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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">CFtxk9CTMN9t7vqvGkbfJ9p</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2015000400002</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20140206</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00002</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Insulin Resistance, Dyslipidemia and Cardiovascular Changes in a Group of
               Obese Children</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pires</surname>
            <given-names>Ant&#243;nio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Paula</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Margarida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Patricia Vaz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marinho</surname>
            <given-names>Joana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marques</surname>
            <given-names>Margarida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castela</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sena</surname>
            <given-names>Cristina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sei&#231;a</surname>
            <given-names>Raquel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Hospitalar e Universit&#225;rio de
               Coimbra</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Coimbra</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Hospitalar e Universit&#225;rio de Coimbra,
               Coimbra - Portugal</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade de Coimbra</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Coimbra</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto Biom&#233;dico de Investiga&#231;&#227;o da Luz e
               Imagem</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Coimbra</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Fisiologia - Instituto Biom&#233;dico de
               Investiga&#231;&#227;o da Luz e Imagem da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra,
               Coimbra - Portugal</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade de Coimbra</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Coimbra</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto Biom&#233;dico de Investiga&#231;&#227;o da Luz e
               Imagem</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Coimbra</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Portugal</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Estat&#237;stica da Faculdade de Medicina
               da Universidade de Coimbra - Instituto Biom&#233;dico de Investiga&#231;&#227;o da Luz e Imagem,
               Coimbra - Portugal</institution>
        <institution content-type="normalized">Universidade de Coimbra</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Antonio Manuel Pires,</bold> Rua Nova do
               Rossio, 20, Bairo Novo do Rossio, Anca. Postal Code 3060-011, Coimbra &#8211; Portugal.
               Email: <email>pires1961@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research:Pires A, Matins P. Acquisition of data:
                  Pires A, Pereira AM, Silva PV, Marinho J. Analysis and interpretation of the data:
                  Pires A, Sena C, Sei&#231;a R. Statistical analysis: Pires A, Marques M, Sena C.
                  Writing of the manuscript: Pires A, Matins P. Critical revision of the manuscript
                  for intellectual content: Pires A, Matins P, Silva PV, Marinho J, Castela E, Sena
                  C, Sei&#231;a R. Analysis Procedure: Pereira AM.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>23</day>
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>104</volume>
      <issue>04</issue>
      <fpage>266</fpage>
      <lpage>273</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>01</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
                  Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits unrestricted
                  non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
                  original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <sec>
          <title>Introduction:</title>
          <p>Obesity-related comorbidities are present in young obese children, providing a
                  platform for early adult cardiovascular disorders.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives:</title>
          <p>To compare and correlate markers of adiposity to metabolic disturbances, vascular
                  and cardiac morphology in a European pediatric obese cohort.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>We carried out an observational and transversal analysis in a cohort consisting of
                  121 obese children of both sexes, between the ages of 6 and 17 years. The control
                  group consisted of 40 children with normal body mass index within the same age
                  range. Markers of adiposity, plasma lipids and lipoproteins, homeostasis model
                  assessment-insulin resistance, common carotid artery intima-media thickness and
                  left ventricular diameters were analyzed.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>There were statistically significant differences between the control and obese
                  groups for the variables analyzed, all higher in the obese group, except for age,
                  high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and adiponectin, higher in the control group.
                  In the obese group, body mass index was directly correlated to left ventricular
                  mass (r=0.542; p=0.001), the homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance
                  (r=0.378; p=&lt;0.001) and mean common carotid artery intima-media thickness
                  (r=0.378; p=&lt;0.001). In that same group, insulin resistance was present in
                  38.1%, 12.5% had a combined dyslipidemic pattern, and eccentric hypertrophy was
                  the most common left ventricular geometric pattern.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions:</title>
          <p>These results suggest that these markers may be used in clinical practice to
                  stratify cardiovascular risk, as well as to assess the impact of weight control
                  programs.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Pediatric Obesity</kwd>
        <kwd>Insulin Resistance</kwd>
        <kwd>Dyslipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="36"/>
        <page-count count="7"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>The growing prevalence of childhood obesity has led to an increased risk of diabetes and
            cardiovascular diseases in adulthood<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
      <p>One of the most concerning complications of childhood obesity is insulin resistance,
            considered a precursor of type 2 diabetes mellitus<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. In clinical practice, the homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance
            (HOMA-IR) is used to diagnose insulin resistance and it is an independent predictor of
            cardiac pathology in adulthood<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Clinically
               <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic>, a hyperpigmented, brownish velvety lesion,
            usually found in skin folds, has been related to obesity and insulin resistance<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.</p>
      <p>In adults, common carotid artery intima-media thickness (cIMT) correlates with the
            incidence of cardiovascular events, and, as such, is considered a useful tool for
            cardiovascular risk stratification<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. Several
            studies have shown that cIMT is increased in children with cardiovascular risk factors,
            possibly making it a useful tool for assessing cardiovascular risk in children<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
      <p>Another cardiovascular risk factor is left ventricular mass (LVM)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. As shown by the Bogalusa Heart Study, childhood adiposity is
            related to LVM in adults, and left ventricular hypertrophy is strongly and independently
            related to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Although left
            ventricular hypertrophy is rare in obese children, cardiac remodeling might be present,
            which in adults has also been found to predict adverse cardiovascular outcomes,
            particularly in hypertensive patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
      <p>Dyslipidemia is another cardiovascular risk factor related to obesity. It is estimated
            that about 42% of obese children have lipid abnormalities, particularly those with
            visceral obesity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. In these, the most common
            lipid abnormality pattern consists of elevated triglycerides, decreased high-density
            lipoprotein cholesterol and normal to mildly elevated low-density lipoprotein
            cholesterol.</p>
      <p>Plasma lipoproteins also seem to be of particular importance in the assessment of
            dyslipidemic patients. Apolipoprotein B reflects the entire spectrum of atherogenic
            particles. In contrast, apolipoprotein A-I is considered to have anti-atherogenic
               properties<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Lipoprotein (a) consists of a
            cholesterol-rich low-density lipoprotein cholesterol particle. In adults, several
            studies have identified lipoprotein (a) as a risk factor for premature atherosclerotic
               disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. In children, it is a potential
            marker of cardiovascular risk, and, in this context, some authors have found it to be
            more sensitive than anthropometric measures<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Subjects</title>
        <p>We carried out an observational and transversal analysis, in a cohort of obese
               children, recruited randomly from the Cardiovascular Risk Clinic of the Department of
               Pediatric Cardiology of Coimbra's Pediatric Hospital, Portugal. This study complied
               with the Declaration of Helsinki. All parents gave their informed consent, which had
               been approved by the local Ethics Committee.</p>
        <p>The inclusion criteria for the study group was primary obesity [body mass index (BMI)
               above the 95<sup>th</sup> percentile (P95) for sex and age] in children aged 6 to 17
               years, without recent or chronic illnesses. The control group included healthy
               children within the same age range with normal BMI. All children had undergone a
               12-hour fast prior to clinical evaluation and blood sampling.</p>
        <p>The study group comprised 121 children and the control group, 40 children, of both
               sexes.</p>
        <p>The variables analyzed were age, pubertal age, sex, BMI, waist circumference (WC),
               percentage fat mass (%FM), <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic>, cIMT, leptin,
               adiponectin, insulin, glucose, HOMA-IR, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein
               cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, apolipoprotein A-I,
               apolipoprotein B, lipoprotein (a), left ventricular end-diastolic diameter (LVED),
               left ventricular end-systolic diameter (LVSD), interventricular septum diameter
               (IVS), left ventricular posterior wall diameter (LVPW), left ventricular mass index
               (LVMI) and LVM, left ventricular relative wall thickness (RWT).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Anthropometric and clinical evaluation</title>
        <p><italic>Acanthosis nigricans</italic> was documented as zero (0) if not present and
               as one (1) if present. Pubertal stage was based on Tanner's classification and
               divided into prepubertal (Tanner stage 1) and pubertal (Tanner stage 2-5). Weight (in
               kilograms to the nearest 100g) was determined using a SECA 220 digital weight scale
               (Medical Scales and Measuring Systems, Germany) and, for standing height (in
               centimeters to the nearest 0.1cm), a stadiometer was used, with the children wearing
               only underwear. BMI was calculated based on the formula: BMI =
                  (weight/height<sup>2</sup>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Waist
               circumference (to the nearest 0.1cm) was measured using a plastic flexible tape
               placed midway between the last rib and the iliac crest. Its percentile was based on
               published WC charts<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>. Percentage fat mass was
               determined by bioelectric impedance using the BIA 101 Anniversary analyzer (AKERN
               SRL, Italy), and defined according to %FM charts published by McCarthy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Blood collection and biochemical analysis</title>
        <p>Serum and plasma were prepared from collected venous blood samples (15 mL) and then
               frozen (-80&#176;C) for storage until analysis.</p>
        <p>Insulin levels were determined by chemiluminescence and processed in the IMMULITE
               2000 (Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics Products Ltd) analyzer, and glucose levels were
               analyzed in the VITROS 5.1 FS system (Ortho Clinical Diagnostics, Johnson &amp;
               Johnson) with Micro Slide<sup>TM</sup> technology. HOMA-IR was calculated based on
