
          <p>Outro estudo tamb&#233;m demonstrou que o NT-proBNP e o BNP est&#227;o associados com
                  sintomas e fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda. Spina e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref> avaliaram de forma prospectiva 89&#160;pacientes jovens
                  portadores de IAo de etiologia reum&#225;tica, demonstrando que o BNP apresentou a
                  mesma capacidade na predi&#231;&#227;o de sintomas e necessidade de troca valvar quando
                  comparado aos di&#226;metros ventriculares avaliados pelo ecocardiograma, num
                  acompanhamento de 8 anos.</p>
          <p>Recentemente, um estudo comprovou o papel progn&#243;stico do BNP em 294 pacientes
                  portadores de IAo assintom&#225;ticos sem disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. O valor que melhor
                  discriminou os pacientes que apresentaram sintomas, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular ou morte
                  foi 130 mg/dL. Al&#233;m disso, demonstrou que o BNP apresentou melhor capacidade
                  progn&#243;stica que par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos como o di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico final e o
                  orif&#237;cio regurgitante efetivo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>.</p>
          <p>Dessa forma, apesar de varia&#231;&#227;o dos valores de corte entre os estudos, a dosagem
                  de BNP/NT-pro-BNP pode ser considerada de forma complementar &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o
                  cl&#237;nico&#8209;ecocardiogr&#225;fica ou quando h&#225; d&#250;vida sobre a etiologia dos sintomas, sendo
                  que baixos n&#237;veis desse marcador sugerem, em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos, melhor
                  evolu&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarcadores em cardio-oncologia</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarcadores de resposta &#224; terap&#234;utica e cardiotoxidade</title>
          <p>A resposta ao tratamento da cardiotoxicidade tem mostrado estreita rela&#231;&#227;o com a
                  precocidade no diagn&#243;stico, sendo necess&#225;ria a busca por marcadores mais
                  adequados. Nesse cen&#225;rio, os biomarcadores t&#234;m sido propostos como alternativa
                  eficaz, com maior sensibilidade e especificidade.</p>
          <p>H&#225; mais de uma d&#233;cada, a utilidade da TPN foi demonstrada em estudos com animais
                  na avalia&#231;&#227;o de dano mioc&#225;rdico antrac&#237;clico induzido<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>. Muitos ensaios cl&#237;nicos foram apresentados corroborando
                  seu valor. A dosagem do n&#237;vel de TPN, tanto em fase inicial quanto tardia, mostrou
                  import&#226;ncia na detec&#231;&#227;o de dano mioc&#225;rdico, associado &#224; maior incid&#234;ncia de
                  eventos card&#237;acos e &#224; posterior queda da FEVE, de forma especial no grupo com
                  valores persistentemente aumentados ao longo dos ciclos da quimioterapia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>. Mais recentemente tamb&#233;m foi demonstrado
                  comportamento semelhante com uso do anticorpo monoclonal &#8211; trastuzumabe, o aumento
                  da TPN previu um aumento expressivo no risco de eventos card&#237;acos adversos
                     importantes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>. Os pept&#237;deos
                  natriur&#233;ticos tamb&#233;m t&#234;m mostrado, na maioria dos estudos, boa sensibilidade para
                  detectar cardiotoxicidade, embora alguns deles tenham como objetivo apenas a
                  avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e envolvam pequenas amostras<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>.</p>
          <p>Novos biomarcadores t&#234;m sido considerados e est&#227;o em avalia&#231;&#227;o. O citocromo C
                  surge como uma op&#231;&#227;o na avalia&#231;&#227;o de dano mitocondrial e de grande potencial na
                  detec&#231;&#227;o precoce da cardiotoxicidade secund&#225;ria aos quimioter&#225;picos, assim como
                  investiga&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas podem tamb&#233;m permitir uma terapia oncol&#243;gica no futuro,
                  mais personalizada<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarcadores na embolia pulmonar</title>
          <p>A Embolia Pulmonar (EP) permanece um desafio &#224; medicina contempor&#226;nea, a despeito
                  da evolu&#231;&#227;o dos m&#233;todos complementares para o diagn&#243;stico. A inespecificidade da
                  apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica trouxe a necessidade da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de regras de predi&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>, como, por exemplo, o escore de Wells, para
                  uma melhor acur&#225;cia do diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico e, consequentemente, o uso mais
                  racional dos testes diagn&#243;sticos. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de biomarcadores na EP pode ser
                  &#250;til no diagn&#243;stico e no progn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a, quando persistem grandes faixas de
                  incerteza para uma conduta.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>D&#237;mero D</title>
          <p>Na fase aguda, quando os pacientes s&#227;o estratificados quanto &#224; probabilidade do
                  diagn&#243;stico da EP, o d&#237;mero D tem sido amplamente utilizado para selecionar
                  pacientes em que o diagn&#243;stico pode ser exclu&#237;do com uma margem de erro aceit&#225;vel.
