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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras.
                    Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">RP5S59w6bvxRdSrJ7ZjMsHd</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2015000300011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2015005050011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20150011</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Hypertension in Patients with Cancer</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Vinicius Barbosa de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Nani</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Mario Luiz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Wolney de Andrade</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff01">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal
                        Fluminense</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Curso de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias
                        Cardiovasculares</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country>Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Curso de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias
                        Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211;
                        Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Wolney de Andrade Martins</bold>, Avenida
                    Marques do Paran&#225;, 303, 6&#186; andar, Cardiologia, Centro, Postal Code 24030-215,
                    Niter&#243;i, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil. E-mail:
                    <email>wolney@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research:Martins WA. Acquisition of data: Souza
                        VB, Martins WA. Writing of the manuscript: Souza VB, Martins WA. Critical
                        revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Souza VB, Silva EN,
                        Ribeiro ML, Martins WA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>27</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>104</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>246</fpage>
      <lpage>252</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the
                        Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits
                        unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any
                        medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>There is a known association between chemotherapy and radiotherapy for treatment
                    of cancer patients and development or worsening of hypertension. The aim of this
                    article is to review this association. A literature search was conducted for
                    articles reporting this association on the databases PubMed, SciELO and LILACS
                    between 1993 and 2013. There was a high coprevalence of hypertension and cancer,
                    since both diseases share the same risk factors, such as sedentary lifestyle,
                    obesity, smoking, unhealthy diet and alcohol abuse. The use of chemotherapy and
                    adjuvant drugs effective in the treatment of cancer increased the survival rate
                    of these patients and, consequently, increased the incidence of hypertension. We
                    described the association between the use of angiogenesis inhibitors
                    (bevacizumab, sorafenib and sunitinib), corticosteroids, erythropoietin and
                    non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with the development of hypertension. We
                    also described the relationship between hypertension and carotid baroreceptor
                    injury secondary to cervical radiotherapy. Morbidity and mortality increased in
                    patients with cancer and hypertension without proper antihypertensive treatment.
                    We concluded that there is need for early diagnosis, effective monitoring and
                    treatment strategies for hypertension in cancer patients in order to reduce
                    cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasms / complications</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasms / drug therapy</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasms / radiotherapy</kwd>
        <kwd>Antihypertensive Agents</kwd>
        <kwd>Indicators of Morbidity and Mortality</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="47"/>
        <page-count count="7"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>The main factor determining the epidemiological growth of cardiovascular diseases
                (CVD) and neoplastic diseases in Brazil is demographic, determined by a greater
                proportion of the population reaching senility. Cancer and CVD share a high
                coprevalence, due the occurrence of risk factors common to both conditions<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. Common risk factors for cancer and CVD
                include smoking, unhealthy diet and obesity, physical inactivity, diabetes mellitus,
                hypertension and alcohol abuse<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. These risk
                factors alone or in combination are the main triggers for the development of cancer
                and are the same factors that expose individuals to the risk of developing the most
                prevalent CVD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. In contrast, the coincidence of risk factors
                allows implementation of integrated prevention strategies for most non-transmissible
                chronic diseases<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">2</xref>. Before the introduction of
                angiogenesis inhibitors (AI) in chemotherapeutic treatment, the prevalence of
                hypertension in patients with cancer was similar to that in the general adult
                    population<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. However, increased access to the modern
                chemotherapeutic arsenal and the consequent prolonged survival of patients with
                cancer has had an impact on the development or worsening of hypertension,
                particularly in patients treated with AI<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
				<sup>-</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. The presence of
                hypertension prior to cancer treatment, as well as any other CVD such as as ischemic
                disease, valvular disease, or arrhythmias, predicts the development of
                myocardiopathy due to use of chemotherapeutic drugs<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Hypertension is the most frequently recorded
                comorbidity in patients with cancer, and its incidence increases with
                chemotherapeutic treatment, particularly with AI &#8211; bevacizumab, sunitinib,
                sorafenib, vatalanib, pazopanib, motesanib, axitinib and aflibercept<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. Other medications used in cancer patients
                such as erythropoietin, corticosteroids and non-steroidal anti&#8209;inflammatory drugs
                (NSAIDs), as well as injury to the carotid baroreceptor by cervical radiotherapy,
                can also increase blood pressure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
      <p>This subject has not been much discussed among cardiologists and clinicians.
                Evidences from the literature still derive from analysis of secondary outcomes or
                retrospective studies. The aim of this study was to review the association between
                chemotherapeutic treatment, adjuvant drugs in cancer treatment and radiotherapy with
                the development or worsening of hypertension. It also aimed at emphasizing the
                specificities of the diagnostic criteria, monitoring and treatment of the
                hypertensive patient with cancer.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>Methods</title>
      <p>A systematic literature review was performed on the databases PubMed, SciELO and
                LILACS. Keywords such as &#8220;angiogenesis inhibitors&#8221;, &#8220;bevacizumab&#8221;, &#8220;sorafenib&#8221;,
                &#8220;sunitinib&#8221;, &#8220;erythropoietin&#8221;, &#8220;corticosteroids&#8221;, &#8220;non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
                drug&#8221;, &#8220;baroreceptor&#8221; and &#8220;radiotherapy&#8221; were correlated with &#8220;hypertension&#8221; and
                &#8220;cancer&#8221;. Inclusion criteria were articles published from 1993 to 2013 in English,
                Spanish and Portuguese. Observational clinical studies, such as cohort, case-control
                and cross-sectional studies, were included. Reviews and editorials were included
                when deemed relevant and related to the topic. Publications from the MD Anderson
                Cancer Center and Texas Heart Institute of University of Texas, TX, USA - reference
                institutions in the study of cardio-oncology - were included, even if as part of a
                textbook. The recommendations of the I Brazilian Guideline of Cardio-Oncology of the
                Brazilian Society of Cardiology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref> were
                observed.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Chemotherapy and Hypertension</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Angiogenesis inhibitors</title>
        <p>Angiogenesis inhibitors are divided into two main groups: monoclonal antibodies
                    that target vascular signaling pathways (bevacizumab) and small molecule
                    inhibitors of tyrosine kinase (sunitinib, sorafenib). The mechanism by which
                    these drugs induce hypertension is not completely understood, but can be
                    directly related to the inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF)
                    signaling via tyrosine kinase<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. VEGF
                    signaling is important for proper endothelial functioning and nitric oxide
                    synthesis &#8211; its inhibition impairs vasodilation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
					<sup>-</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Other effects
                    of VEGF inhibition include induction of endothelial cell death and rarefaction
                    of resistance vessels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. The aim of AI therapy is to target
                    molecules with increased expression in patients with cancer. However, such
                    molecules are also present in non&#8209;tumoral cells and have a physiological role in
                    several systems, including the cardiovascular system<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Therefore, when acting in the tumor by inhibiting VEGF,
                    AI also causes hypertension. This generates a paradox, since the presence of
                    hypertension is simultaneously an adverse cardiovascular effect and a sign of
                    favorable oncological therapeutic response<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref>, adapted from Yeh
                    et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>, presents the incidence and
                    frequency of use of the main AI associated with the development of
                    hypertension.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t01">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Incidence and frequency of use of the main angiogenesis inhibitors
                            associated with the development of hypertension</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Chemotherapeutic agents</th>
                <th>Incidence (%)</th>
                <th>Frequency of use</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Bevacizumab </td>
                <td>35</td>
                <td>+ +</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sorafenib </td>
                <td>17-43</td>
                <td>+ + +</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sunitinib </td>
                <td>5-47</td>
                <td>+ + +</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn>
              <p>Adapted from Yeh and cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
							</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Bevacizumab</title>
        <p>Bevacizumab is an AI that belongs to the group of monoclonal antibodies that
                    target vascular signaling pathways<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Its main
                    function is VEGF inhibition<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. The
                    pathogenesis of the hypertensive effect associated with bevacizumab is not yet
                    completely understood, but is believed to be caused by interference with blood
                    pressure homeostatic factors, leading to endothelial dysfunction, capillary
                    rarefaction and inhibition of the nitric oxide pathway, increasing
                    vasoconstriction and decreasing renal excretion of sodium<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Its main use is in the treatment of solid neoplasias,
                    such as gastrointestinal tumors, metastatic renal carcinoma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> and
                        glioblastoma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. It is also used as
                    first-line treatment in metastatic colorectal cancer<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8 </xref>and advanced non-oat cell lung cancer<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
        <p>Ranpura et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> analyzed 12,656 patients
                    with 20 types of solid tumors included in a meta-analysis and concluded that the
                    incidence of hypertension in patients treated with bevacizumab was 23.6% (95%
                    confidence interval [CI]:&#160;20.5&#8211;27.1%), of which 7.9% (95% CI: 6.1&#8211;10.2%)
                    developed grade 3 or 4 hypertension. The incidence of grade 3 or 4 hypertension
                    varies according to the malignancy and the type of cancer, dose of bevacizumab,
                    interaction with other antineoplastic drugs and response to antineoplastic
                        treatment<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.