               the formula: HOMA-IR = insulin (mU/L) x glucose (mmol/L)/22.5, taking 3 as the cutoff
               value for the diagnosis of insulin resistance.</p>
        <p>Total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein
               cholesterol and triglyceride levels were measured using an automated biochemical
               VITROS 5.1 FS analyzer (Ortho Clinical Diagnostics, Johnson &amp; Johnson).</p>
        <p>Apolipoprotein A-I, B and lipoprotein (a) levels were determined by
               immunonephelometry and processed in the BN ProSpec&#174; System (Siemens Healthcare
               Diagnostics Inc.) analyzer.</p>
        <p>Leptin (eBioscience, San Diego, CA, USA) and adiponectin (BioVendor, Brno, Czech
               Republic) were evaluated using commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent
               assay kits, and the absorbances were measured at 450 nm (BIO-RAD Microplate Reader
               Model 680, Hercules, CA, USA).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Ultrasonography</title>
        <p>To determine cIMT, we used a General Electric Vivid 7 Dimension (GE, USA) ultrasound
               system and a linear, high resolution 12-mHz probe and the technique recommended by
                  Mannheim<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
        <p>In the same ultrasound system, left ventricular diameters were assessed by 2D M-mode
               echocardiography in the parasternal long axis view with the patient in the left
               lateral decubitus position, using a high-resolution 3.5-mHz transducer.</p>
        <p>Left ventricular mass was calculated using Devereux's formula:
                  0.8{1.04[LVED+LVPW+IVS)<sup>3</sup>- LVED<sup>3</sup>]}+0.6. Left ventricular
               geometry was assessed based on the LVMI (increased if &gt; P95 for sex and age) and
               the RWT (increased if &gt; 0.41), and classified as follows: normal, if both
               parameters were within the normal range; concentric remodeling, if RWT was increased
               and LVMI was normal; concentric hypertrophy, if both parameters were increased; and
               eccentric hypertrophy, if LVMI was increased and RWT was normal.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>Data were analyzed using the IBM SPSS 20 software. To calculate the case and control
               population sample size, we used the G<sup>*</sup>Power 3.1.5 program. Based on a 0.05
               level of significance, a 0.80 power, a 0.52 effect size, and a control to study group
               ratio of 3, our study group and our control group had to include 118 and 40
               individuals, respectively.</p>
        <p>Based on the sample size of the variables included in this study, normality was
               tested using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov or the Shapiro-Wilk analysis.</p>
        <p>To compare the quantitative variables in both groups, Student <italic>t</italic> test
               was used, if the distribution was normal, and Mann-Whitney U test, if not. Chi-square
               test was used for categorical variables.</p>
        <p>To verify the association between quantitative parameters, we used Pearson's
               correlation if their distribution was normal, and Spearman's correlation, if not.</p>
        <p>Quantitative variables are expressed as mean and respective standard error of the
               mean, and qualitative variables, as N(%).</p>
        <p>For multivariate analysis between the two groups, logistic regression was used.</p>
        <p>The results were considered statistically significant at p&lt;0.05.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Comparative analysis between the two groups</title>
        <p>One hundred and twenty-one obese children, 61 boys and 59 girls, with ages between 6
               and 17 years (mean age, 11.65 &#177; 0.432 years) were included in this study. The control
               group was made up of 40 healthy, non-obese children, 29 boys and 12 girls, within the
               same age group (mean age, 12.73 &#177; 0.270 years).</p>
        <p>We firstly compared the two groups regarding anthropometric, clinical, analytical and
               ultrasonographic parameters, whose results are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t01">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Anthropometric, analytical and ultrasonographic parameters of the obese and
                     non-obese groups</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">&#160;</th>
                <th colspan="2" align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                  <bold>Obese</bold>
                </th>
                <th colspan="2" align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                  <bold>Non-obese</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">&#160;</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>
                  <bold>Variable</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>N</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>Mean &#177; SEM</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>N</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>Mean &#177; SEM</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>p-value</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Age (years)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">11.65 &#177; 0.432</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">12.73 &#177; 0.270</td>
                <td align="center">0.038<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>BMI</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">28.465 &#177; 0.438</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">18.933 &#177; 0.429</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>WC (cm)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">93.15 &#177; 1.197</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">68.16 &#177; 0.861</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>%FM (%)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">36.840 &#177; 0.647</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">18.544 &#177; 0.526</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Leptin (ng/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">118</td>
                <td align="center">28.973 &#177; 1.627</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">4.845 &#177; 0.706</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Adiponectin (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">95</td>
                <td align="center">3.597 &#177; 0.140</td>
                <td align="center">32</td>
                <td align="center">5.173 &#177; 0.413</td>
                <td align="center">0.001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HOMA-IR</td>
                <td align="center">118</td>
                <td align="center">2.81 &#177; 0.165</td>
                <td align="center">33</td>
                <td align="center">1.54 &#177; 0.151</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LVED (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">45.92 &#177; 0.54</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">44.28 &#177; 0.97</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LVSD (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">29.29 &#177; 0.43</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">27.34 &#177; 0.74</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.023<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IVS (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">7.21 &#177; 0.16</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">7.11 &#177; 0.22</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PWD (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">7.51 &#177; 0.17</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">6.92 &#177; 0.24</td>
                <td align="center">0.045<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LVM (g)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">108.27 &#177; 3.75</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">95.80 &#177; 5.46</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LVMI</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">34.30 &#177; 0.79</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">28.80 &#177; 0.99</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>RWT</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">0.33 &#177; 0.080</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">0.32 &#177; 0.012</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>cIMT (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">119</td>
                <td align="center">0.49 &#177; 0.005</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">0.44 &#177; 0.055</td>
                <td align="center">0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TC (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">166.86 &#177; 2.522</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">163.83 &#177; 5.394</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LDL-C (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">96.45 &#177; 2.44</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">82.71&#177;3.74</td>
                <td align="center">0.003<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HDL-C (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">47.33 &#177; 0.90</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">59.17 &#177; 2.04</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TG (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">92.33 &#177; 4.94</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">59.15 &#177; 4.28</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Apo A-I (g/L)</td>
                <td align="center">114</td>
                <td align="center">1.34 &#177; 0.018</td>
                <td align="center">33</td>
                <td align="center">1.47 &#177; 0.043</td>
                <td align="center">0.001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Apo B (g/L)</td>
                <td align="center">114</td>
                <td align="center">0.74 &#177; 0.016</td>
                <td align="center">33</td>
                <td align="center">0.66 &#177; 0.032</td>
                <td align="center">0.016<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lp (a) (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">114</td>
                <td align="center">27.42 &#177; 2.56</td>
                <td align="center">33</td>
                <td align="center">17.6 &#177; 2.92</td>
                <td align="center">0.014<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Male N(%)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">61 (50.8%)</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">29 (70.7%)</td>
                <td align="center">0.027<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn>
              <p>N: sample number; SEM: standard error of the mean; p-value: level of
                        significance; BMI: body mass index; WC: waist circumference; %FM: percent
                        fat mass; HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance;
                        LVED: left ventricular end-diastolic diameter; LVSD: left ventricular
                        end-systolic diameter; IVS: interventricular septum diastolic diameter; PWD:
                        left ventricular diastolic posterior wall diameter; LVM: left ventricular
                        mass; LVMI: left ventricular mass index; RWT relative wall thickness; cIMT:
                        common carotid artery intima-media thickness; TC: total cholesterol; LDL-C:
                        low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein
                        cholesterol; TG: triglycerides; Apo A-I: apolipoprotein A-I; Apo B:
                        apolipoprotein B; Lp (a): lipoprotein (a);</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN01">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Student t test;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN02">
              <label>**</label>
              <p>Mann-Whitney U test.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>As age (p=0.038) and sex (p=0.027) showed significant statistical differences between
               the two groups, with higher age in the control group, the analysis was repeated using
               logistic regression, but adjusted for these parameters. On adjusting, the statistical
               differences remained, but LVED (p&lt;0.001) and LVM, both higher in the obese group,
               (p&lt;0.001) became significant.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Analysis of the obese group</title>
        <p>In the obese group, we firstly analyzed the influence of sex and age group (pre- and
               adolescence) on these variables. Regarding sex, leptin (p=0.001) and adiponectin
               (p=0.04) were significantly higher in girls, and LVED (p=0.023), LVM (p=0.011) and
               LVMI (p=0.044) were significantly higher in boys. Analysis by age group showed
               statistically significant differences for LVED (p&lt;0.001), LVSD (p&lt;0.001), IVS
               (p=0.008) and LVPW (p&lt;0.001), higher in the pre-adolescent group, and BMI
               (p&lt;0.001), WC (p&lt;0.001), triglycerides (p=0.014) and adiponectin (p=0.010),
               higher in the adolescent group.</p>
        <p><italic>Acanthosis nigricans</italic> was found in 62% of the obese population (0% in
               the non-obese group). In the pre-adolescent group, males were more affected (53.7% vs
               48.5% in females) and, in the adolescent group, females predominated (51.5% vs 46.3%
               in males).</p>
        <p>We then used Pearson's correlation to establish the association between the indices