                  O d&#237;mero D &#233; um subproduto de degrada&#231;&#227;o da fibrina, que est&#225; frequentemente acima
                  dos valores normais, quando h&#225; forma&#231;&#227;o de trombos. Na EP, o d&#237;mero D est&#225; elevado
                  na maioria dos pacientes, entretanto existem v&#225;rias outras situa&#231;&#245;es que n&#227;o a EP
                  em que o d&#237;mero D tamb&#233;m pode apresentar altera&#231;&#245;es, o que caracteriza o m&#233;todo
                  como bastante sens&#237;vel, por&#233;m pouco espec&#237;fico.</p>
          <p>Estudos t&#234;m demonstrado que resultados de D&#237;mero D. dentro da normalidade excluem
                  o diagn&#243;stico de EP em pacientes com baixa ou moderada probabilidade cl&#237;nica de
                  EP, com uma boa margem de seguran&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>.
                  Gingsberg e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> demonstraram que
                  valores de d&#237;mero D &lt; 500 ng/dL t&#234;m maior aplica&#231;&#227;o para a exclus&#227;o do
                  diagn&#243;stico pelo seu alto valor preditivo negativo. Diversas t&#233;cnicas s&#227;o
                  descritas para mensura&#231;&#227;o de d&#237;mero D, com resultados variados. O m&#233;todo com maior
                  sensibilidade &#233; o <italic>Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay</italic> (ELISA)
                  enquanto outras t&#233;cnicas apresentam resultados inferiores, particularmente as que
                  utilizam l&#225;tex e a aglutina&#231;&#227;o com sangue total. Dessa forma, &#233; fundamental
                  conhecer qual t&#233;cnica &#233; utilizada no laborat&#243;rio da institui&#231;&#227;o em que se
                  trabalha.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Troponina</title>
          <p>A TPN, um biomarcador bastante estudado na s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda, tem se
                  demonstrado &#250;til na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco em pacientes com EP. A eleva&#231;&#227;o da TPN
                  ocorre em fun&#231;&#227;o da les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica causada pela sobrecarga aguda do ventr&#237;culo
                  direito com comprometimento da perfus&#227;o coronariana, independente da exist&#234;ncia de
                  les&#245;es obstrutivas. Na EP, a TPN est&#225; elevada entre 30 e 50% dos casos, e
                  associada a uma pior evolu&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes. Giannitsis e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> demonstraram que a TPN possui valor
                  progn&#243;stico independente para a mortalidade em 30 dias. A TnT foi detectada em 50%
                  dos pacientes e se correlacionou com maior numero de &#243;bitos e complica&#231;&#245;es
                     intra-hospitalares<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>. O pior progn&#243;stico
                  est&#225; associado tanto &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o da TnT quanto da TnI. Apesar da associa&#231;&#227;o com a
                  disfun&#231;&#227;o do VD, a TPN n&#227;o agrega valor para modificar a conduta terap&#234;utica em
                  pacientes est&#225;veis hemodinamicamente.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico cerebral</title>
          <p>O BNP tem sido utilizado para a investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica em pacientes com suspeita
                  de IC na sala de emerg&#234;ncia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>. A associa&#231;&#227;o
                  entre a eleva&#231;&#227;o do BNP e a disfun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo, nos pacientes com EP, foi
                  demonstrada por Kucher e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>, com
                  valores &lt; 50 pg/mL, ou seja, ponto de corte inferior ao utilizado para o
                  ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, que discriminaria melhor os pacientes com evolu&#231;&#227;o benigna.