                    Risk factors for development of hypertension are age above 75 years,
                    Afro-descendant ethnicity and, particularly, kidney tumors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. The toxic dose of bevacizumab for development of
                    hypertension has been reported in patients using 2.5 mg/kg/week with a risk
                    ratio (RR) of 4.78 (95% CI: 3.59-6.36), as well as 5 mg/kg/week with a RR of
                    5.39 (95% CI: 3.68-7.90). Lower doses of bevacizumab (0.5 mg/kg/min) are not
                    associated with risk of developing hypertension and proteinuria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. It is important to highlight that the
                    development of hypertension associated with bevacizumab is a biomarker of
                    effective inhibition of VEGF signaling<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Patients who
                    develop grade 2 and 3 hypertension present antitumoral activity and event-free
                    survival of 14.1&#160;months compared with 3.1 months in those who do not develop
                        hypertension<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Discontinuation of
                    treatment for hypertension and need of hospitalization occur in 1.7% of the
                    patients. Complications such as hypertensive encephalopathy and central nervous
                    bleeding are associated with a RR of 3.16 (95%&#160;CI:&#160;0.91&#8209;10.9)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Use of anthracyclines and/or radiotherapy associated
                    with treatment with bevacizumab increase the risk of arterial thromboembolic
                        events<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Bevacizumab is also used in
                    some neovascular proliferative ophthalmic diseases, such as age&#8209;related macular
                    degeneration (AMD). The physiopathology of this ophthalmic disease involves
                    neovascular growth via VEGF. Therefore its inhibition by intravitreal
                    bevacizumab injection slows down vascular growth with good clinical and
                    ophthalmic results without systemic action such as increase in blood pressure in
                    clinical follow-up of 6 weeks<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. Treatment
                    with anticoagulants, ACE inhibitors and dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers
                    may help protect from the vascular effects promoted by bevacizumab<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Sorafenib</title>
        <p>Sorafenib is an AI that belongs to the group of small molecule tyrosine kinase
                        inhibitors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. Hypertension is the basic mechanism of
                    toxicity of this drug, which acts on the inhibition of VEGF. Cutaneous adverse
                    reactions, such as rash and desquamation, and gastrointestinal reactions, such
                    as diarrhea, are also described. Sorafenib is recommended and approved for
                    treatment of advanced renal cell carcinoma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>, hepatocellular carcinoma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>, metastatic
                        melanoma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>, non-oat cell carcinoma of
                    the lung<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref> and advanced thyroid carcinoma
                    refractory to radioactive iodine treatment.</p>
        <p>The incidence of hypertension ranges from 14% to 43% during treatment with
                    sorafenib in some clinical trials. Of these, grade 3 or 4 hypertension has been
                    seen in 1.4% to 38.0%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. A recent meta-analysis including 45,599 patients
                    treated with sorafenib concluded that the overall incidence of hypertension was
                    23.4%, 2.1% to 30.7% of which were grade 3 or 4<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. The incidence rates of hypertension are comparable to other AI
                    such as sunitinib and bevacizumab for treatment of renal carcinoma and other
                    types of tumors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. The hypertensive
                    effect is mediated by vascular rarefaction and change in nitric oxide production
                    associated with endothelial dysfunction<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.
                    Experiments suggest that the damage to the mitochondrial energetic metabolism is
                    the key factor to the cardiotoxic effect mediated by sorafenib<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Increase in blood pressure develops in
                    the first three weeks of therapy with sorafenib and persists for up to 18 weeks.
                    The dose of sorafenib should be corrected or suspended according to adverse
                    response to treatment such as: treatment-refractory hypertension, bleeding,
                    severe skin reactions, refractory diarrhea and myocardial ischemia or
                    infarction.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Sunitinib</title>
        <p>Sunitinib is also an AI and, like sorafenib, belongs to the group of small
                    molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. It
                    is used for treatment of renal cell carcinoma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,
                    gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> and
                    neuroendocrine pancreatic tumors. The inhibition of the development of new blood
                    vessels, mediated by VEGF inhibition, is the main strategy to treat solid
                        tumors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.</p>
        <p>Use of this drug is closely associated with the development of hypertension. In
                    some clinical trials, its incidence ranges between 5% and 24%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24                         ">24</xref>. A retrospective analysis
                    showed increased blood pressure in the first four weeks, with levels of
                    150X100&#160;mmHg in 47%, whereas only 17% had grade 3 hypertension<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. Some evidences point to the ratio of the increase in
                    blood pressure as a biomarker of response to chemotherapy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. A
                        study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> evaluated patients with
                    metastatic renal cell carcinoma in which 54.8% had a hypertensive response to
                    chemotherapy with sunitinib. The average event&#8209;free survival in the hypertensive
                    group was 15.5&#160;months (95% CI: 10.9&#8211;13.7&#160;months) compared with 2.5 months (95%
                    CI: 2.3&#8211;3.8 months) in the group without hypertension, whereas the average
                    overall survival was 30.9&#160;months (95% CI: 27.9&#8211;33.7 months)
                        <italic>versus</italic> 7.2&#160;months (95% CI: 5.6&#8211;10.7 months),
                        respectively<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. A similar study<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> with GIST patients treated with
                    sunitinib showed results consistent with the hypothesis of hypertension as a
                    biomarker of chemotherapeutic response.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Hypertension and heart failure with treatment with tyrosine kinase
                    inhibitors</title>
        <p>Patients who developed ventricular dysfunction or heart failure after treatment
                    with sunitinib for metastatic renal carcinoma had previous hypertension caused
                    or exacerbated by this chemotherapeutic agent. Heart failure occurs in
                    individuals with hypertension grade 3 or higher. There are still only a few
                    studies that reveal the physiopathological mechanism of cardiotoxicity in these
                    patients. However, clinical evidences indicate that hypertension precedes or
                    contributes to cardiac myocytes injury which culminates in ventricular
                        dysfunction<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Therefore, it is
                    reasonable to infer that the treatment of hypertension in these patients
                    prevents the development of ventricular dysfunction.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Drugs adjuvant in cancer treatment</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Erythropoietin</title>
        <p>Erythropoietin (EPO) is a glycoproteic hormone that controls bone marrow
                    erythropoiesis. It is produced by renal fibroblasts and hepatic perisinusoidal
                    stellate cells. In adulthood, it is produced mostly by the kidney, since hepatic
                    production is limited to fetal and neonatal stages. Recombinant human EPO
                    (rhuEPO) is often used in chronic renal patients with acquired immune deficiency
                    syndrome and/or cancer. Anemia is a frequent complication in cancer
                        patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. Up to 70% of these
                    patients present anemia at some stage of their disease or treatment. Anemia can
                    be one of the early signs of neoplastic disease, but is more commonly associated
                    with antineoplastic treatment or disease progression. The incidence and severity
                    of anemia depend on the type of tumor, patient's age, disease stage, and type
                    and intensity of antineoplastic treatment<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. A consensus elaborated by the American Society of Clinical
                    Oncology and American Society of Hematology recommends the use of rhuEPO in
                    patients with hemoglobin &lt; 10 g/dL, whereas for those with hemoglobin between
                    10 and 12 g/dL, the decision should be determined by clinical circumstances<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>. For patients with anemia associated
                    with cancer and chemotherapy, the recommended starting dose is 150 IU/kg
                    administered subcutaneously three times a week for eight weeks. If the response
                    is not satisfactory after eight weeks, the dose may be doubled<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>.</p>
        <p>About 33% to 35% of the patients treated with rhuEPO show increased peripheral
                    vascular resistance and a mild decrease in cardiac output, with consequent
                    elevation in blood pressure levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>.
