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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">WkPhqsxFD3RF3pHMtkCs5Cf</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2015000200009</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00009</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2014005040176</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20140176</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Fatty Acid and Cholesterol Concentrations in Usually Consumed Fish in
               Brazil</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scherr</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gagliardi</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Carolina Moron</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Miname</surname>
            <given-names>Marcio Hiroshi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Raul Dias</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o e do Diabetes</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o e do Diabetes, Rio de Janeiro,
               RJ - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Unidade Cl&#237;nica de L&#237;pides - Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o
               (InCor) - Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o
               Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Ana Carolina Moron Gagliardi Miguel,</bold> Rua
               Bernardo Ferraz de Almeida, 187 apt.&#186; 11, Jardim Faculdade. Postal Code: 18030-290,
               Sorocaba, S&#227;o Paulo - Brazil. E-mail:
               <email>anacarolina.moron@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research, Acquisition of data and Obtaining
                  financing: Scherr C; Analysis and interpretation of the data, Statistical analysis
                  and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Scherr C,
                  Gagliardi ACM, Miname MH, Santos RD; Writing of the manuscript: Scherr C,
                  Gagliardi ACM, Santos RD.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2015</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>21</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>104</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>152</fpage>
      <lpage>158</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
                  Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits unrestricted
                  non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
                  original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <sec>
          <title>Background:</title>
          <p>Several studies have demonstrated clinical benefits of fish consumption for the
                  cardiovascular system. These effects are attributed to the increased amounts of
                  polyunsaturated fatty acids in these foods. However, the concentrations of fatty
                  acids may vary according to region.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective:</title>
          <p>The goal of this study was to determine the amount of,cholesterol and fatty acids
                  in 10 Brazilian fishes and in a non-native farmed salmon usually consumed in
                  Brazil.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods:</title>
          <p>The concentrations of cholesterol and fatty acids, especially omega-3, were
                  determined in grilled fishes. Each fish sample was divided in 3 sub-samples
                  (chops) and each one was extracted from the fish to minimize possible differences
                  in muscle and fat contents.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results:</title>
          <p>The largest cholesterol amount was found in white grouper (107.6 mg/100 g of fish)
                  and the smallest in badejo (70 mg/100 g). Omega-3 amount varied from 0.01 g/100 g
                  in badejo to 0.900 g/100 g in weakfish. Saturated fat varied from 0.687 g/100 g in
                  seabass to 4.530 g/100 g in filhote. The salmon had the greatest concentration of
                  polyunsaturated fats (3.29 g/100 g) and the highest content of monounsaturated was
                  found in pescadinha (5.98 g/100 g).</p>
          <p>Whiting and boyfriend had the best omega-6/omega 3 ratios respectively 2.22 and
                  1.19, however these species showed very little amounts of omega-3.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion:</title>
          <p>All studied Brazilian fishes and imported salmon have low amounts of saturated fat
                  and most of them also have low amounts of omega-3.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Fatty Acids</kwd>
        <kwd>Cholesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>Fishes</kwd>
        <kwd>Coronary Artery Disease / prevention &amp; control</kwd>
        <kwd>Dyslipidemias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="8"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="29"/>
        <page-count count="7"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Several studies have reported that cardiovascular diseases are associated with
            lifestyles, particularly food habits<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. In 2002,
            Hu and Willet<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref> published a broader review on
            those studies and concluded that the following three dietary strategies were effective
            in preventing coronary artery disease: 1) replacing saturated fats or trans fats with
            poly/ monounsaturated fat; 2) increasing the omega-3 fatty acid consumption; 3) and
            consuming more fruits, vegetables, nuts, whole grains, and avoiding refined
            carbohydrates.</p>
      <p>There are extensive evidence associating the increase in omega-3 consumption with lower
            risks of cardiovascular diseases <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. From the