                  Metan&#225;lise publicada em 2011 mostrou que eleva&#231;&#227;o dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos
                  estava correlacionada com a mortalidade, em curto prazo, dos pacientes com EP
                  est&#225;veis hemodinamicamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o
                  do BNP no diagn&#243;stico diferencial na sala de emerg&#234;ncia mostrou efetividade
                  cl&#237;nica, por&#233;m, da mesma forma que a TPN, n&#227;o permite modificar isoladamente a
                  abordagem terap&#234;utica na EP.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Outros biomarcadores</title>
          <p>Gul e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref> publicaram, em 2012, um
                  estudo no qual correlacionaram o biomarcador h-FABP com o &#237;ndice de obstru&#231;&#227;o da
                  art&#233;ria pulmonar na angiotomografia computadorizada de t&#243;rax e mostraram ser o
                  h-FABP um preditor independente de mortalidade. Em 2012, estudo alem&#227;o com
                  126&#160;pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de EP e est&#225;veis hemodinamicamente avaliou o valor
                  preditivo do h-FABP para &#243;bito e complica&#231;&#245;es em 30 dias, e concluiu que o
                  biomarcador pode ser &#250;til na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de pacientes normotensos.</p>
          <p>Novos biomarcadores necessitam de estudos mais abrangentes, que possibilitem sua
                  incorpora&#231;&#227;o &#224; pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarcadores na s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal</title>
          <p>A S&#237;ndrome Cardiorrenal (SCR) apresenta alta preval&#234;ncia nos pacientes com IC
                  cr&#244;nica e est&#225; relacionada com maiores morbidade e mortalidade ao fim de 1
                  ano.</p>
          <p>No pacientes com Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Aguda (ICA), a SCR est&#225; presente em cerca
                  de 30 a 40% dos pacientes e &#233; um marcador de pior progn&#243;stico, apresentando
                  rela&#231;&#227;o com uma maior taxa de reinterna&#231;&#227;o e mortalidade em 30 dias e 6 meses na
                  p&#243;s-alta hospitalar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>.</p>
          <p>Outras situa&#231;&#245;es, como p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgias card&#237;acas e p&#243;s-cateterismo
                  card&#237;aco com nefropatia p&#243;s&#8209;contraste, podem comumente apresentar a Inj&#250;ria Renal
                  Aguda (IRA). O diagn&#243;stico precoce da inj&#250;ria renal e seu acompanhamento evolutivo
                  por meio de biomarcadores espec&#237;ficos s&#227;o de extrema import&#226;ncia na preven&#231;&#227;o e no
                  manuseio da SCR. Os biomarcadores tradicionais da fun&#231;&#227;o renal, embora usados para
                  o diagn&#243;stico da IRA, apresentam baixa acur&#225;cia em sua capacidade de diagnosticar
                  precocemente mudan&#231;as na fun&#231;&#227;o renal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>.</p>
          <p>Os N&#237;veis S&#233;ricos de Ureia e Creatinina (Cr-S) n&#227;o sofrem altera&#231;&#227;o at&#233; que cerca
                  da metade da fun&#231;&#227;o renal tenha sido perdida, e v&#225;rios fatores extrarrenais, como
                  massa muscular, metabolismo hep&#225;tico, sangramento digestivo, estado nutricional,
                  t&#234;m importante influ&#234;ncia na varia&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos. Os novos biomarcadores
                  da disfun&#231;&#227;o renal t&#234;m como caracter&#237;sticas apresentarem n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos elevados
                  mais precocemente e serem altamente espec&#237;ficos, constituindo marcadores sens&#237;veis
                  da disfun&#231;&#227;o org&#226;nica, mais do que funcional, na IRA. Temos biomarcadores