               of adiposity and insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, cIMT and LVMI.</p>
        <p>Regarding the echocardiographic data, as demonstrated in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Table 2</xref>, BMI was directly and moderately correlated to LVED
               (r=0.54; p&lt;0.001) and LVSD (r=0.46; p&lt;0.001), as well as to LVM (r=0.54;
               p&lt;0.001), and less so to LVPW (r=0.34; p&lt;0.001), IVS (r=0.19; p=0.034) and LVMI
               (r=0.26; p&lt;0.001). Waist circumference showed a similar pattern, whereas %FM was
               not correlated to any of these parameters. The RWT was not correlated to these
               indices.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t02">
          <label>Table 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Correlations between body mass index, waist circumference and percentage
                     fat mass with the echocardiographic parameters, leptin, common carotid artery
                     intima-media thickness and insulin resistance in the obese group</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">&#160;</th>
                <th align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                  <bold>BMI (Kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">&#160;</th>
                <th align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                  <bold>WC (cm)</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">&#160;</th>
                <th align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                  <bold>%FM (%)</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center" style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">&#160;</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>
                  <bold>Variable</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>Pearson correlation</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>p-value</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>Pearson correlation</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>p-value</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>Pearson correlation</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>p-value</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>LVED (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">0,54<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">0.53<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">-0.05</td>
                <td align="center">0.593</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LVSD (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">0.46<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">0.47<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">-0.06</td>
                <td align="center">0.497</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IVS (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">0.20<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">0.034</td>
                <td align="center">0.16</td>
                <td align="center">0.103</td>
                <td align="center">0.16</td>
                <td align="center">0.082</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PWD (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">0.34<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">0.32<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">0.001</td>
                <td align="center">0.14</td>
                <td align="center">0.124</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LVM (g)</td>
                <td align="center">0,54<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">0,52<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">0.09</td>
                <td align="center">0.324</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LVMI</td>
                <td align="center">0.26<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">0.10</td>
                <td align="center">0.298</td>
                <td align="center">0.09</td>
                <td align="center">0.311</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>RWT</td>
                <td align="center">0.06</td>
                <td align="center">0.508</td>
                <td align="center">0.05</td>
                <td align="center">0.578</td>
                <td align="center">0.17</td>
                <td align="center">0.064</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>cIMT (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">0.21<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">0.025</td>
                <td align="center">0.19<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">0.047</td>
                <td align="center">0.03</td>
                <td align="center">0.725</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Leptin (ng/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">0.34<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">0.34<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">0.29<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">0.002</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Adiponectin (&#181;g/mL)</td>
                <td align="center">0.18<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">0.046</td>
                <td align="center">0.27<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">0.004</td>
                <td align="center">0.22<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">0.016</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HOMA-IR</td>
                <td align="center">0.38<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">0.36<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                <td align="center">0.35<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">**</xref></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn>
              <p>BMI: body mass index; WC: waist circumference; %FM: percent fat mass LVED:
                        left ventricular end-diastolic diameter; LVSD: left ventricular end-systolic
                        diameter; IVS: interventricular septum diameter; PWD: left ventricular
                        posterior wall diameter; LVM: left ventricular mass; LVMI:left ventricular
                        mass index; RWT relative wall thickness; cIMT common carotid artery
                        intima-media thickness; HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment for insulin
                        resistance;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN03">
              <p>correlation is significant at the *0.05 level and at the ** 0.01 level
                        (2-tailed).</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Left ventricular mass index above the P95 and RWT &gt; 0.41 were seen in 31.7% and
               18.3 % of the sample, respectively. Based on these findings we then subdivided left
               ventricular geometry into three patterns: eccentric hypertrophy (21.7%); concentric
               hypertrophy (10%); and concentric remodeling (8.3%).</p>
        <p>Concerning the plasma lipids and lipoproteins profile, high-density lipoprotein
               cholesterol was the only variable that was inversely, but weakly correlated to BMI
               (r= -0.30; p&lt;0.01) and WC (r= -0.26; p&lt;0.01). Percentage fat mass did not show
               any significant correlation to plasma lipid and lipoprotein levels.</p>
        <p>Body mass index was directly, but weakly correlated to leptin (r=0.39; p&lt;0.001),
               cIMT (r=0.21; p=0.026) and HOMA-IR (r=0.38; p&lt;0.001). Waist circumference was
               directly, but weakly correlated to leptin (r=0.34; p&lt;0.001), cIMT (r=0.19;
               p=0.047) and HOMA-IR (r=0.36; p&lt;0.001). Percent fat mass was directly, but weakly
               correlated to leptin (r=0.29; p=0.002) and HOMA-IR (r=0.36; p&lt;0.001).</p>
        <p>The HOMA-IR was inversely correlated to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (r=
               -0.2999; p=0.002) and directly, but weakly, correlated to triglyceride levels (r=
               0.25; p=0.006).</p>
        <p>In this study, 38.1% of our population was considered insulin resistant, 68.9% had
                  <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic>, higher than the non-insulin resistant group
               (31.1%), although this difference was not statistically significant (p=0.515). Girls
               and adolescents represented 60% and 62.2% of the insulin resistant group, the
               statistical differences being non-significant (p=0.088 and p=0.221,
               respectively).</p>
        <p>The cIMT was directly correlated to LVM (r=0.21; p=0.019), LVED (r=0.30; p=0.001) and
               LVSD (r=0.30; p=0.001).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>We have demonstrated that there are statistically significant differences between the
            obese and control groups for the variables analyzed and that adiposity has a clear
            impact on insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, cIMT and LVM in obese children.</p>
      <p>Insulin resistance in childhood is predictive of insulin resistance in adult life. It is
            the most common metabolic abnormality related to obesity and is strongly linked to type
            2 diabetes and cardiovascular disorders<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. Based on the HOMA-IR
            results, 38% of the obese group individuals were considered insulin resistant. None had
            type 2 diabetes. In our study the prevalence of insulin resistance is lower than that
            published (50%-70%)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. This discrepancy may be
            due to the different HOMA-IR cutoff values used in the various reports to diagnose
            insulin resistance, as standardized cutoff value has not been put forward<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>.</p>
      <p>The association between obesity and <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic> has been well
            documented. The overall prevalence is 62%, similar to that found in our group of obese
            children (65%), mainly in boys (70.5%). As insulin is related to <italic>acanthosis
               </italic><italic>nigricans</italic>, some authors have proposed it as a reliable
            marker of hyperinsulinemia, and hence, insulin resistance<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>. As expected, we found insulin to be significantly correlated to
               <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic>; however, we failed to establish an association
            between <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic> and insulin resistance, as one third of
            our obese children with insulin resistance had no evidence of <italic>acanthosis
               nigricans</italic>. This observation is consistent with some results published<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>. Clearly, in our experience, <italic>acanthosis
               nigricans</italic> was not a reliable marker of insulin resistance, and, thus, should
            not be used as a screening marker for type 2 diabetes in obese children, as proposed by
            some authors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Nevertheless, as a clinical sign
            in the context of obesity, it ought to alert clinicians to the underlying
            pathophysiological mechanisms of insulin resistance and act accordingly. In fact, our
            observations led to the conclusion that insulin resistance was mostly related to %FM,
            BMI, WC and leptin, and inversely related to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. These
            findings mirror the most important factors related to insulin resistance, namely the
            interplay between adiposity, adipokines and dyslipidemia.</p>
      <p>Dyslipidemia was also a prominent cardiovascular risk factor found in our study
            population, particularly when compared to our control group. Considering the values
            proposed by the National Cholesterol Education Program Expert Panel on Cholesterol
            Levels in Children<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>, 45% had intermediate-high
            to high levels of triglycerides, 42.5% had intermediate-low to low levels of
            high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and 31% had intermediate-low to low levels of
            low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. As a combined dyslipidemia, it represented 12.5% of
            our sample. This pattern is different from that found in non-obese children, namely high
            total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, and is considered particularly
            atherogenic as small dense low-density lipoprotein particles are inefficiently cleared
            by low-density lipoprotein receptors, elevated total low-density lipoprotein levels
            increase the risk of entrapment in the subendothelial matrix, and decreased levels of
            high-density lipoprotein particles limit reverse cholesterol transport. As observed in
            our study, insulin resistance was inversely correlated to high-density lipoprotein
            cholesterol but not to low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, potentially contributing to
            the mechanisms that trigger early onset atherosclerosis and, hence, cardiovascular
            disease in young adults. Research shows that this combined dyslipidemia pattern is
            increasing in prevalence and predicts vascular dysfunction in young adults and early
            clinical events in adult life.</p>
      <p>We also compared apolipoprotein A-I, B and lipoprotein (a) between the two groups.