            epidemiological point of view, increased fish consumption is associated with lower
            mortality and cardiovascular morbidity. In addition, numerous studies have showed that
            fish consumption has positive effects on the lipoprotein metabolism, clotting and
            platelet function, endothelial function, and arterial stiffness<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
      <p>Finally, it is important to point out that all fishes do not contain similar omega-3
            concentration. For example, fishes from icy and deep waters exhibit better protective
            effects because of the phytoplankton diversity they feed on. Therefore, protective
            effects should not be generalized for all species or on the way they are prepared or
            cooked <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
      <p>The present study aimed to determine the composition of fatty acids and cholesterol in
            the most consumed fishes in Brazil. Fishes from all over the country as well as the
            non-native farmed salmon, which is mostly imported from Chile, were analyzed.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="materials|methods">
      <title>Material and Methods</title>
      <p>Fishes were obtained from local markets in various regions of the country. Fish
            processing was performed at the Meat Technology Center (Centro de Tecnologia de Carnes)
            of the Institute of Food Technology (Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos). A standard
            protocol was used for this type of study in which fishes were cleaned and processed to
            provide approximately 1 kg/preparation. Then, the preparations were homogenized in a
            cutter and vacuum packed for a single serving.</p>
      <p>Three fishes of the salmon and namorado species, respectively, were used, and a sample
            from each fish was cut, totaling to three samples per species. Each sample was divided
            in three subsamples (chops), and a section from each was cut from the beginning, middle,
            and end of the fish. Parts such as the head and tail that are usually not consumed by
            people were discarded and the remaining parts of the sample were cut from the one-third
            initial, middle, and end of the fish. This procedure intended to minimize problems
            regarding possible differences between fats and muscles, which could influence the final
            analysis results. For the other species, 1 kg of sample, which consisted of several
            fishes belonging to the same species for each type of preparation, was used.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Preparation of samples</title>
        <p>Tissue compositions for cholesterol and fatty acids from 10 fishes were analyzed; of
               these, nine are found in Brazil and one is mostly imported from Chile (non-native
               farmed salmon). Of the fishes found in Brazil, three inhabit freshwater (filhote,
               trout, and sea bass), three inhabit salty waters of the Brazilian coast (namorado,
               weakfish, and sardines), and three inhabit the offshore area (whiting, robalo, and
               white grouper). These fishes were chosen because of their high consumption and
               distribution offshore (three), in the coast (three) and in freshwater (Bel&#233;m, Manaus,
               and S&#227;o Paulo).</p>
        <p>All fishes were grilled (standard preparation), and 1 kg samples were separated
               without adding any other ingredient. The grill was heated and fishes were placed on
               it for approximately 20 min until one side was golden brown. They were turned only
               once with a total time of approximately 40 min on the grill.</p>
        <p>After the grilling process, the composition of fats was analyzed by gas
               chromatography, consisting of the separation and subsequent quantification of fatty
               acids. Specific methods were used to evaluate total lipids<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,
                  cholesterol<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>, and fatty acids<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. As a standard, cholesterol was quantified in mg/100 g of fish
               and fatty acids in g/100 g of fish. Then, the ratio of the fatty acids
               omega-6/omega-3 was calculated.</p>
        <p>The results were evaluated on the basis of the recommendation by the National Agency
               of Sanitary Surveillance (Anvisa, Ag&#234;ncia Nacional de Vigil&#226;ncia Sanit&#225;ria), which
               suggest a 2,000 kcal diet a day, including a lipid intake of up to 55 g/day; however,
               it should include &lt;22 g/day of saturated fatty acids and up to 300 mg/day of
                  cholesterol<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Statistical analysis</title>
        <p>Data are showed as mean &#177; standard deviation. The normality of the data was tested by
               the Kolmogorov&#8211;Smirnov test. ANOVA test and post-hoc Bonferroni correction were used
               to compare the quantification of total lipids, fatty acids, and cholesterol among the
               10 different types of grilled fishes for the seven variable studied. Results were
               considered significant at 5% significance level.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Results</title>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref> shows the total lipid composition in
            fishes assessed. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Table 2</xref> shows the differences
            that were statistically significant among the analyzed fishes. Significant differences
            in the concentrations of cholesterol and fatty acids in different species were observed.