                  relacionados a fun&#231;&#227;o glomerular (Cistatina C &#8722; Cis-C) e a inj&#250;ria renal
                  (Lipocalina Associada &#224; Gelatinase do Neutrofilo &#8722; NGAL; Interleucina&#160;18 &#8722; IL-18;
                  eMol&#233;cula de Inj&#250;ria Renal-1 - KIM-1)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cistatina-C</title>
          <p>Cis-C &#233; uma ciste&#237;na end&#243;gena inibidora da proteinase, produzida em taxas
                  constantes por todas as c&#233;lulas nucleadas. &#201; filtrada livremente atrav&#233;s do
                  glom&#233;rulo e reabsorvida totalmente no t&#250;bulo contornado proximal. Os n&#237;veis
                  s&#233;ricos de Cis-C t&#234;m rela&#231;&#227;o com a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce da redu&#231;&#227;o da Taxa de
                  Filtra&#231;&#227;o Glomerular (TGF) e como marcador de IRA. Os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos n&#227;o sofrem
                  influ&#234;ncia de massa corporal, idade ou sexo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>.</p>
          <p>Em pacientes com ICA, a Cis-C demonstrou capacidade de progn&#243;stico de SCR tipo 1
                  inferior &#224; da NGAL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>. A Cis-C tamb&#233;m
                  demonstrou ser um marcador independente de progn&#243;stico intra-hospitalar e morte, e
                  de rehospitaliza&#231;&#227;o ao fim de 1 ano nos pacientes com ICA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>.</p>
          <p>Nos pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica em acompanhamento ambulatorial, a Cis-C demonstrou
                  ser um marcador independente de progn&#243;stico ao fim de 1 ano de acompanhamento<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Mol&#233;cula de inj&#250;ria renal-1</title>
          <p>KIM-1 &#233; uma mol&#233;cula de inj&#250;ria renal detectada na urina, em decorr&#234;ncia da
                  inj&#250;ria isqu&#234;mica ou nefrot&#243;xica nas c&#233;lulas do t&#250;bulo proximal. Na avalia&#231;&#227;o da
                  IRA p&#243;s-contraste, a KIM-1 veio a apresentar um pico em 24 a 48 horas ap&#243;s o
                  cateterismo, sendo mais tardio em rela&#231;&#227;o a todos os outros biomarcadores (NGAL,
                  IL-18 e Cis-C)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>.</p>
          <p>Nos pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica e fun&#231;&#227;o renal aparentemente normal, n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos
                  de KIM-1 demonstraram correla&#231;&#227;o com o grau da IC e da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular,
                  indicando possivelmente les&#227;o tubular renal n&#227;o detectada pelos biomarcadores
                  usuais. Em acompanhamento ambulatorial, os n&#237;veis de KIM-1 demonstraram fraca
                  correla&#231;&#227;o com TFG, n&#227;o sendo avaliado o valor progn&#243;stico do desenvolvimento de
                     SCR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Interleucina-18 (IL-18)</title>
          <p>IL-18 &#233; uma citocina pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria ativada no processo de v&#225;rias doen&#231;as
                  renais, incluindo isquemia, agress&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria (infecciosa ou n&#227;o) e doen&#231;as
                  malignas. Na nefropatia p&#243;s-contraste, a IL-18 apresentou melhor capacidade no
                  diagn&#243;stico precoce da IRA que a creatinina s&#233;rica e tamb&#233;m como marcador
                  preditivo independente de eventos cardiovasculares<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>. N&#227;o h&#225; estudos cl&#237;nicos com IL-18 no diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico de
                  SCR em pacientes com IC aguda ou cr&#244;nica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Lipocalina associada &#224; gelatinase de neutr&#243;filos (NGAL)</title>