            Although the obese group undoubtedly had a more atherogenic profile [higher
            apolipoprotein B and lipoprotein (a) and lower apolipoprotein A-I], none of these
            variables correlated to insulin resistance. Individually, apolipoprotein B was weakly
            correlated to leptin (r= 0.33; p &lt;0.001), apolipoprotein A-I was inversely, but
            weakly, correlated to BMI (r= -0.19; p = 0.042), and lipoprotein (a) to BMI (r= 0.22; p
            = 0.019) and leptin (r= 0.21; p =0.029). Unlike Cunnigham et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>, which found lipoprotein (a) to be a useful cardiovascular risk
            marker in children, we did not come to the same conclusion, possibly due to differences
            in population ethnicity. In fact, based on these findings, it appears that plasma
            lipoproteins do not offer an advantage over lipoprotein cholesterol measures in the
            management of dyslipidemias and risk stratification during childhood, at least in our
            population. Along the same lines, studies in obese adults with insulin resistance have
            concluded that plasma lipoproteins do not provide further prognostic information when
            compared to the standard lipoprotein cholesterol profile.</p>
      <p>The atherogenicity induced by insulin resistance and lipid abnormalities during
            childhood result in structural vascular changes that can be assessed non-invasively by
            ultrasonography of the cIMT. This variable has been validated as a cardiovascular risk
            marker in children and adults, although in obese children, observations have not always
            been consensual<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. We sought to correlate cIMT
            with other cardiovascular risk markers and its usefulness as a surrogate of preclinical
            atherosclerosis. Contrary to the findings by Tounian et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>, in our analysis, cIMT was significantly higher (p&lt;0.001) in
            the obese group. In this group, multivariate analysis demonstrated that the most
            significant correlations were with age (r= 0.26; p= 0.004), BMI (r=0.21; p=0.025) and WC
            (r= 0.19; p=0.047), suggesting a direct link between adiposity and cIMT, whereas lipids
            and lipoproteins were not related. The latter finding does not concur with the
            observations published by Magnussen et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>, a
            far larger study, where childhood dyslipidemia was related to an increase in cIMT in
            adulthood. Most likely our smaller sample size accounts for these differences.</p>
      <p>We also investigated whether LVM and LVMI were linked to adiposity. Left ventricular
            mass index was above the P95 in 32% of our obese group. Through multivariate analysis,
            we were able to show a direct correlation to age, BMI and WC, but, when indexed to
               height<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>, only BMI remained significantly correlated. This confirms
            previous observations, and highlights the impact of adiposity on left ventricular
            dimensions, whose adverse effects are already present in our young obese population, and
            which are known to track into adulthood. In adults, a LVMI &gt; 51g/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref> carries prognostic significance as these individuals are known to be more
            susceptible to cardiovascular events<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. We also aimed at
            addressing the relationship between adiposity and abnormal ventricular geometric
            patterns. Overall, 40% of our population presented abnormal geometric patterns, the most
            common being eccentric left ventricular hypertrophy (21.7%). Considering that obesity is
            characterized by chronic volume overload, this would be the expected pattern; however,
            several adult studies have shown that, in fact, concentric hypertrophy is the most
            common ventricular geometric abnormality, even in the absence of arterial hypertension,
            implying that mechanisms other than volume overload play a role. Based on these results
            we postulate that volume overload is an important contributing factor, as we found no
            other relevant associations. Nevertheless, 10% of our population had left ventricular
            concentric hypertrophy, followed by 8% with concentric left ventricular remodeling. The
            latter condition, although not related to increased LVMI, has also been shown to be
            associated with adverse cardiac events and provides another marker for assessing
            cardiovascular risk in children<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>.</p>
      <p>This study has a few limitations, our sample size, particularly the control group, being
            one. Due to our local population characteristics, our sample included Caucasian children
            only. Implicitly, these factors may represent a bias.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>In conclusion, we have highlighted indices of adiposity as a common link to adverse
            metabolic and structural changes patent in obese children. As these track into
            adulthood, efforts should continue to be made to reverse these changes, aiming at
            lifestyle modifications, and potentially decreasing the socioeconomic burden of
            cardiovascular disease in adulthood.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by Ant&#243;nio Pires , from
               Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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            <name>
              <surname>Hermann</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Beghetti</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Associations among obesity, blood pressure and left ventricular
                  mass</article-title>
          <source>J Pediatr</source>
          <year>2008</year>
          <volume>152</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <fpage>489</fpage>
          <lpage>493</lpage>
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        <mixed-citation>36. Abel ED, Litwin SE, Sweeney G. Cardiac remodeling in obesity.
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              <surname>Abel</surname>
              <given-names>ED</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Litwin</surname>
              <given-names>SE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sweeney</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
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          <article-title>Cardiac remodeling in obesity</article-title>
          <source>Physiol Rev</source>
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        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Insulino-resist&#234;ncia, Dislipidemia e Altera&#231;&#245;es Cardiovasculares num
               Grupo de Crian&#231;as Obesas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pires</surname>
            <given-names>Ant&#243;nio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Paula</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Margarida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Patricia Vaz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marinho</surname>
            <given-names>Joana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marques</surname>
            <given-names>Margarida</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff06">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castela</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sena</surname>
            <given-names>Cristina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff05">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sei&#231;a</surname>
            <given-names>Raquel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff05">2</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff04">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro Hospitalar e Universit&#225;rio de Coimbra;
               Coimbra &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff05">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Fisiologia - Instituto Biom&#233;dico de
               Investiga&#231;&#227;o da Luz e Imagem da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra;
               Coimbra &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff06">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Estat&#237;stica da Faculdade de Medicina
               da Universidade de Coimbra - Instituto Biom&#233;dico de Investiga&#231;&#227;o da Luz e Imagem;
               Coimbra &#8211; Portugal</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Antonio Manuel Pires</bold>, Rua Nova do Rossio, 20, Bairo Novo
               do Rossio, Anca. 3060-011, Coimbra &#8211; Portugal. Email:
                  <email>pires1961@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Pires A, Matins P. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Pires A,
                  Pereira AM, Silva PV, Marinho J. An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Pires A, Sena
                  C, Sei&#231;a R. An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica: Pires A, Marques M, Sena C. Reda&#231;&#227;o do
                  manuscrito: Pires A, Matins P. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do
                  intelectual importante: Pires A, Matins P, Silva PV, Marinho J, Castela E, Sena C,
                  Sei&#231;a R. Procedimento de an&#225;lise: Pereira AM.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>As comorbidades relacionadas com a obesidade encontram-se patentes em crian&#231;as
                  jovens obesas e s&#227;o, potencialmente, um ponto de partida para as doen&#231;as
                  cardiovasculares em adultos jovens.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos:</title>
          <p>Comparar e correlacionar marcadores de adiposidade com dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos e
                  altera&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares numa coorte de crian&#231;as obesas europeias.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Estudo observacional e transversal de uma coorte composta por 121 crian&#231;as obesas
                  de ambos os g&#234;neros, entre 6 e 17 anos de idade. O grupo controle incluiu 40
                  crian&#231;as com &#237;ndice de massa corporal normal dentro da mesma faixa et&#225;ria.
                  Analisamos marcadores de adiposidade, l&#237;pides e lipoprote&#237;nas, o &#237;ndice de
                  insulino-resist&#234;ncia, a espessura da camada &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum
                  e os di&#226;metros do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>Observamos diferen&#231;as significativas entre os grupos controle e obeso para todos
                  os par&#226;metros em an&#225;lise, com todos os valores mais elevados no grupo obeso,
                  exceto a idade, a lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade e a adiponectina, superiores no
                  grupo controle. No grupo obeso, o &#237;ndice de massa corporal correlacionou&#8209;se
                  diretamente com a massa ventricular esquerda (r=0,542; p=0,001), com o &#237;ndice de
                  insulino-resist&#234;ncia (r = 0,378; p = &lt; 0,001) e com a espessura da camada
                  &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum (r = 0,378; p = &lt;0,001). Ainda no grupo
                  obeso, 38,1% tinham insulino-resist&#234;ncia, 12,5% apresentavam um padr&#227;o de
                  dislipidemia combinada, e hipertrofia exc&#234;ntrica foi a forma geom&#233;trica
                  ventricular mais observada.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es:</title>
          <p>Os resultados obtidos sugerem que os marcadores analizados podem ser utilizados
                  para aferir risco cardiovascular, assim como para avaliar o impacto anal&#237;tico e
                  morfol&#243;gico dos programas de redu&#231;&#227;o de peso.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Obesidade Pedi&#225;trica</kwd>
        <kwd>Resist&#234;ncia &#224; Insulina</kwd>
        <kwd>Dislipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A crescente preval&#234;ncia de obesidade infantil levou a um aumento do risco de diabetes
               e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares na idade adulta<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
        <p>Uma das complica&#231;&#245;es mais preocupantes da obesidade infantil &#233; a resist&#234;ncia
               insul&#237;nica, considerada precursora de diabetes <italic>mellitus</italic> do tipo
                  2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, o modelo de
               avalia&#231;&#227;o da homeostase para resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica (HOMA-IR) &#233; usado para
               diagnosticar a resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica, sendo um preditor independente de patologia
               card&#237;aca na idade adulta<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Do ponto de vista
               cl&#237;nico, a <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic>, uma les&#227;o hiperpigmentada de
               colora&#231;&#227;o marrom e aveludada, geralmente encontrada nas pregas cut&#226;neas, foi
               relacionada a obesidade e resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.</p>
        <p>Em adultos, a espessura da camada &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria car&#244;tida comum (cIMT)
               correlaciona-se com a incid&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares, sendo, como tal,
               considerada um ferramenta &#250;til para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. V&#225;rios estudos mostraram que a cIMT acha-se
               aumentada em crian&#231;as com fatores de risco cardiovascular, o que pode torn&#225;-la uma
               ferramenta &#250;til para avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular em crian&#231;as<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
        <p>Outro fator de risco cardiovascular &#233; a massa ventricular esquerda (MVE)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">9</xref>. Como demonstrado pelo <italic>Bogalusa Heart
                  Study</italic>, a adiposidade na inf&#226;ncia acha-se relacionada &#224; MVE em adultos,
               estando a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda forte e independentemente relacionada a
               morbimortalidade cardiovascular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">10</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Ainda que a
               hipertrofia ventricular esquerda seja rara em crian&#231;as obesas, o remodelamento
               card&#237;aco j&#225; deve estar presente, o que se descobriu ser preditor de desfechos
               cardiovasculares adversos em adultos, particularmente em pacientes hipertensos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
        <p>A dislipidemia &#233; outro fator de risco cardiovascular relacionado a obesidade.