                    Hypertension occurs 2 to 16 weeks after use of rhuEPO. Several
                    physiopathological mechanisms have been proposed to explain the development of
                    hypertension. Among them, we can highlight: (1) increase in erythrocyte mass
                    with increase in blood viscosity; (2) change in production and sensitivity of
                    endogenous vasopressor agents; (3) change in the vascular smooth-muscle ionic
                    milieu hindering response to vasodilating factors; (4) direct vasopressor effect
                    of rhuEPO; and (5) remodeling through stimulation of vascular cell growth<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">31</xref>. Usual antihypertensive medications are
                    used in the treatment of hypertension associated with rhuEPO. In patients with
                    chronic kidney disease, calcium antagonists and alpha-adrenergic receptor
                    blockers present good results. However, angiotensin&#8209;converting enzyme
                        (<italic>ACE</italic>) inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers
                        (<italic>ARBs</italic>) have shown little efficacy due to the suppression of
                    angiotensin II activity. Diuretics have little activity in patients with
                    advanced kidney disease. If pharmacological measures are ineffective in
                    controlling hypertension, the dose of rhuEPO may be reduced to half or even
                    temporarily suspended<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>NSAIDs and hypertension in cancer treatment</title>
        <p>Two large meta-analyses covering more than 90 clinical trials have shown that
                    NSAIDs may increase blood pressure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. The
                    main physiopathological effect is considered to be the inhibition of
                    prostaglandins (PG) and the decrease in renin. It has been proposed that the
                    inhibition of natriuretic PG and the consequent retention of sodium could
                    explain the pressor effect. Another explanation would be the inhibition of the
                    direct vasodilatory effect of PG on renal and extrarenal vascular beds. However,
                    the increase in sodium and water retention concomitant with an increase in
                    vascular resistance caused by exacerbation of endothelin-1 synthesis by the
                    kidney is potentially important. Both in experimental animals and in humans,
                    colorectal, gastric and esophageal tumors express high levels of
                    cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), unlike the normal intestinal mucosa. Such findings
                    raise the possibility of involvement of COX-2 in the progression and
                    dissemination of cancer, since stimulation of PGE-2 by COX-2 inhibits tumor
                    suppressive activity and stimulates proliferation of epithelial cells. COX-2 has
                    a close relationship with the regulation of tumor angiogenesis; such fact is
                    already well established in the progression and dissemination of prostate
                    cancer. Several studies have shown that NSAIDs can reduce the progression of
                    and/or act prophylactically in some intestinal tumors, through mechanisms
                    dependent or not on their ability to inhibit COX-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>.</p>
        <p>The elevation in blood pressure during treatment with NSAIDs occurs is greater in
                    elderly patients, Afro-descendants and in those with low renin levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. In an analysis by Pope et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>, indomethacin and naproxen increased the
                    average blood pressure by 3.59 mmHg and 3.74 mmHg, respectively. Piroxicam was
                    associated with a non-significant increase of 0.49 mmHg in the average blood
                    pressure. A meta-analysis by Johnson et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> showed that NSAIDs increase the average supine blood pressure by
                    5.0 mmHg. Piroxicam was associated with the highest increase (6.2 mmHg).
                    Acetylsalicylic acid, sulindac and flurbiprofen showed lower elevations in blood
                    pressure. Indomethacin and ibuprofen exerted intermediate effects. The
                    antihypertensive action mediated by the synthesis of vasodilating PG induced by
                    diuretics, ACE inhibitors and adrenergic beta-blockers decreased when these
                    drugs were associated with NSAIDs. The antihypertensive effects of calcium
                    channel blockers and angiotensin II receptors antagonists suffered less
                    interference of NSAIDs<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Corticoids and hypertension in cancer treatment</title>
        <p>Glucocorticoids (GC) are substances derived from cholesterol, synthesized and
                    secreted by the adrenal glands. These hormones act on the transcriptional
                    control of genes involved in regulation of metabolic, cardiovascular and
                    immunological functions<sup>38</sup>. Corticosteroids seem to act as
                    physiological regulators of COX-2 mRNA expression, which might explain in part
                    the immunosuppressive characteristic of this enzyme<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>. In early 1950, the discovery of the potent
                    anti-inflammatory effect of GC led to use of these agents on the treatment of
                    chronic rheumatic diseases. Currently, synthetic GC are often used in the
                    treatment of autoimmune diseases, in the prevention of allograft rejection and
                    as adjuvants in some chemotherapeutic treatments, since their effect prolong
                    immunosuppression. As an example, the most frequently used regimens in the
                    treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma are CVP (cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and
                    prednisone) and CHOP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine and
                    prednisone). However, chronic use of GC is associated with various adverse
                    cardiometabolic effects<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>. In
                    Cushing's syndrome, there is retention of sodium and water due to high blood
                    levels of cortisol. This is the main factor responsible for the development of
                    secondary hypertension in 80% of the cases. Chronic use of GC also induces
                    insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus and dyslipidemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. If untreated, Cushing's syndrome can progress to death
                    due to cardiovascular disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. The
                    treatment of the adverse effects of GC use is the reduction in corticotherapy
                    associated with control of fluids and salt, diet and use of diuretics. Other
                    classes of antihypertensive drugs can be added, such as angiotensin II
                    inhibitors, calcium channel antagonists and central sympatholytics<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>. Use of GC in low doses for long periods
                    of time does not seem to trigger hypertension.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Carotid baroreceptor injury by cervical radiation therapy</title>
      <p>Chemotherapy treatment associated with radiotherapy has increased survival of
                patients with head and neck cancer and are now associated with late complications.
                The arterial baroreceptors have a tonic inhibitory effect on the sympathetic tone,
                thus controlling the total peripheral resistance and the cardiac output<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>. Other evidences, however, show that the
                modulation of the heart rate by baroreceptors is due primarily to the cardiovagal
                activation triggered by stimulation of vagal neurons located in the nucleus ambiguus
                and in the vagal dorsal motor nucleus<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>. As a
                result, dysfunction in the baroreceptors is associated with increased sympathetic
                activity and, mainly, reduction of parasympathetic activity, resulting in increased
                heart rate and increasing the variability of the blood pressure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. In summary, studies in humans show that the lability of the
                blood pressure, unsustained hypertension, orthostatic intolerance and tachycardia by
                failure in the baroreceptor mechanism may occur in bilateral or unilateral carotid
                baroreceptor denervation following endarterectomy, cervical trauma, tumor resection
                and radiotherapy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. Differential diagnosis
                with pheochromocytoma should be considered<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>.
                Another mechanism of baroreflex dysfunction due to late effects of radiation is
                considered to be an acceleration of the process of atherosclerosis and chronic
                    hypertension<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. Therefore, it is known that baroreflex dysfunction caused by
                diabetes mellitus correlates clearly with the occurrence of sudden death in these
                    patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. In a similar reasoning, but
                without corroborative evidence, other causes of dysfunction in cardiovascular
                control, such as the lesion caused by radiotherapy, are considered as also
                increasing the risk of sudden death.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Diagnosis of hypertension in the cancer patient</title>
      <p>Diagnostic criteria of hypertension in patients with cancer are defined according to
                the National Cancer Institute of the United States of America and relies on a system
                of classification of adverse events, the Common Toxicity Criteria (NCI CTC)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>, which is based on the severity of the event
                and in the intervention required for its control. The level of blood pressure
                considered suitable in the cancer patient is similar to that recommended for the
                adult population<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
      <p>During chemotherapy treatment, blood pressure assessments are recommended before,
                during, at the end of the drug infusion and 1 hour later<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. Regarding the use of AI, the National Cancer Institute
                recommends weekly blood pressure monitoring during the first cycle of chemotherapy
                and then at least every two to three weeks during treatment<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. After
                this phase, if the blood pressure remains stable and there are no adverse
                cardiovascular complications, monitoring may be aligned with routine clinical
                assessments or during home blood pressure monitoring<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. Due to nephrotoxic effects, mainly associated with sunitinib, it is
                important to test for abnormal urinary elements and urinary sediment for early
                detection of proteinuria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Treatment of hypertension in cancer patients</title>
      <p>Treatment goals for hypertensive patients with cancer do not differ from those in
                other hypertensive patients, <italic>i.e.</italic>, focus on three targets: 1)
                identify the causes of the hypertension; 2) assess lifestyle and recognize
                cardiovascular risk factors or comorbidities that may affect the prognosis or guide
                the choice of treatment; and 3) assess the presence or absence of target organ
                injury associated with hypertension<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.
                Hygienic and dietary measures should always be encouraged, with guidance on the
                practice of physical activity, low-sodium diet and body weight control. However, in
                some oncological patients with advanced disease stages, these strategies are not
                sufficient or fully enforceable. Pharmacological treatment of hypertension is
                reserved for cancer patients with hypertension, or for those who develop
                hypertension during chemotherapy, guided by the recommendations of the Eighth Report
                of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation and Treatment
                of High Blood Pressure (JNC&#160;8)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> and the I
                Brazilian Guideline of Cardio-Oncology<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.