          <p>NGAL &#233; uma prote&#237;na ligada aos gr&#226;nulos dos neutr&#243;filos, sendo secretada pelas
                  c&#233;lulas imunes ativadas, hepat&#243;citos, col&#243;n, pulm&#227;o, mioc&#225;rdio e t&#250;bulos renais. A
                  ativa&#231;&#227;o e a libera&#231;&#227;o da NGAL ocorrem na inj&#250;ria p&#243;s-isqu&#234;mica renal, na presen&#231;a
                  de agress&#227;o infecciosa renal e sist&#234;mica, na inflama&#231;&#227;o e isquemia mioc&#225;rdica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>. A NGAL s&#233;rica &#233; filtrada no glom&#233;rulo e,
                  juntamente da NGAL renal, &#233; reabsorvida no t&#250;bulo proximal e, principalmente, no
                  t&#250;bulo distal.</p>
          <p>A NGAL pode ser mensurada no plasma e na urina. A NGAL urin&#225;ria apresenta pico
                  mais precoce e maior acur&#225;cia na detec&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o renal, com 100% de
                  sensibilidade e 98% de especificidade, sendo um biomarcador precoce no diagn&#243;stico
                  da IRA, elevando em 24 a 48 horas antes da sindorme cardio-renal (SCR)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>.</p>
          <p>Valores de NGAL s&#233;rico &gt; 140 ng/mL na admiss&#227;o hospitalar ou no terceiro dia
                  p&#243;s-admiss&#227;o demonstraram 7,4 vezes mais chance, com uma sensibilidade de 86% e
                  especificidade de 54%, no progn&#243;stico do desenvolvimento de SCR. Valores NGAL
                  admissional &lt; 140 ng/mL demonstraram um valor preditivo negativo de 86% de
                  desenvolver SCR durante a interna&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>.
                  Resultados semelhantes foram observados em pacientes na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, onde
                  NGAL s&#233;rico &gt; 170 ng/mL apresentou sensibilidade de 100% e especificidade de
                  86,7% no progn&#243;stico de desenvolvimento de SCR tipo 1.</p>
          <p>O n&#237;vel s&#233;rico da NGAL na alta hospitalar dos pacientes com ICA demonstrou ser
                  superior ao BNP como marcador de progn&#243;stico nos 30 dias p&#243;s-alta (mortalidade e
                     reinterna&#231;&#227;o)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>.</p>
          <p>Entre os novos biomarcadores para a detec&#231;&#227;o da SCR, a NGAL, tem sido o mais
                  extensamente e cuidadosamente estudado, quanto &#224; capacidade de detec&#231;&#227;o de
                  disfun&#231;&#227;o renal e do valor progn&#243;stico evolutivo nos pacientes com IC aguda e
                  cr&#244;nica. No entanto, ainda temos uma s&#233;rie de pontos que necessitam ser
                  esclarecidos para que este possa ser utilizado de forma consistente na pr&#225;tica
                  cl&#237;nica no diagn&#243;stico precoce da SCR nos pacientes com IC: (1) defini&#231;&#227;o dos
                  valores de corte da NGAL s&#233;rica e urin&#225;ria, para o diagn&#243;stico da SCR. Esses
                  valores n&#227;o est&#227;o bem estabelecidos e nem sua &#8220;zona de varia&#231;&#227;o&#8221;, uma vez que os
                  n&#237;veis de NGAL sofrem influ&#234;ncia de diversas vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas, que n&#227;o somente a
                  IRA (idade, sexo, obesidade, disfun&#231;&#227;o renal pr&#233;via e tipo de nefro-agress&#227;o); (2)
                  avaliar a import&#226;ncia do valor de pico e do padr&#227;o da curva de varia&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis
                  de NGAL na defini&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica do grau de IRA.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela ABBOT Diagn&#243;sticos do Brasil.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s&#8209;gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