               Estima-se que 42% das crian&#231;as obesas apresentem anormalidades lip&#237;dicas, em
               particular aquelas com obesidade visceral<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>.
               Nessas, o padr&#227;o de anormalidade lip&#237;dica mais comum consiste em n&#237;veis elevados de
               triglicer&#237;deos, n&#237;veis diminu&#237;dos de colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade e
               n&#237;veis normais a levemente elevados de colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa
               densidade.</p>
        <p>As lipoprote&#237;nas plasm&#225;ticas parecem ser particularmente importantes na avalia&#231;&#227;o dos
               pacientes dislipid&#234;micos. A apolipoprote&#237;na B reflete todo o espectro de part&#237;culas
               aterog&#234;nicas. Em contraste, considera-se que a apolipoprote&#237;na A-I tenha propriedades
                  antiaterog&#234;nicas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. A lipoprote&#237;na (a)
               consiste em uma part&#237;cula rica em colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade. Em
               adultos, v&#225;rios estudos identificaram a lipoprote&#237;na (a) como fator de risco para
               doen&#231;a ateroscler&#244;tica prematura<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. Em
               crian&#231;as, &#233; um marcador potencial de risco cardiovascular, sendo, nesse contexto,
               considerada mais sens&#237;vel do que medidas antropom&#233;tricas por alguns autores<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Sujeitos</title>
          <p>Trata-se de estudo observacional e transversal, em uma coorte de crian&#231;as obesas
                  recrutadas aleatoriamente da Cl&#237;nica de Risco Cardiovascular do Departamento de
                  Cardiologia Pedi&#225;trica do Hospital Pedi&#225;trico de Coimbra, Portugal. Este estudo
                  est&#225; em conformidade com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki. Todos os pais assinaram o termo
                  de consentimento livre e esclarecido, que havia sido aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica
                  local.</p>
          <p>O crit&#233;rio de inclus&#227;o para o grupo de estudo foi obesidade prim&#225;ria [&#237;ndice de
                  massa corporal (IMC) acima do percentil 95 para sexo e idade] em crian&#231;as com
                  idade entre 6 e 17 anos e sem doen&#231;a recente ou cr&#244;nica. O grupo controle incluiu
                  crian&#231;as saud&#225;veis da mesma faixa et&#225;ria com IMC normal. Todos os participantes
                  foram submetidos a jejum de 12 horas antes da avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e coleta de
                  sangue.</p>
          <p>Os grupos de estudo e controle foram formados por 121 e 40 crian&#231;as,
                  respectivamente, de ambos os sexos.</p>
          <p>As seguintes vari&#225;veis foram analisadas: idade, idade puberal, sexo, IMC,
                  circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal (CA), porcentagem de massa gorda (%MG),
                     <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic>, cIMT, leptina, adiponectina, insulina,
                  glicose, HOMA-IR, colesterol total, colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade,
                  colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade, triglicer&#237;deos, apolipoprote&#237;na
                  A-I, apolipoprote&#237;na B, lipoprote&#237;na (a), di&#226;metro diast&#244;lico final ventricular
                  esquerdo (DDFVE), di&#226;metro sist&#244;lico final ventricular esquerdo (DSFVE), di&#226;metro
                  do septo interventricular (SIV), di&#226;metro da parede posterior ventricular esquerda
                  (PPVE), &#237;ndice de massa ventricular esquerda (IMVE) e MVE, e espessura relativa da
                  parede ventricular esquerda (ERP).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o antropom&#233;trica e cl&#237;nica</title>
          <p><italic>Acanthosis nigricans</italic> foi documentada como zero (0), se n&#227;o
                  presente, e como um (1), se presente. A idade puberal teve por base a
                  classifica&#231;&#227;o de Tanner, sendo dividida em pr&#233;-puberal (Tanner est&#225;gio 1) e
                  puberal (Tanner est&#225;gio 2-5). Determinaram-se peso (em quilogramas com aproxima&#231;&#227;o
                  de 100g), usando-se balan&#231;a digital SECA 220 (Medical Scales and Measuring
                  Systems, Alemanha), e altura (em cent&#237;metros com aproxima&#231;&#227;o de 0,1cm), usando-se
                  estadi&#244;metro, com as crian&#231;as vestindo apenas roupas leves. Calculou-se o IMC com
                  base na f&#244;rmula: IMC = (peso/altura<sup>2</sup>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Mediu-se a CA (com aproxima&#231;&#227;o de 0,1cm) com uma fita m&#233;trica
                  flex&#237;vel pl&#225;stica posicionada a meio caminho entre a &#250;ltima costela e a crista
                  il&#237;aca. O percentil foi baseado em tabelas de CA publicadas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>. Determinou-se a %MG atrav&#233;s de bioimped&#226;ncia el&#233;trica,
                  usando-se o analisador BIA 101 Anniversary (Akern SRL, It&#225;lia), sendo definida de
                  acordo com tabelas de %MG publicadas por McCarthy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Coleta de sangue e an&#225;lise bioqu&#237;mica</title>
          <p>Soro e plasma foram preparados a partir de amostras de sangue venoso coletadas (15
                  ml) e congeladas (-80&#186;C) para armazenamento at&#233; an&#225;lise.</p>
          <p>Os n&#237;veis de insulina foram determinados por quimioluminesc&#234;ncia e processados no
                  analisador IMMULITE&#174; 2000 (Siemens Healthcare Diagnostics Products Ltda), sendo os
                  n&#237;veis de glicose analisados no sistema VITROS&#174; 5.1 FS (Ortho Clinical
                  Diagnostics, Johnson &amp; Johnson) com tecnologia Micro Slide<sup>TM</sup>.