                Early pharmacological intervention should be advocated in these groups<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.<italic> </italic>Blood pressure targets according to the VI Brazilian
                Hypertension Guidelines are classified according to the risk category and
                therapeutic target to be achieved. With blood pressure control and monitoring during
                chemotherapy, and prevention of cardiovascular adverse events, patients can tolerate
                chemotherapy treatment up to the maximum recommended dose, benefiting from more
                effective tumor control which allows improvement in life quality and longevity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
      <p>The primary goal of blood pressure treatment is to reduce morbidity and mortality and
                cardiovascular risk associated with injury of target organs<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Discontinuation of AI due to development of hypertension,
                particularly in grade 3 patients, is controversial since hypertension is associated
                with better response to antineoplastic treatment<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Therefore, maintenance of chemotherapy and effective blood pressure
                control with antihypertensive drugs are recommended.</p>
      <p>In the choice of antihypertensive agent, there is evidence that some are more
                effective than others, given that the biological effects of these medications differ
                from those of angiogenesis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Therefore, ACE
                inhibitors may be beneficial as first-line treatment, since they reduce proteinuria
                and expression of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. <italic>In vivo </italic>studies have demonstrated the potential of
                ACE inhibitors in reducing microcirculatory changes, decreasing catabolism of
                bradykinins and increasing release of endothelial nitric oxide<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. Nondihydropyridine calcium channel blockers - verapamil and
                diltiazem - inhibit the cytochrome P450 system and should not be administered
                concomitantly with AI, since they are metabolized by cytochrome P450 3A4<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Phosphodiesterase
                inhibitors or nitrates may increase nitric oxide levels and, theoretically, would
                have antihypertensive activity on sorafenib-associated hypertension. However, such
                drugs have not been validated for clinical treatment of hypertension<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">7</xref>.</p>
      <p>Considering that hypertension is a risk factor for development of heart failure and
                is often its etiology or comorbidity, medications that reduce the morbidity and
                mortality in patients with heart failure - carvedilol, metoprolol, bisoprolol, ACE
                inhibitors and ARBs - should be considered first-line agents in the treatment of
                AI-associated hypertension<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>The increasing prevalence of cancer imposes considerations regarding development and
                implementation of cardiovascular diagnostic and treatment strategies in clinical
                practice. Cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy require cardiovascular monitoring,
                including systematic measurement of blood pressure. With early diagnosis and
                adequate treatment of hypertension, cancer patients can tolerate maximum doses of
                the planned chemotherapeutic drugs, without injury to target organs, yielding better
                control of the tumor.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was partially funded by Funda&#231;&#227;o Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a
                    Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ).</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of research area Cardio&#8209;oncology by
                    Postgraduate Course in Cardiovascular Sciences, from Universidade Federal
                    Fluminense.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal
                        Fluminense</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Curso de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias
                        Cardiovasculares</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country>Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Curso de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias
                        Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211;
                        Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Wolney de Andrade Martins</bold>, Avenida
                    Marques do Paran&#225;, 303, 6&#186; andar, Cardiologia, Centro, CEP 24030&#8209;215, Niter&#243;i,
                    Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>wolney@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Martins WA. Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Souza VB,
                        Martins WA. Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Souza VB, Martins WA. Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do
                        manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Souza VB, Silva EN,
                        Ribeiro ML, Martins WA.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <p>H&#225; associa&#231;&#227;o conhecida entre a quimioterapia e a radioterapia utilizadas no
                    tratamento do paciente com C&#226;ncer (CA) e o desenvolvimento ou agravamento da
                    Hipertens&#227;o Arterial (HA). Este artigo teve como objetivo revisar a referida
                    associa&#231;&#227;o. Foi realizada uma pesquisa bibliogr&#225;fica nas bases PubMed, SciELO e
                    LILACS, entre 1993 e 2013, que relatasse tal associa&#231;&#227;o. Observou-se maior
                    copreval&#234;ncia entre HA e CA por ambas as doen&#231;as compartilharem dos mesmos
                    fatores de risco, tais como sedentarismo, obesidade, tabagismo, alimenta&#231;&#227;o
                    inadequada e abuso de &#225;lcool. O uso de quimioter&#225;picos e f&#225;rmacos adjuvantes
                    eficazes no tratamento do CA aumentou a sobrevida desses pacientes e,
                    consequentemente, a maior incid&#234;ncia de HA. Descreveuse a associa&#231;&#227;o entre o uso
                    dos inibidores de angiog&#234;nese (bevacizumab, sorafenib e sunitinib), corticoides,
                    eritropoetina e anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o esteroidais com o desenvolvimento de HA.
                    Tamb&#233;m foi relatada a rela&#231;&#227;o entre hipertens&#227;o e les&#227;o do barorreceptor
                    carot&#237;deo secund&#225;ria a radioterapia cervical. A morbimortalidade aumentou nos
                    pacientes com CA e hipertensos sem tratamento anti-hipertensivo adequado.
                    Concluiu-se pela necessidade de diagn&#243;stico precoce, estrat&#233;gias de
                    monitoriza&#231;&#227;o e tratamento efetivo da HA no paciente com CA com objetivo de
                    diminuir a morbimortalidade cardiovascular.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o, Neoplasias / complica&#231;&#245;es</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasias / quimioterapia</kwd>
        <kwd>Neoplasias / radioterapia</kwd>
        <kwd>Anti-Hipertensivos</kwd>
        <kwd>Indicadores de Morbimortalidade</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O principal fator determinante do crescimento epidemiol&#243;gico das Doen&#231;as
                    Cardiovasculares (DCV) e neopl&#225;sicas no Brasil &#233; demogr&#225;fico, justificado pela
                    maior propor&#231;&#227;o da popula&#231;&#227;o atingindo a senilidade. A copreval&#234;ncia de C&#226;ncer
                    (CA) e DCV &#233; elevada, tamb&#233;m explicada pela concomit&#226;ncia dos fatores de risco
                    para ambas as entidades nosol&#243;gicas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>.
                    Destacam-se como Fatores de Risco (FR) comuns para CA e para DCV tabagismo,
                    alimenta&#231;&#227;o inadequada e obesidade, sedentarismo, diabete melito, hipertens&#227;o
                    arterial e o abuso do consumo de &#225;lcool<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>.
                    Esses FR isolados ou em conjunto s&#227;o os principais gatilhos para o aparecimento
                    de CA e s&#227;o os mesmos fatores que exp&#245;em os indiv&#237;duos ao risco de desenvolver
                    as DCV mais prevalentes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. Por outro lado, a coincid&#234;ncia de FR
                    possibilita o estabelecimento de estrat&#233;gias integradas de preven&#231;&#227;o da maioria
                    das doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas n&#227;o transmiss&#237;veis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
        <p>A preval&#234;ncia de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial (HA) nos pacientes com CA antes da
                    introdu&#231;&#227;o dos inibidores de Angiog&#234;nese (IA) no tratamento quimioter&#225;pico era
                    semelhante &#224;quela da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta em geral<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Entretanto, o
                    maior acesso ao moderno arsenal quimioter&#225;pico e consequente aumento da
                    sobrevida dos pacientes com CA teve impacto no desenvolvimento ou agravamento da
                    HA, em especial naqueles sob uso dos IA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
					<sup>-</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. A presen&#231;a de
                    HA pr&#233;via ao tratamento de CA, assim como de quaisquer outras DCV, como doen&#231;a
                    isqu&#234;mica, doen&#231;a valvular, arritmias, &#233; preditora do desenvolvimento de
                    miocardiopatia pelo uso dos quimioter&#225;picos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. HA &#233; a
                    comorbidade mais frequentemente registrada em pacientes com CA, e sua incid&#234;ncia
                    aumenta com o tratamento quimioter&#225;pico, principalmente com os IA &#8211;
                    bevacizumabe, sunitinibe, sorafenibe, vatalanibe, pazopanibe, motesanibe,
                    axitinibe e aflibercept<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. Outras
                    medica&#231;&#245;es usadas nos pacientes com CA, como eritropoetina, corticoides,
                    Anti-Inflamat&#243;rios N&#227;o Esteroidais (AINE), tamb&#233;m podem elevar a press&#227;o
                        arterial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>, assim como a les&#227;o do
                    barorreceptor carot&#237;deo pela Radioterapia (RT) cervical.</p>
        <p>O assunto ainda &#233; pouco discutido entre os cardiologistas e cl&#237;nicos. As
                    evid&#234;ncias na literatura ainda s&#227;o oriundas de an&#225;lises de desfechos secund&#225;rios
                    ou de estudos retrospectivos. Este trabalho objetivou revisar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre
                    o tratamento quimioter&#225;pico, os f&#225;rmacos adjuvantes no tratamento de CA e a
                    radioterapia com o desenvolvimento ou agravamento da HA. Tamb&#233;m objetivou
                    enfatizar as especificidades nos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos, no acompanhamento e
                    tratamento do paciente hipertenso com CA.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>M&#233;todos</title>
        <p>Procedeu-se a uma revis&#227;o bibliogr&#225;fica sistem&#225;tica nas bases <italic>PubMed,
                        SciELO</italic> e<italic> LILACS</italic>. Termos como &#8220;inibidores da
                    angiog&#234;nese&#8221;, &#8220;bevacizumab&#8221;, &#8221;sorafenib&#8221;, &#8220;sunitinib&#8221;, &#8220;eritropoetina&#8221;,
                    &#8220;corticoides&#8221;, &#8220;anti-inflamat&#243;rio n&#227;o esteroidal&#8221;, &#8220;barorreceptor&#8221; e
                    &#8220;radioterapia&#8221; foram relacionados a &#8220;hipertens&#227;o arterial&#8221; e &#8220;c&#226;ncer&#8221;. Como
                    crit&#233;rio de inclus&#227;o, selecionaram-se artigos publicados de 1993 a 2013, nas
                    l&#237;nguas inglesa, espanhola e portuguesa. Foram inclu&#237;dos estudos cl&#237;nicos
                    observacionais, admitindo&#8209;se <italic>coortes</italic>, caso controle e estudos
                    transversais; revis&#245;es e editoriais foram inclu&#237;dos quando julgados relevantes e
                    conexos ao tema. Publica&#231;&#245;es do MD Anderson Cancer Center e Texas Heart
                    Institute da University of Texas, TX, EUA &#8211; institui&#231;&#245;es de refer&#234;ncia no estudo
                    da cardio-oncologia foram inclu&#237;das, mesmo que na forma de livro texto. As
                    recomenda&#231;&#245;es da I Diretriz Brasileira de Cardio-Oncologia da Sociedade
                    Brasileira de Cardiologia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref> foram
                    observadas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Quimioterapia e Hipertens&#227;o Arterial</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Inibidores da Angiog&#234;nese</title>
          <p>Os inibidores da angiog&#234;nese s&#227;o divididos em dois grupos principais: os
                        anticorpos monoclonais inibidores das vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o vascular
                        (bevacizumab) e as pequenas mol&#233;culas inibidoras de tirosinaquinase
                        (sunitinib, sorafenibe). O mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o desses f&#225;rmacos em induzir HA
                        n&#227;o &#233; completamente entendido, mas pode estar diretamente relacionado &#224;
                        inibi&#231;&#227;o da sinaliza&#231;&#227;o via tirosina quinase e dos fatores de crescimento
                        endotelial vascular (VEGF)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. A
                        sinaliza&#231;&#227;o VEGF &#233; importante para o adequado funcionamento endotelial e a
                        s&#237;ntese de &#243;xido n&#237;trico &#8211; sua inibi&#231;&#227;o prejudica a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
						<sup>-</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.