                  Calculou-se HOMA-IR com base na f&#244;rmula: HOMA-IR = insulina (mU/l) x glicose
                  (mmol/l)/22,5, considerando-se 3 como valor de corte para o diagn&#244;stico de
                  resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica.</p>
          <p>Mediram-se os n&#237;veis das seguintes vari&#225;veis usando-se um analisador bioqu&#237;mico
                  autom&#225;tico VITROS 5.1 FS (Ortho Clinical Diagnostics, Johnson &amp; Johnson):
                  colesterol total, colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade, colesterol de
                  lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade e triglicer&#237;deos.</p>
          <p>Os n&#237;veis de apolipoprote&#237;na A-I e B e lipoprote&#237;na (a) foram determinados atrav&#233;s
                  de imunonefelometria e processados no analisador do sistema BN ProSpec&#174; (Siemens
                  Healthcare Diagnostics Inc.).</p>
          <p>Os n&#237;veis de leptina (eBioscience, San Diego, CA, EUA) e adiponectina (BioVendor,
                  Brno, Rep&#250;blica Checa) foram avaliados usando-se <italic>kits</italic> de ELISA
                     (<italic>enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay</italic>) comercialmente
                  dispon&#237;veis, sendo as absorb&#226;ncias medidas a 450 nm (BIO-RAD Microplate Reader
                  Model 680, Hercules, CA, EUA).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Ultrassonografia</title>
          <p>Para a determina&#231;&#227;o da cIMT, usaram-se o sistema de ultrassom General Electric
                  Vivid 7 Dimension (GE, EUA) e uma sonda linear de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o de 12-mHz,
                  segundo a t&#233;cnica recomendada por Mannheim<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
          <p>No mesmo sistema de ultrassom, avaliou-se o di&#226;metro ventricular esquerdo atrav&#233;s
                  de ecocardiografia bidimensional e em modo M em corte paraesternal do eixo longo
                  com o paciente em dec&#250;bito lateral esquerdo, usando-se um transdutor de alta
                  resolu&#231;&#227;o de 3,5 mHz.</p>
          <p>A MVE foi calculada usando-se a f&#244;rmula de Devereux:
                     0,8{1,04[DDFVE+PPVE+SIV)<sup>3</sup>- DDFVE<sup>3</sup>]}+0,6. A geometria
                  ventricular esquerda foi avaliada com base no IMVE (elevado se &gt; P95 para sexo
                  e idade) e na ERP (aumentada se &gt; 0,41), sendo classificada como se segue:
                  normal, se ambos os par&#226;metros estiverem dentro da faixa de normalidade;
                  remodelamento conc&#234;ntrico, se a ERP estiver aumentada e o IMVE for normal;
                  hipertrofia conc&#234;ntrica, se ambos os par&#226;metros estiverem aumentados; e
                  hipertrofia exc&#234;ntrica, se o IMVE estiver amentado e a ERP, normal.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Os dados foram analisados usando-se o programa IBM SPSS 20. Para calcular o
                  tamanho das amostras dos grupos de estudo e controle, usou-se o programa
                     G<sup>*</sup>Power 3.1.5. Com base em um n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de 0,05, um
                  poder de 0,80, um tamanho de efeito de 0,52 e uma rela&#231;&#227;o entre grupos controle e
                  estudo de 3, nossos grupos de estudo e controle tiveram que incluir 118 e 40
                  indiv&#237;duos, respectivamente.</p>
          <p>Com base no tamanho da amostra das vari&#225;veis inclu&#237;das neste estudo, testou-se a
                  normalidade com o teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov ou de Shapiro-Wilk.</p>
          <p>Para comparar as vari&#225;veis quantitativas nos dois grupos, usou-se o teste
                     <italic>t</italic> de Student, para distribui&#231;&#227;o normal, e o teste U de
                  Mann-Whitney, quando n&#227;o normal. O teste de qui-quadrado foi usado para vari&#225;veis
                  categ&#244;ricas.</p>
          <p>Para verificar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre par&#226;metros quantitativos, usaram-se a correla&#231;&#227;o
                  de Pearson, se sua distribui&#231;&#227;o fosse normal, e a correla&#231;&#227;o de Spearman, quando
                  n&#227;o.</p>
          <p>As vari&#225;veis quantitativas foram expressas como m&#233;dia e respectivo erro padr&#227;o da
                  m&#233;dia, e as vari&#225;veis qualitativas, como valores absolutos e relativos [N(%)].</p>
          <p>Usou-se regress&#227;o log&#237;stica para a an&#225;lise multivariada entre os dois grupos.</p>
          <p>Os resultados foram considerados estatisticamente significativos para p &lt;
                  0,05.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>Cento e vinte e uma crian&#231;as obesas, 61 meninos e 59 meninas, com idades entre 6 e 17
               anos (idade m&#233;dia, 11,65 &#177; 0,432 anos) foram inclu&#237;das neste estudo. O grupo controle
               compreendeu 40 crian&#231;as n&#227;o obesas saud&#225;veis, 29 meninos e 12 meninas, da mesma faixa
               et&#225;ria (idade m&#233;dia, 12,73 &#177; 0,27 anos).</p>
        <p>Primeiramente, os dois grupos foram comparados quanto aos par&#226;metros antropom&#233;tricos,
               cl&#237;nicos, anal&#237;ticos e ultrassonogr&#225;ficos, cujos resultados s&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t03">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t03">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Par&#226;metros antropom&#233;tricos, anal&#237;ticos e ultrassonogr&#225;ficos dos grupos
                     obeso e n&#227;o obeso</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>&#160;</th>
                <th align="center">&#160;</th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>Obeso</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">&#160;</th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>N&#227;o obeso</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">&#160;</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>
                  <bold>Vari&#225;vel</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>N</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>M&#233;dia &#177; EPM</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>N</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>M&#233;dia &#177; EPM</bold>
                </th>
                <th align="center">
                  <bold>Valor de p</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade (anos)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">11,65 &#177;0,432</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">12,73&#177;0,270</td>
                <td align="center">0,038<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN05">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IMC</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">28,465+0,438</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">18,933&#177;0,429</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>CA (cm)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">93,15&#177;1,197</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">68,16&#177;0,861</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN05">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>% MG (%)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">36,840+0,647</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">18,544&#177;0,526</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Leptina (ng/ml)</td>
                <td align="center">118</td>
                <td align="center">28,973+1,627</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">4,845&#177;0,706</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Adiponectina (&#181;g/ml)</td>
                <td align="center">95</td>
                <td align="center">3,597&#177;0,140</td>
                <td align="center">32</td>
                <td align="center">5,173&#177;0,413</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HOMA-IR</td>
                <td align="center">118</td>
                <td align="center">2,81&#177;0,165</td>
                <td align="center">33</td>
                <td align="center">1,54&#177;0,151</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN05">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>DDFVE (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">45,92&#177;0,54</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">44,28&#177;0,97</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>DSFVE (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">29,29&#177;0,43</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">27,34&#177;0,74</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,023<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>SIV (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">7,21&#177;0,16</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">7,11&#177;0,22</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PPVE (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">7,51&#177;0,17</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">6,92&#177;0,24</td>
                <td align="center">0,045<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>MVE (g)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">108,27&#177;3,75</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">95,80&#177;5,46</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IMVE</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">34,30&#177;0,79</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">28,80&#177;0,99</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>ERP</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">0,33&#177;0,080</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">0,32&#177;0,012</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>cIMT (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">119</td>
                <td align="center">0,49&#177;0,005</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">0,44&#177;0,055</td>
                <td align="center">0,001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN05">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>CT (mg/dl)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">166,86&#177;2,522</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">163,83&#177;5,394</td>
                <td align="center">NS</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>LDL-C (mg/dl)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">96,45&#177;2,44</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">82,71&#177;3,74</td>
                <td align="center">0,003<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>HDL-C (mg/dl)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">47,33&#177;0,90</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">59,17&#177;2,04</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN05">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>TG (mg/dl)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">92,33&#177;4,94</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">59,15&#177;4,28</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN05">**</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Apo A-I ( g/l)</td>
                <td align="center">114</td>
                <td align="center">1,34&#177;0,018</td>
                <td align="center">33</td>
                <td align="center">1,47&#177;0,043</td>
                <td align="center">0,001<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Apo B (g/l)</td>
                <td align="center">114</td>
                <td align="center">0,74&#177;0,016</td>
                <td align="center">33</td>
                <td align="center">0,66&#177;0,032</td>
                <td align="center">0,016<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Lp (a) (mg/dl)</td>
                <td align="center">114</td>
                <td align="center">27,42&#177;2,56</td>
                <td align="center">33</td>
                <td align="center">17,6&#177;2,92</td>
                <td align="center">0,014<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Masculino N(%)</td>
                <td align="center">121</td>
                <td align="center">61 (50,8%)</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">29 (70,7%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,027<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn>
              <p>N; tamanho da amostra; EPM: erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia; p-valor- n&#237;vel de
                        signific&#226;ncia; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; CA; circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal;
                        %MG: porcentagem de massa gorda; HOMA-IR; modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o de homeostase
                        para resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica; DDFVE; di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico final ventricular
                        esquerdo; DSFVE; di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico final ventricular esquerdo; SIV;
                        di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do septo interventricular; PPVE; di&#226;metro da parede
                        posterior ventricular esquerda; MVE; massa ventricular esquerda; IMVE;
                        &#237;ndice de massa ventricular esquerda; ERP: espessura relativa da parede
                        ventricular esquerda; cIMT espessura da camada &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria
                        car&#243;tida comum; CT colesterol total; LDL-C; colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de
                        baixa densidade; HDL-C; colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; TG;
                        triglicer&#237;deos; Apo A-I; apolipoprote&#237;na A-I; Apo B&gt; apolipoprote&#237;na B;
                        Lp (a); lipoprote&#237;na (a);</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN04">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>teste t de Student;</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN05">