                        Outros efeitos da inibi&#231;&#227;o de VEGF incluem a indu&#231;&#227;o da morte de c&#233;lulas
                        endoteliais e a rarefa&#231;&#227;o dos vasos de resist&#234;ncia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.
                        A terapia com IA objetiva atingir mol&#233;culas que est&#227;o com express&#227;o
                        aumentada nos pacientes com CA; entretanto, tais mol&#233;culas tamb&#233;m est&#227;o
                        presentes em c&#233;lulas n&#227;o tumorais e t&#234;m papel fisiol&#243;gico em diversos
                        sistemas, incluindo o cardiovascular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Portanto, ao atuarem no tumor pela inibi&#231;&#227;o do VEGF, os IA tamb&#233;m
                        causam HA. Isso gera um paradoxo posto que a presen&#231;a de HA &#233;, ao mesmo
                        tempo, um efeito adverso cardiovascular e um sinal de resposta terap&#234;utica
                        oncol&#243;gica favor&#225;vel<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">tabela 1</xref>, adaptada de Yeh e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>, apresenta a incid&#234;ncia e a
                        frequ&#234;ncia de uso dos principais IA associados ao desenvolvimento de HA.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t02">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Incid&#234;ncia e frequ&#234;ncia de uso dos principais inibidores da
                                angiog&#234;nese associados ao desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o
                                arterial</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Agentes quimioter&#225;picos</th>
                  <th align="center">Incid&#234;ncia (%)</th>
                  <th align="center">Frequ&#234;ncia de uso</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Bevacizumab</td>
                  <td align="center">35</td>
                  <td align="center">+ +</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sorafenib</td>
                  <td align="center">17-43</td>
                  <td align="center">+ + +</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sunitinib</td>
                  <td align="center">5-47</td>
                  <td align="center">+ + +</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn>
                <p>Adaptada de Yeh e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
								</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Bevacizumab</title>
          <p>O bevacizumab &#233; um IA do grupo dos inibidores das vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o
                            vascular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Sua principal fun&#231;&#227;o &#233; a inibi&#231;&#227;o da
                        sinaliza&#231;&#227;o endotelial via VEGF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. A
                        patog&#234;nese do seu efeito hipertensivo n&#227;o foi completamente compreendida,
                        acredita-se na interfer&#234;ncia nos fatores homeost&#225;ticos da press&#227;o sangu&#237;nea,
                        causando disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, rarefa&#231;&#227;o capilar e a inibi&#231;&#227;o da via do
                        &#243;xido n&#237;trico, aumentando a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e diminuindo a excre&#231;&#227;o renal de
                            s&#243;dio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Seu principal uso &#233; no
                        tratamento de neoplasias s&#243;lidas, como tumores gastrointestinais, carcinoma
                        renal metast&#225;tico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> e glioblastoma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">9</xref>. Tamb&#233;m &#233; utilizado em primeira linha no tratamento
                        de CA colorretal metast&#225;tico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref> e
                        tumores avan&#231;ados pulmonares n&#227;o <italic>oat cell</italic>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
          <p>Ranpura e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> analisaram 12.656
                        pacientes com vinte tipos de tumores s&#243;lidos inclusos na metan&#225;lise e
                        conclu&#237;ram que a incid&#234;ncia de HA em pacientes tratados com bevacizumab foi
                        de 23,6% (intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% [IC 95%]: 20,5&#160;-&#160;27,1) dos quais
                        7,9% (95% IC: 6,1 - 10,2) desenvolveram hipertens&#227;o grau 3 ou 4. A
                        incid&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o grau 3 ou 4 sofre varia&#231;&#227;o de acordo com a
                        malignidade e tipo do CA, dose do bevacizumab, intera&#231;&#227;o com outros
                        antineopl&#225;sicos e resposta ao tratamento antineopl&#225;sico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Fatores
                        de risco para desenvolver HA est&#227;o relacionados com a idade acima de 75
                        anos, a etnia afrodescendente e, especialmente, os tumores renais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. A dose t&#243;xica de bevacizumab para o
                        desenvolvimento de HA foi observada nos pacientes em uso de 2,5 mg/kg/semana
                        com raz&#227;o de risco (RR) = 4,78 (95%, IC: 3,59 - 6,36), assim como 5
                        mg/kg/semana com RR = 5,39 (95%, IC: 3,68 - 7,90). Baixas doses de
                        bevacizumab (0,5 mg/kg/min) n&#227;o aumentaram o risco de desenvolver HA e
                            proteinuria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. &#201; importante
                        ressaltar que o desenvolvimento de HA relacionada ao uso de bevacizumab &#233; um
                        biomarcador da efic&#225;cia da inibi&#231;&#227;o da sinaliza&#231;&#227;o via VEGF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>; portanto, pacientes que desenvolvem HA grau 2 e 3
                        indicam atividade antitumoral e sobrevida livre de eventos 14,1 meses
                            <italic>versus</italic> 3,1 meses em compara&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes que n&#227;o
                        desenvolvem HA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Descontinua&#231;&#227;o do
                        tratamento por hipertens&#227;o e necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar ocorreu em
                        1,7% dos pacientes; complica&#231;&#245;es como encefalopatia hipertensiva e
                        sangramento no sistema nervoso central foram descritas com RR 3,16 (95% IC:
                        0,91 - 10,9)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Uso de antracicl&#237;nicos e/ou
                        radioterapia associada ao tratamento com bevacizumab aumenta o risco de
                        eventos arteriais tromboemb&#243;licos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.
                        Tamb&#233;m &#233; descrito o uso de bevacizumab em algumas doen&#231;as oft&#225;lmicas
                        neovasculares proliferativas, como degenera&#231;&#227;o macular relacionada &#224; idade
                        (AMD). O substrato fisiopatol&#243;gico da doen&#231;a oft&#225;lmica &#233; mediado pelo
                        crescimento neovascular via VEGF, assim sua inibi&#231;&#227;o pelo bevacizumab com
                        inje&#231;&#227;o intravitreal promoveu retardo do crescimento vascular com bons
                        resultados cl&#237;nicos e oft&#225;lmicos, por&#233;m sem a&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica no aumento da
                        press&#227;o arterial em acompanhamento cl&#237;nico de seis semanas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. O tratamento com anticoagulantes, IECA e
                        bloqueadores dos canais de c&#225;lcio di-hidropirid&#237;nico pode ajudar na prote&#231;&#227;o
                        dos efeitos vasculares promovido pelo bevacizumab<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sorafenib</title>
          <p>Sorafenib &#233; um IA do grupo das pequenas mol&#233;culas inibidoras de
                            tirosina-quinase<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.