              <label>**</label>
              <p>teste U de Mann-Whitney.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Como idade (p = 0,038) e sexo (p = 0,027) mostraram significativas diferen&#231;as
               estat&#237;sticas entre os dois grupos, com idade maior no grupo controle, repetiu-se a
               an&#225;lise usando regress&#227;o log&#237;stica, mas ajustada para tais par&#226;metros. No ajuste, as
               diferen&#231;as estat&#237;sticas permaneceram, mas o DDFVE (p &lt; 0,001) e a MVE, ambos mais
               elevados no grupo obeso (p &lt; 0,001), permaneceram significativos.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise do grupo obeso</title>
          <p>No grupo obeso, analisou-se primeiramente a influ&#234;ncia de sexo e faixa et&#225;ria
                  (pr&#233;- e adolesc&#234;ncia) nessas vari&#225;veis. Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao sexo, leptina (p = 0,001) e
                  adiponectina (p = 0,04) foram significativamente maiores nas meninas, e DDFVE (p =
                  0,023), MVE (p = 0,011) e IMVE (p = 0,044) foram significativamente mais elevados
                  nos meninos. A an&#225;lise por faixa et&#225;ria mostrou diferen&#231;as estatisticamente
                  significantes para DDFVE (p &lt; 0,001), DSFVE (p &lt; 0,001), SIV (p = 0,008) e
                  PPVE (p &lt; 0,001), maiores no grupo pr&#233;-adolescente, e IMC (p &lt; 0,001), CA (p
                  &lt; 0,001), triglicer&#237;deos (p = 0,014) e adiponectina (p = 0,010), maior no grupo
                  adolescente.</p>
          <p><italic>Acanthosis nigricans</italic> foi identificada em 62% da popula&#231;&#227;o obesa
                  (0% no grupo n&#227;o obeso). No grupo pr&#233;-adolescente, o sexo masculino foi mais
                  afetado (53,7% vs 48,5% no feminino) e, no grupo adolescente, predominou o sexo
                  feminino (51,5% vs 46,3% no masculino).</p>
          <p>Usou-se a correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson para estabelecer a associa&#231;&#227;o entre &#237;ndices de
                  adiposidade e resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica, dislipidemia, cIMT e IMVE.</p>
          <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o aos achados ecocardiogr&#225;ficos, como mostra a <xref ref-type="table" rid="t04">Tabela 2</xref>, o IMC correlacionou-se direta e moderadamente com
                  DDFVE (r = 0,54; p &lt; 0,001), DSFVE (r = 0,46; p &lt; 0,001) e MVE (r = 0,54; p
                  &lt; 0,001), e menos com PPVE (r = 0,34; p &lt; 0,001), SIV (r = 0,19; p = 0,034)
                  e IMVE (r = 0,26; p &lt; 0,001). A circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal apresentou padr&#227;o
                  semelhante, enquanto a %MG n&#227;o se correlacionou a nenhum desses par&#226;metros. A ERP
                  n&#227;o se correlacionou a esses &#237;ndices.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t04">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Correla&#231;&#245;es de &#237;ndice de massa corporal, circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal e
                        porcentagem de massa gorda com os par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos, leptina,
                        espessura &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum e resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica no
                        grupo obeso</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <thead>
                <tr style="border-bottom-style:solid;border-bottom-width:thin">
                  <th>&#160;</th>
                  <th colspan="2" align="center">
                    <bold>IMC (Kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th colspan="2" align="center">
                    <bold>CA (cm)</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th colspan="2" align="center">
                    <bold>%MG (%)</bold>
                  </th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>
                    <bold>Vari&#225;vel</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>Correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>Valor de p</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>Correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>Valor de p</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>Correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson</bold>
                  </th>
                  <th align="center">
                    <bold>Valor de p</bold>
                  </th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>DDFVE (mm)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,54<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">0,53<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">-0,05</td>
                  <td align="center">0,593</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>DSFVE (mm)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,46<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">0,47<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">-0,06</td>
                  <td align="center">0,497</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>SIV (mm)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,20<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">0,034</td>
                  <td align="center">0,16</td>
                  <td align="center">0,103</td>
                  <td align="center">0,16</td>
                  <td align="center">0,082</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>PPVE (mm)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,34<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">0,32<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">0,14</td>
                  <td align="center">0,124</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>MVE (g)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,54<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">0,52<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">0,09</td>
                  <td align="center">0,324</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IMVE</td>
                  <td align="center">0,26<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">0,10</td>
                  <td align="center">0,298</td>
                  <td align="center">0,09</td>
                  <td align="center">0,311</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ERP</td>
                  <td align="center">0,06</td>
                  <td align="center">0,508</td>
                  <td align="center">0,05</td>
                  <td align="center">0,578</td>
                  <td align="center">0,17</td>
                  <td align="center">0,064</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>cIMT (mm)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,21<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">0,025</td>
                  <td align="center">0,19<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">0,047</td>
                  <td align="center">0,03</td>
                  <td align="center">0,725</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Leptina (ng/ml)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,34<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">0,34<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">0,29<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">0,002</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Adiponectina (Mg/ml)</td>
                  <td align="center">0,18<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">*</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">0,046</td>
                  <td align="center">0,27<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">0,004</td>
                  <td align="center">0,22<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">0,016</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HOMA-IR</td>
                  <td align="center">0,38<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">0,36<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                  <td align="center">0,35<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN06">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn>
                <p>IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; CA: circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal; %MG:
                           porcentagem de massa gorda; HOMA-IR: modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o de homeostase
                           para resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica; DDFVE: di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico final ventricular
                           esquerdo; DSFVE: di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico final ventricular esquerdo; SIV:
                           di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do septo interventricular; PPVE: di&#226;metro da parede
                           posterior ventricular esquerda; MVE: massa ventricular esquerda; IMVE:
                           &#237;ndice de massa ventricular esquerda; ERP: espessura relativa da parede
                           ventricular esquerda; cIMT espessura da camada &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria
                           car&#243;tida comum;</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN06">
                <p>a correla&#231;&#227;o &#233; significativa no n&#237;vel de *0, 05 e no n&#237;vel de ** 0,01
                           (bicaudal).</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Identificaram-se IMVE acima do P95 e ERP &gt; 0,41 em 31,7% e 18,3% da amostra,
                  respectivamente. Com base nesses achados, a geometria ventricular esquerda foi
                  subdividida em tr&#234;s padr&#245;es: hipertrofia exc&#234;ntrica (21,7%); hipertrofia
                  conc&#234;ntrica (10%); e remodelamento conc&#234;ntrico (8,3%).</p>
          <p>Quanto aos lip&#237;dios plasm&#225;ticos e ao perfil de lipoprote&#237;nas, o colesterol de
                  lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade foi a &#250;nica vari&#225;vel que se correlacionou inversa,
                  mas fracamente, com IMC (r = -0,30; p &lt; 0,01) e CA (r = -0,26; p &lt; 0,01). A
                  %MG n&#227;o mostrou correla&#231;&#245;es significativas com os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de lip&#237;dios e
                  lipoprote&#237;nas.</p>
          <p>O IMC correlacionou-se direta, mas fracamente, com leptina (r = 0,39; p &lt;
                  0,001), cIMT (r = 0,21; p = 0,026) e HOMA-IR (r = 0,38; p &lt; 0,001). A CA
                  correlacionou-se direta, mas fracamente, com leptina (r = 0,34; p &lt; 0,001),
                  cIMT (r = 0,19; p = 0,047) e HOMA-IR (r = 0,36; p &lt; 0,001). A %MG
                  correlacionou-se direta, mas fracamente, com leptina (r = 0,29; p = 0,002) e
                  HOMA-IR (r = 0,36; p &lt; 0,001).</p>
          <p>O HOMA-IR correlacionou-se inversamente com colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta
                  densidade (r = -0,2999; p = 0,002) e direta, mas fracamente, com os n&#237;veis de
                  triglicer&#237;deos (r = 0,25; p = 0,006).</p>
          <p>Neste estudo, 38,1% da popula&#231;&#227;o foi considerada resistente &#224; insulina, 68,9%
                  tinha <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic>, &#237;ndice maior do que no grupo n&#227;o
                  resistente &#224; insulina (31,1%), embora tal diferen&#231;a n&#227;o seja estatisticamente
                  significativa (p = 0,515). Meninas e adolescentes representaram 60% e 62,2% do
                  grupo resistente &#224; insulina, a diferen&#231;a n&#227;o sendo estatisticamente significativa
                  (p = 0,088 e p = 0,221, respectivamente).</p>
          <p>A cIMT correlacionou-se diretamente a MVE (r = 0,21; p = 0,019), DDFVE (r = 0,30;
                  p = 0,001) e DSFVE (r = 0,30; p = 0,001).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>Demonstramos diferen&#231;as estatisticamente significativas nas vari&#225;veis analisadas
               entre os grupos obeso e controle e o claro impacto da adiposidade na resist&#234;ncia
               insul&#237;nica, dislipidemia, cIMT e MVE em crian&#231;as obesas.</p>
        <p>Resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica na inf&#226;ncia &#233; preditor de resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica no adulto.
               Trata-se da mais comum anormalidade metab&#244;lica relacionada &#224; obesidade, sendo
               fortemente ligada a diabetes tipo 2 e dist&#250;rbios cardiovasculares<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. Com base nos resultados de HOMA-IR, 38% dos indiv&#237;duos no grupo obeso
               foram considerados resistentes &#224; insulina. Nenhum tinha diabetes tipo 2. No nosso
               estudo, a preval&#234;ncia de resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica foi menor do que a publicada
                  (50%-70%)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. Tal discrep&#226;ncia pode dever-se
               aos diferentes valores de corte de HOMA-IR usados nos v&#225;rios relat&#244;rios para
               diagnosticar resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica, pois um valor de corte padr&#227;o n&#227;o foi
                  sugerido<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>.</p>
        <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre obesidade e <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic> foi bem
               documentada. A preval&#234;ncia geral &#233; de 62%, semelhante &#224;quela encontrada em nosso
               grupo de crian&#231;as obesas (65%), principalmente em meninos (70,5%). Como a insulina
               est&#225; relacionada a <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic>, foi proposta por alguns
               autores como um marcador confi&#225;vel de hiperinsulinemia e, consequentemente, de
               resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>. Como esperado, a
               insulina mostrou correla&#231;&#227;o significativa com <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic>.