                        Hipertens&#227;o arterial &#233; o mecanismo base da toxicidade do f&#225;rmaco, atuando na
                        inibi&#231;&#227;o do VEGF. Tamb&#233;m s&#227;o descritas rea&#231;&#245;es adversas cut&#226;neas como
                            <italic>rash</italic>; descama&#231;&#245;es; e gastrointestinais, como diarreia.
                        O sorafenib est&#225; indicado e aprovado para o tratamento do carcinoma de
                        c&#233;lulas renais avan&#231;ado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>, carcinoma
                            hepatocelular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>, melanoma metast&#225;tico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>, c&#226;ncer de pulm&#227;o n&#227;o <italic>oat
                            cell</italic>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref> e carcinoma de
                        tireoide avan&#231;ado resistente ao tratamento radioativo com iodo
                        radioativo.</p>
          <p>A incid&#234;ncia de HA foi de 14% a 43% durante o tratamento com sorafenib em
                        alguns ensaios cl&#237;nicos. Dentre essas, a HA grau 3 ou 4 foi constatada em
                        1,4% a 38,0%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Em recente metan&#225;lise que envolveu 45.599 pacientes
                        tratados com sorafenib, conclui-se que a incid&#234;ncia global de HA foi de
                        23,4%, e dentre esses, 2,1% a 30,7% desenvolveram HA grau 3 ou 4<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. As taxas de incid&#234;ncia de
                        hipertens&#227;o s&#227;o compar&#225;veis aos outros inibidores de angiog&#234;nese, como
                        sunitinib e bevacizumab para tratamento de carcinoma renal e outros tipos de
                            tumores<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. O efeito hipertensivo
                        &#233; mediado pela rarefa&#231;&#227;o vascular e altera&#231;&#227;o na produ&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido n&#237;trico
                        associado &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.
                        Experimentos sugerem que o dano no metabolismo energ&#233;tico mitocondrial seja
                        a chave do efeito cardiot&#243;xico mediado pelo sorafenib<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Aumento na press&#227;o arterial surge nas primeiras tr&#234;s
                        semanas de terapia com sorafenib e persiste at&#233; dezoito semanas. Doses da
                        terapia com sorafenib devem ser corrigidas ou suspensas de acordo com a
                        resposta adversa ao tratamento como: HA grave n&#227;o responsiva ao tratamento,
                        hemorragias, rea&#231;&#245;es cut&#226;neas graves, diarreia intrat&#225;vel e isquemia ou
                        infarto do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sunitinib</title>
          <p>Sunitinib tamb&#233;m faz parte dos IA, assim como sorafenib, pertence ao grupo
                        das pequenas mol&#233;culas inibidoras da tirosina-quinase<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. Utilizado no tratamento do carcinoma de c&#233;lulas
                            renais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>, tumores do estroma gastrointestinal
                            (GIST)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> e tumores neuroend&#243;crinos
                        pancre&#225;ticos. A inibi&#231;&#227;o da forma&#231;&#227;o de novos vasos, mediada pela inibi&#231;&#227;o
                        VEGF, apresenta-se como a principal estrat&#233;gia de combate aos tumores
                            s&#243;lidos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.</p>
          <p>O uso desse f&#225;rmaco tem associa&#231;&#227;o estreita com o desenvolvimento de HA. Em
                        alguns ensaios cl&#237;nicos apresenta-se incid&#234;ncia vari&#225;vel entre 5% e 24%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>. Em an&#225;lise retrospectiva observou-se aumento da
                        press&#227;o arterial nas primeiras quatro semanas, 47% com valores de
                        150&#160;X&#160;100&#160;mmHg, enquanto apenas 17% apresentaram hipertens&#227;o grau 3<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. Algumas evid&#234;ncias apontam para a rela&#231;&#227;o do
                        aumento da press&#227;o arterial como um biomarcador de resposta ao tratamento
                            quimioter&#225;pico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. Em um estudo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> avaliaram&#8209;se pacientes com carcinoma de c&#233;lulas renais com
                        met&#225;stase em que 54,8% tiveram resposta hipertensiva ao tratamento
                        quimioter&#225;pico com sunitinib. A sobrevida m&#233;dia livre de eventos do grupo
                        hipertenso foi de 15,5 meses (95%&#160;IC&#160;=&#160;10,9&#160;-&#160;13,7 meses)
                            <italic>versus</italic> grupo sem hipertens&#227;o 2,5&#160;meses
                        (95%&#160;IC&#160;=&#160;2,3&#160;-&#160;3,8&#160;meses), enquanto a sobrevida global m&#233;dia foi de 30,9
                        meses (95%&#160;IC&#160;=&#160;27,9&#160;-&#160;33,7 meses) <italic>versus</italic> 7,2 meses
                        (95%&#160;IC&#160;=&#160;5,6&#160;-&#160;10,7&#160;meses), respectivamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Estudo semelhante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
                        com pacientes portadores de GIST em tratamento com sunitinib obteve
                        resultados concordantes com a hip&#243;tese de a HA ser um biomarcador favor&#225;vel
                        &#224; resposta ao tratamento quimioter&#225;pico.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Hipertens&#227;o arterial e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca no tratamento com
                        inibidores da tirosina quinase</title>
          <p>Pacientes que desenvolveram disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular ou insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca
                        ap&#243;s o uso de sunitinib para o tratamento de carcinoma renal metast&#225;tico
                        tiveram, previamente, HA causada ou agravada pelo uso desse quimioter&#225;pico.
                        A instala&#231;&#227;o da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ocorreu naqueles hipertensos
                        classificados como grau 3 ou maior. Ainda h&#225; poucos estudos que revelam o
                        mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico da cardiotoxicidade nesses pacientes. Entretanto,
                        as evid&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas apontam que a HA precede ou contribui para a les&#227;o ao
                        cardiomi&#243;cito que culmina em disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Portanto, &#233; razo&#225;vel inferir que tratar HA nesses
                        pacientes &#233; prevenir a instala&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>F&#225;rmacos adjuvantes no tratamento do c&#226;ncer</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Eritropoetina</title>
          <p>A Eritropoetina (EPO) &#233; um horm&#244;nio glicoproteico que controla a eritropoiese
                        na medula &#243;ssea. &#201; produzida nos fibroblastos renais e nas c&#233;lulas
                        perissinusoidais hep&#225;ticas. Na fase adulta &#233; produzida majoritariamente pelo
                        rim, posto que a produ&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica limita-se &#224;s fases fetal e neonatal. A
                        EPO recombinante humana (rhuEPO) &#233; um f&#225;rmaco utilizado frequentemente em
                        pacientes renais cr&#244;nicos, portadores da s&#237;ndrome da imunodefici&#234;ncia
                        adquirida e/ou com CA. Anemia &#233; uma complica&#231;&#227;o frequente no paciente com
                            CA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. At&#233; 70% desses pacientes
                        apresentam anemia em alguma etapa da sua doen&#231;a ou tratamento. A anemia pode
                        ser um dos sinais iniciais da doen&#231;a neopl&#225;sica, por&#233;m mais comumente
                        relaciona-se ao tratamento antineopl&#225;sico ou &#224; progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a. A
                        incid&#234;ncia e a gravidade da anemia dependem do tipo de tumor, idade do
                        paciente, est&#225;gio da doen&#231;a, do tipo e intensidade do tratamento
                            antineopl&#225;sico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. Consenso
                        elaborado pela American Society of Clinical Oncology e da American Society
                        of Hematology sugere o uso da rhuEPO em pacientes com Hb &lt; 10 g/dL e para
                        pacientes com Hb entre 10 e 12 g/dL deve ser determinada por circunst&#226;ncias
                            cl&#237;nicas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>. Para pacientes com
                        anemia associada ao CA e &#224; quimioterapia a dose inicial recomendada &#233; 150
                        UI/kg, administrado por via subcut&#226;nea, tr&#234;s vezes por semana, por oito
                        semanas. Se a resposta n&#227;o for satisfat&#243;ria ap&#243;s oito semanas, pode-se
                        dobrar a dose do esquema<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>.</p>
          <p>Cerca de 33% a 35% dos pacientes que fazem uso de rhuEPO apresentam aumento
                        da resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica e uma leve diminui&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco,
                        com consequente eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. A HA ocorre de duas a dezesseis semanas ap&#243;s o uso da rhuEPO.