               No entanto, n&#227;o conseguimos estabelecer uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre <italic>acanthosis
                  nigricans</italic> e resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica, pois um ter&#231;o das crian&#231;as obesas com
               resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica n&#227;o apresentava evid&#234;ncia de <italic>acanthosis
                  nigricans</italic>. Tal observa&#231;&#227;o &#233; consistente com alguns resultados
                  publicados<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>. Claramente, na nossa
               experi&#234;ncia, a <italic>acanthosis nigricans</italic> n&#227;o foi um marcador fidedigno de
               resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica, n&#227;o devendo, portanto, ser usado como marcador de triagem de
               diabetes tipo 2 em crian&#231;as obesas, como proposto por alguns autores<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. No entanto, como um sinal cl&#237;nico no contexto
               da obesidade, ela deve alertar os cl&#237;nicos para os mecanismos fisiopatol&#244;gicos
               subjacentes da resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e para agir de acordo. Nossas observa&#231;&#245;es
               levaram &#224; conclus&#227;o de que a resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica estava relacionada principalmente
               a %MG, IMC, CA e leptina, e inversamente ao colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta
               densidade. Tais achados espelham os mais importantes fatores relacionados &#224;
               resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica, principalmente a inter-rela&#231;&#227;o entre adiposidade, adipocinas
               e dislipidemia.</p>
        <p>A dislipidemia mostrou-se tamb&#233;m um importante fator de risco cardiovascular na
               popula&#231;&#227;o do nosso estudo, em particular quando comparada ao grupo controle.
               Considerando-se os valores propostos pelo estudo <italic>National Cholesterol
                  Education Program Expert Panel on Cholesterol Levels in Children</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>, 45% tinham n&#237;veis intermedi&#225;rios-altos a
               altos de triglicer&#237;deos, 42,5% tinham n&#237;veis intermedi&#225;rios-baixos a baixos de
               colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade e 31% tinham n&#237;veis
               intermedi&#225;rios-baixos a baixos de colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade. A
               dislipidemia combinada representou 12,5% da nossa amostra. Esse padr&#227;o difere daquele
               encontrado em crian&#231;as n&#227;o obesas, principalmente os altos n&#237;veis de colesterol total
               e de colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade, sendo considerado particularmente
               aterog&#234;nico, pois as pequenas e densas part&#237;culas de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade
               s&#227;o eliminadas de modo ineficiente pelos receptores de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa
               densidade, n&#237;veis elevados de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade total aumentam o risco
               de aprisionamento na matriz subendotelial e n&#237;veis diminu&#237;dos de part&#237;culas de
               lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade limitam o transporte reverso do colesterol. Como
               observado no nosso estudo, a resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica correlacionou-se inversamente com
               o colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade, mas n&#227;o com o colesterol de
               lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade, podendo contribuir para os mecanismos que
               desencadeiam a aterosclerose de in&#237;cio precoce, e, consequentemente, a doen&#231;a
               cardiovascular em adultos jovens. A pesquisa mostra que a preval&#234;ncia desse padr&#227;o de
               dislipidemia combinada est&#225; aumentando, sendo um preditor de disfun&#231;&#227;o vascular em
               adultos jovens e de eventos cl&#237;nicos precoces na idade adulta.</p>
        <p>Tamb&#233;m comparamos apolipoprote&#237;na A-I, B e lipoprote&#237;na (a) entre os dois grupos.
               Embora o grupo obeso tenha um perfil mais aterog&#234;nico [n&#237;veis mais altos de
               apolipoprote&#237;na B e de lipoprote&#237;na (a) e mais baixos de apolipoprote&#237;na A-I],
               nenhuma dessas vari&#225;veis correlacionou-se com resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica.
               Individualmente, apolipoprote&#237;na B correlacionou-se fracamente com leptina (r = 0,33;
               p &lt; 0,001), apolipoprote&#237;na A-I correlacionou-se inversa, mas fracamente com IMC
               (r = -0,19; p = 0,042), e lipoprote&#237;na (a) com IMC (r = 0,22; p = 0,019) e leptina (r
               = 0,21; p = 0,029). Diferentemente de Cunnigham e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>, que relataram ser a lipoprote&#237;na (a) um &#250;til marcador de
               risco cardiovascular em crian&#231;as, n&#227;o chegamos &#224; mesma conclus&#227;o, possivelmente
               devido a diferen&#231;as na etnicidade populacional. Com base nesses achados, parece que
               as lipoprote&#237;nas plasm&#225;ticas n&#227;o oferecem vantagem em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s medidas de
               colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na no manuseio das dislipidemias e estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco
               durante a inf&#226;ncia, pelo menos em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o. Na mesma linha, estudos em obesos
               adultos com resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica conclu&#237;ram que as lipoprote&#237;nas plasm&#225;ticas n&#227;o
               fornecem informa&#231;&#227;o progn&#244;stica adicional em compara&#231;&#227;o ao perfil padr&#227;o de
               colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na.</p>
        <p>A aterogenicidade induzida por resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e anormalidades lip&#237;dicas
               durante a inf&#226;ncia resulta em altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais vasculares que podem ser
               avaliadas de modo n&#227;o invasivo por ultrassonografia da cIMT. Essa vari&#225;vel foi
               validada como marcador de risco cardiovascular em crian&#231;as e adultos, embora em
               crian&#231;as obesas, as observa&#231;&#245;es nem sempre foram consensuais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. Procuramos correlacionar cIMT com outros marcadores de risco
               cardiovascular e sua utilidade como um substituto de aterosclerose pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica. Ao
               contr&#225;rio dos achados de Tounian e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>, na
               nossa an&#225;lise, a cIMT foi significativamente maior (p &lt; 0,001) no grupo obeso.
               Nesse grupo, a an&#225;lise multivariada demonstrou que as correla&#231;&#245;es mais significativas
               foram com idade (r = 0,26; p = 0,004), IMC (r = 0,21; p = 0,025) e CA (r = 0,19; p =
               0,047), sugerindo uma liga&#231;&#227;o direta entre adiposidade e cIMT, embora lip&#237;deos e
               lipoprote&#237;nas n&#227;o estivessem relacionados. Esse &#250;ltimo achado n&#227;o coincide com as
               observa&#231;&#245;es publicadas por Magnussen e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>, um estudo muito maior, em que dislipidemia infantil estava relacionada
               com aumento de cIMT na idade adulta. &#201; prov&#225;vel que o menor tamanho de nossa amostra
               seja respons&#225;vel por tais diferen&#231;as.</p>
        <p>Tamb&#233;m investigamos se MVE e IMVE estavam relacionados com adiposidade. O IMVE esteve
               acima do P95 em 32% do nosso grupo obeso. Atrav&#233;s de an&#225;lise multivariada,
               conseguimos mostrar uma correla&#231;&#227;o direta com idade, IMC e CA. No entanto, quando
               indexado a altura<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>, apenas o IMC manteve significativa correla&#231;&#227;o.
               Isso confirma observa&#231;&#245;es pr&#233;vias e refor&#231;a o impacto da adiposidade nas dimens&#245;es do
               ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, cujos efeitos adversos j&#225; est&#227;o presentes na popula&#231;&#227;o obesa
               jovem, e que sabidamente se estendem &#224; idade adulta. Em adultos, o IMVE &gt;
                  51g/m<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref> tem significado progn&#244;stico, pois tais indiv&#237;duos s&#227;o
               conhecidos por serem mais suscet&#237;veis aos eventos cardiovasculares<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. Tivemos ainda por objetivo avaliar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre adiposidade e
               padr&#245;es geom&#233;tricos ventriculares anormais. &#201; importante ressaltar que 40% da nossa
               popula&#231;&#227;o apresentava padr&#245;es geom&#233;tricos ventriculares anormais, o mais comum sendo
               a hipertrofia exc&#234;ntrica ventricular esquerda (21,7%). Considerando que obesidade se
               caracteriza por sobrecarga cr&#244;nica de volume, esse seria o padr&#227;o esperado. No
               entanto, v&#225;rios estudos em adultos mostraram que a hipertrofia conc&#234;ntrica &#233; a
               anormalidade geom&#233;trica ventricular mais comum, mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o
               arterial, indicando que, al&#233;m da sobrecarga de volume, outros mecanismos desempenham
               um papel. Com base nesses resultados, postulamos que a sobrecarga de volume seja um
               importante fator contribuinte, pois n&#227;o descobrimos nenhuma outra associa&#231;&#227;o
               relevante. No entanto, 10% da nossa popula&#231;&#227;o tinha hipertrofia ventricular esquerda
               conc&#234;ntrica e 8% tinha remodelamento ventricular esquerdo conc&#234;ntrico. Essa &#250;ltima
               condi&#231;&#227;o, embora n&#227;o relacionada ao aumento do IMVE, mostrou-se associada com eventos
               card&#237;acos adversos, constituindo outro marcador para avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco
               cardiovascular em crian&#231;as<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>.</p>
        <p>Este estudo apresenta algumas limita&#231;&#245;es, uma delas sendo o tamanho da amostra, em
               particular do grupo controle. Devido &#224;s caracter&#237;sticas da nossa popula&#231;&#227;o local,
               nossa amostra incluiu apenas crian&#231;as caucasianas. Tais fatores podem representar um
               vi&#233;s.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
        <p>Concluindo, enfatizamos os &#237;ndices de adiposidade como um elo comum com as altera&#231;&#245;es
               adversas metab&#244;licas e estruturais em crian&#231;as obesas. &#192; medida que avan&#231;am pela
               idade adulta, esfor&#231;os devem ser mantidos para reverter tais altera&#231;&#245;es, visando a
               modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida, e potencialmente reduzindo a carga socioecon&#244;mica da
               doen&#231;a cardiovascular na idade adulta.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de Ant&#243;nio Pires pela Faculdade de
                  Medicina da Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