                        V&#225;rios mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos t&#234;m sido propostos para explicar o
                        aparecimento da HA. Dentre eles, podem-se destacar: (1) aumento da massa
                        eritrocit&#225;ria, com aumento na viscosidade sangu&#237;nea; (2) altera&#231;&#227;o na
                        produ&#231;&#227;o e sensibilidade dos agentes vasopressores end&#243;genos; (3) altera&#231;&#227;o
                        no meio i&#244;nico da musculatura lisa dos vasos dificultando a resposta aos
                        fatores vasodilatadores; (4) a&#231;&#227;o vasopressora direta da rhuEPO; e (5)
                        remodelamento arterial mediante a estimula&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas vasculares de
                            crescimento<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. No tratamento da
                        HA associada ao uso da rhuEPO s&#227;o utilizados anti-hipertensivos habituais.
                        Nos pacientes com doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica, os antagonistas do c&#225;lcio e os
                        inibidores alfa-adren&#233;rgicos apresentam bons resultados; entretanto, IECA e
                        BRA mostraram pouca efetividade em raz&#227;o da supress&#227;o da atividade da
                        angiotensina II. Os diur&#233;ticos possuem pouca a&#231;&#227;o nesses pacientes com
                        doen&#231;a renal avan&#231;ada. Caso as medidas farmacol&#243;gicas n&#227;o surtam efeitos no
                        controle hipertensivo, a dose da rhuEPO pode ser reduzida &#224; metade ou at&#233;
                        suspensa temporariamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o esteroidais e hipertens&#227;o no tratamento do
                        c&#226;ncer</title>
          <p>Duas grandes metan&#225;lises englobaram mais de noventa ensaios cl&#237;nicos e
                        demonstraram que os AINE podem elevar a press&#227;o arterial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Acredita-se que o principal efeito
                        fisiopatol&#243;gico seja a inibi&#231;&#227;o das prostaglandinas (PG) e a redu&#231;&#227;o da
                        renina. Prop&#245;em-se que a inibi&#231;&#227;o das PG natriur&#233;ticas e a consequente
                        reten&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio poderiam explicar o efeito press&#243;rico. Outra explica&#231;&#227;o
                        seria a inibi&#231;&#227;o do efeito vasodilatador direto das PG nos leitos vasculares
                        renais e extrarrenais. Contudo, o aumento da reten&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio e &#225;gua
                        concomitante com o aumento da resist&#234;ncia vascular causada pela exacerba&#231;&#227;o
                        da s&#237;ntese de endotelina-1 pelo rim &#233; potencialmente importante. Tanto em
                        animais de experimenta&#231;&#227;o quanto em humanos, tumores colorretais, g&#225;stricos
                        e esof&#225;gicos, expressam altos n&#237;veis de ciclooxigenase-2 (COX-2), ao
                        contr&#225;rio da mucosa intestinal normal. Tais achados levantam a hip&#243;tese do
                        envolvimento da COX-2 na progress&#227;o e dissemina&#231;&#227;o do CA, uma vez que a
                        estimula&#231;&#227;o da PGE-2 pela COX-2 inibe a a&#231;&#227;o supressora tumoral e fomenta a
                        prolifera&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas epiteliais. A COX-2 apresenta estreita rela&#231;&#227;o com a
                        regula&#231;&#227;o da angiog&#234;nese tumoral, tal fato j&#225; est&#225; bem estabelecido na
                        progress&#227;o da dissemina&#231;&#227;o do CA de pr&#243;stata. V&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m mostrado
                        que AINE podem atuar na redu&#231;&#227;o da progress&#227;o e/ou profilaxia de alguns
                        tumores intestinais, mediante mecanismos dependentes ou n&#227;o da habilidade de
                        inibir a COX-2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">34</xref>.</p>
          <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA durante o tratamento com AINE ocorreu em maior magnitude nos
                        pacientes idosos, afrodescendentes e com n&#237;veis baixos de renina<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. A indometacina e o naproxeno
                        elevaram a PA m&#233;dia em 3,59&#160;mmHg e 3,74&#160;mmHg, respectivamente. O piroxicam
                        exerceu aumento n&#227;o significativo de 0,49mmHg da PA m&#233;dia. Dados mostram que
                        os AINE aumentaram a PA supina m&#233;dia em 5,0mmHg. O piroxicam induziu o
                        aumento mais elevado (6,2mmHg)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>.
                        &#193;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico, o sulindaco e o flurbiprofeno apresentaram menor
                        eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA. Indometacina e ibuprofeno exerceram efeitos intermedi&#225;rios.
                        A a&#231;&#227;o anti-hipertensiva mediada pela s&#237;ntese de PG vasodilatadoras exercida
                        pelos diur&#233;ticos, IECA e betabloqueadores adren&#233;rgicos sofreu redu&#231;&#227;o quando
                        estes medicamentos foram associados aos AINE. Bloqueadores dos canais de
                        c&#225;lcio e antagonistas dos receptores de angiotensina II sofreram menor
                        interfer&#234;ncia dos AINE em seus efeitos anti-hipertensivos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Corticoides e hipertens&#227;o no tratamento do c&#226;ncer</title>
          <p>Os Glicocorticoides (GC) s&#227;o subst&#226;ncias derivadas do colesterol,
                        sintetizados e secretados pelas gl&#226;ndulas adrenais. Os GC s&#227;o horm&#244;nios que
                        atuam no controle transcricional de genes envolvidos na regula&#231;&#227;o de fun&#231;&#245;es
                        metab&#243;licas, cardiovasculares e imunol&#243;gicas<sup>38</sup>. Corticoides
                        parecem agir como reguladores fisiol&#243;gicos da express&#227;o do RNAm da COX-2, o
                        que talvez explique em parte a caracter&#237;stica imunossupressiva dessa
                            enzima<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>. Na d&#233;cada de 1950, a
                        descoberta do potente efeito anti-inflamat&#243;rio dos GC levou &#224; sua prescri&#231;&#227;o
                        no tratamento de doen&#231;as reum&#225;ticas cr&#244;nicas. Atualmente, os GC sint&#233;ticos
                        s&#227;o bastante utilizados no tratamento de doen&#231;as autoimunes, na preven&#231;&#227;o da
                        rejei&#231;&#227;o alogr&#225;fica e adjuvante em alguns tratamentos quimioter&#225;picos, uma
                        vez que seu efeito prolonga o estado de imunossupress&#227;o. Como exemplo, no
                        tratamento do Linfoma n&#227;o Hodgkin os esquemas mais frequentemente utilizados
                        s&#227;o CVP (ciclofosfamida, vincristina e prednisona) e o CHOP (ciclofosfamida,
                        doxorrubicina, vincristina e prednisona). Entretanto, o uso cr&#244;nico de GC
                        est&#225; associado a v&#225;rios efeitos cardiometab&#243;licos adversos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>. Na s&#237;ndrome de Cushing, promove-se a reten&#231;&#227;o de
                        s&#243;dio e &#225;gua, em raz&#227;o dos n&#237;veis elevados de cortisol no sangue. Esse fator
                        &#233; o principal respons&#225;vel pelo aparecimento de HA secund&#225;ria em 80% dos
                        casos. O uso cr&#244;nico de GC tamb&#233;m induz resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, diabete
                        melito e dislipidemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. Se n&#227;o
                        tratada, a s&#237;ndrome de Cushing pode resultar em &#243;bito por doen&#231;a
                            cardiovascular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>
						<sup>,</sup>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. O tratamento dos efeitos adversos
                        do uso GC implica na redu&#231;&#227;o da corticoterapia associada ao controle
                        hidrossalino, &#224; dieta e ao uso de diur&#233;ticos. Outras classes de
                        anti-hipertensivos podem ser associadas como inibidores da angiotensina II,
                        os antagonistas dos canais de c&#225;lcio e os simpatol&#237;ticos centrais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>. O uso cr&#244;nico de GC em doses baixas
                        por per&#237;odos longos n&#227;o parece desencadear HA.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Les&#227;o do barorreceptor carot&#237;deo pela radioterapia cervical</title>
        <p>O tratamento quimioter&#225;pico associado a radioterapia utilizado nos pacientes com
                    c&#226;ncer de cabe&#231;a e pesco&#231;o tem aumentado a sobrevida, e com isso associa-se a
                    novas complica&#231;&#245;es tardias. Os barorreceptores arteriais t&#234;m um efeito
                    inibit&#243;rio t&#244;nico sobre o t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico, controlando dessa forma a resist&#234;ncia
                    perif&#233;rica total e o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.
                    Outras evid&#234;ncias, no entanto, demonstram que a modula&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca
                    pelos barorreceptores &#233; devida, primariamente, &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o cardiacovagal
                    desencadeada pela estimula&#231;&#227;o de neur&#244;nios vagais localizados no n&#250;cleo amb&#237;guo
                    e no n&#250;cleo motor dorsal do vago<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>. Em
                    consequ&#234;ncia, a disfun&#231;&#227;o dos barorreceptores associa&#8209;se com aumento da
                    atividade simp&#225;ticae, principalmente, redu&#231;&#227;o da atividade parassimp&#225;tica,
                    resultando no aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e elevando a variabilidade da
                    press&#227;o arterial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Em resumo, estudos em
                    humanos demonstram que a labilidade da press&#227;o, arterial HA n&#227;o sustentada,
                    intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica e taquicardia por fal&#234;ncia do mecanismo barorreceptor
                    podem ocorrer na denerva&#231;&#227;o bilateral ou unilateral dos barorreceptores
                    carot&#237;deos ap&#243;s endarterectomia, trauma cervical, ressec&#231;&#227;o de tumores e
                        radioterapia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. Diagn&#243;stico
                    diferencial com feocromocitoma deve ser considerado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. Acredita-se que outro mecanismo de disfun&#231;&#227;o
                    barorreflexa em consequ&#234;ncia aos efeitos tardios da radia&#231;&#227;o seja a acelera&#231;&#227;o
                    do processo de aterosclerose e a HA cr&#244;nica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. Portanto,
                    sabe-se que a disfun&#231;&#227;o barorreflexa provocada pelo diabetes mellitus
                    correlaciona&#8209;se claramente com a ocorr&#234;ncia de morte s&#250;bita nesses
                        pacientes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. Em racioc&#237;nio an&#225;logo,
                    por&#233;m sem estudos comprobat&#243;rios, infere-se que outras causas de disfun&#231;&#227;o do
                    controle cardiovascular, como a les&#227;o pela radioterapia tamb&#233;m poderiam aumentar
                    os riscos de morte s&#250;bita.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o no paciente com c&#226;ncer</title>
        <p>Crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos de HA nos pacientes com CA s&#227;o definidos de acordo com o
                    Instituto Nacional de C&#226;ncer dos Estados Unidos da Am&#233;rica &#8211; National Cancer
                    Institute &#8211; que conta com um sistema de classifica&#231;&#227;o de eventos adversos o
                        <italic>Common Toxicity Criteria</italic> (NCI CTC)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>, que se baseia na gravidade do evento e na interven&#231;&#227;o
                    necess&#225;ria para seu controle. O n&#237;vel de PA considerado adequado no paciente com
                    CA &#233; semelhante ao utilizado na popula&#231;&#227;o adulta<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
        <p>Na vig&#234;ncia do tratamento quimioter&#225;pico &#233; recomendado aferir a PA antes, na
                    metade, no t&#233;rmino e uma hora ap&#243;s finalizada a infus&#227;o do f&#225;rmaco<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso dos IA, o National
                    Cancer Institute dos Estados Unidos preconiza o monitoramento semanal da PA
                    durante o primeiro ciclo de quimioterapia e, em seguida, pelo menos, a cada duas
                    a tr&#234;s semanas durante o tratamento<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Ap&#243;s essa
                    fase, caso a PA se mantenha est&#225;vel e sem complica&#231;&#245;es adversas
                    cardiovasculares, a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o pode ser alinhada com as avalia&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas
                    de rotina ou monitoramento residencial da PA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. Pelos efeitos nefrot&#243;xicos, principalmente associado ao
                    sunitinib, &#233; importante solicitar um exame dos elementos anormais e sedimento
                    urin&#225;rio para detec&#231;&#227;o precoce de protein&#250;ria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento da hipertens&#227;o no paciente com c&#226;ncer</title>
        <p>Os objetivos do tratamento do paciente hipertenso com CA n&#227;o diferem dos demais
                    hipertensos, ou seja, deve-se focar em tr&#234;s alvos: 1) identificar as causas da
                    HA; 2) avaliar o estilo de vida e reconhecer fatores de risco cardiovascular ou
                    comorbidades que possam afetar o progn&#243;stico ou guiar a escolha do tratamento; e
                    3) avaliar a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de les&#227;o em &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo associada a HA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Medidas higienodiet&#233;ticas devem ser
                    sempre encorajadas, orientando a pr&#225;tica de atividade f&#237;sica, dieta hiposs&#243;dica
                    e controle do peso corporal. No entanto existem pacientes oncol&#243;gicos, em
                    est&#225;gio avan&#231;ado da doen&#231;a, em que essas estrat&#233;gias n&#227;o s&#227;o suficientes ou
                    plenamente exequ&#237;veis. O tratamento farmacol&#243;gico da HA &#233; reservado aos
                    pacientes com CA e hipertens&#227;o pr&#233;via ou desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o durante
                    o tratamento quimioter&#225;pico, norteado pelas recomenda&#231;&#245;es do Eight Report of the
                    National Committee (JNC 8)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> e da I
                    Diretriz Brasileira de Cardio-oncologia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.
                    Nesses grupos deve-se preconizar a interven&#231;&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica precoce<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. O controle e a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da HA durante quimioterapia
                    e a preven&#231;&#227;o dos eventos adversos cardiovasculares permitem que os pacientes
                    tolerem o tratamento quimioter&#225;pico at&#233; a dose m&#225;xima preconizada,
                    beneficiando-se do controle tumoral mais efetivo, o qual permite uma melhora da
                    qualidade de vida e longevidade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
        <p>O objetivo prim&#225;rio do tratamento da HA &#233; a redu&#231;&#227;o da morbimortalidade e a
                    diminui&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular associado &#224; les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Descontinuidade no uso dos IA em raz&#227;o
                    do aparecimento de HA, particularmente em pacientes grau 3, &#233; controverso, uma
                    vez que a HA est&#225; associada a melhor resposta ao tratamento antineopl&#225;sico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Portanto, recomenda-se a manuten&#231;&#227;o da
                    quimioterapia e o efetivo controle da press&#227;o arterial com f&#225;rmacos
                    anti-hipertensivos.</p>
        <p>Na escolha do agente anti-hipertensivo, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que alguns s&#227;o mais
                    efetivos que outros, dado que os efeitos biol&#243;gicos desses medicamentos diferem
                    da angiog&#234;nese<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Portanto, o uso de IECA
                    como primeira linha do tratamento pode ser um benef&#237;cio, uma vez que reduz a
                    proteinuria e a express&#227;o do inibidor do ativador de plasminog&#234;nio-1<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Estudos <italic>in vivo</italic>
                    demostraram o potencial do IECA na redu&#231;&#227;o das mudan&#231;as da microcircula&#231;&#227;o,
                    diminui&#231;&#227;o do catabolismo das bradicininas e aumento da libera&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido
                    n&#237;trico endotelial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. Os bloqueadores de
                    canais de c&#225;lcio n&#227;o di-hidropirid&#237;nicos - verapamil e diltiazem - inibem o
                    sistema do citocromo p450 e n&#227;o devem ser administrados em concomit&#226;ncia com os
                    IA, j&#225; que estes s&#227;o metabolizados pelo citocromo P450 3A4<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Os inibidores
                    da fosfodiesterase ou nitratos podem aumentar os n&#237;veis de &#243;xido n&#237;trico e,
                    teoricamente, teria a&#231;&#227;o anti-hipertensiva na HA associada ao uso sorafenib. No
                    entanto, tais f&#225;rmacos n&#227;o foram validados para o tratamento cl&#237;nico da HA<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
        <p>Considerando-se que HA &#233; um fator de risco para desenvolvimento de insufici&#234;ncia
                    card&#237;aca e frequentemente &#233; sua etiologia ou comorbidade, medicamentos que
                    reduzem a morbimortalidade em paciente com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#8211; carvedilol,
                    metoprolol, bisoprolol, IECA e BRA &#8211; devem ser considerados como agentes de
                    primeira linha no tratamento da HA associado ao uso de inibidores
                        de&#160;angiog&#234;nese<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>O aumento da preval&#234;ncia do CA nos obriga a pensar que estrat&#233;gias diagn&#243;sticas e
                    de tratamento cardiovascular sejam desenvolvidas e implementadas na pr&#225;tica
                    cl&#237;nica. Os pacientes com CA sob tratamento quimioter&#225;pico necessitam de
                    monitoramento cardiovascular, incluindo-se nele, obrigatoriamente, a medida
                    sistem&#225;tica da press&#227;o arterial. Com o diagn&#243;stico precoce e o tratamento
                    adequado da HA, o paciente com CA pode tolerar doses m&#225;ximas dos quimioter&#225;picos
                    preconizados em seu plano terap&#234;utico, sem les&#227;o em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo, e por
                    conseguinte, maior controle tumoral.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por Funda&#231;&#227;o Carlos Chagas
                        Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ).</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de linha de pesquisa em Cardio-oncologia pelo
                        Curso de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal
                        Fluminense.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