            The average content of cholesterol ranged from 70 mg/100 g in whiting to 107.6 mg/100 g
            in white grouper (P &lt; 0.05). Therefore, to overcome the daily recommended amounts of
            cholesterol, at least 428 g/day or 279 g/day of whiting or white grouper, respectively,
            should be consumed<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. However, there was no
            significant difference between the species in the highest cholesterol content (white
            grouper versus filhote, p = 0.776; white grouper vs. salmon, p = 0.511).</p>
      <table-wrap id="t01">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Total lipids found in the fishes assessed</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <thead>
            <tr style="border-bottom:hidden">
              <th>&#160;</th>
              <th align="center">Cholesterol</th>
              <th align="center">Saturated fats</th>
              <th align="center">Polyunsaturated fats</th>
              <th align="center">Monounsaturated fats</th>
            </tr>
            <tr style="border-bottom:hidden">
              <th>&#160;</th>
              <th align="center">(mg/100 g)</th>
              <th align="center">(g/100 g)</th>
              <th align="center">(g/100 g)</th>
              <th align="center">(g/100 g)</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th>&#160;</th>
              <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></th>
              <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></th>
              <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></th>
              <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN01">*</xref></th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td>Whiting</td>
              <td align="center">70,03+1,68</td>
              <td align="center">0,69+0,03</td>
              <td align="center">0,03+0,00</td>
              <td align="center">0,37+0,01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>White grouper</td>
              <td align="center">107,61+2,91</td>
              <td align="center">1,56+0,02</td>
              <td align="center">0,44+0,12</td>
              <td align="center">2,50+0,05</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Filhote</td>
              <td align="center">94,31+0,88</td>
              <td align="center">4,53+0,07</td>
              <td align="center">1,84+0,03</td>
              <td align="center">3,73+0,07</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Namorado</td>
              <td align="center">73,49+0,80</td>
              <td align="center">0,70+0,02</td>
              <td align="center">0,08+0,01</td>
              <td align="center">0,63+0,01</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Weakfish</td>
              <td align="center">84,90+2,34</td>
              <td align="center">2,13+0,07</td>
              <td align="center">1,26+0,09</td>
              <td align="center">5,98+0,25</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Seabass</td>
              <td align="center">88,12+3,84</td>
              <td align="center">1,76+0,02</td>
              <td align="center">0,18+0,03</td>
              <td align="center">1,21+0,04</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Robalo</td>
              <td align="center">73,76+2,50</td>
              <td align="center">0,68+0,02</td>
              <td align="center">0,07+0,10</td>
              <td align="center">0,34+0,005</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Sardine</td>
              <td align="center">86,05+1,55</td>
              <td align="center">1,85+0,05</td>
              <td align="center">0,02+0,00</td>
              <td align="center">0,60+0,03</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Trout</td>
              <td align="center">86,82+3,50</td>
              <td align="center">2,57+0,04</td>
              <td align="center">1,60+0,06 <sup>i</sup></td>
              <td align="center">4,03+0,07</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Salmon</td>
              <td align="center">93,33+18,42</td>
              <td align="center">2,57+0,66</td>
              <td align="center">3,11+0,72</td>
              <td align="center">2,41+0,71</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN01">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>ANOVA: difference among the various fishes assessed.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t02">
        <label>Table 2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Breakdown of the differences found in the post-hoc Bonferroni correction among
                  fishes assessed</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Comparison among fishes/type of fat assessed</th>
              <th align="center">Cholesterol</th>
              <th align="center">Saturated fats</th>
              <th align="center">Polyunsaturated fats</th>
              <th align="center">Monounsaturated fats</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td>Whiting</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, seabass, trout,
                        salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Weakfish, trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, namorado, weakfish, seabass,
                        sardine, trout, salmon</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>White grouper</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, namorado, robalo, sardine, trout</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, filhote, namorado, robalo, trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Weakfish, trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, filhote, namorado, weakfish, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, trout</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Filhote</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, namorado, robalo</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, namorado, weakfish, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, namorado, seabass, robalo, sardine,
                        salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, namorado, weakfish, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, salmon</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Namorado</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, trout</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, seabass, sardine, trout,
                        salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Filhote, weakfish, trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, trout, salmon</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Weakfish</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, filhote, namorado, robalo</td>
              <td align="center">Namorado, seabass, robalo, sardine, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, filhote, namorado, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, trout, salmon</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Seabass</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper</td>
              <td align="center">Filhote, namorado, robalo, trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Filhote, weakfish, trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, filhote, weakfish, robalo, trout,
                        salmon</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Robalo</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, seabass, sardine, trout,
                        salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Filhote, weakfish, trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, seabass, trout,
                        salmon</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Sardine</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper</td>
              <td align="center">Filhote, namorado, robalo, trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Filhote, weakfish, trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, trout, salmon</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Trout</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, filhote, namorado, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, namorado, seabass, robalo, sardine,
                        salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, filhote, namorado, weakfish, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, salmon</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn>
            <p>Lines show statistical differences (p value &lt;0.05).</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Saturated fat analysis revealed that the content of saturated fats were not similar
            among fishes, ranging from 0.68 g/100 g in sea bass to 4.53 g/100 g in filhote.
            Therefore, to exceed the recommended saturated fat levels, it would be necessary to
            consume 3,200 g/day of sea bass or 486 g/day of filhote<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>.</p>
      <p>Unsaturated fatty acid analysis showed that salmon, filhote, and trout (p &lt;0.01 vs.
            other fish species) are the species with the highest concentration of polyunsaturated
            fats, whereas weakfish, trout, and filhote have the most significant concentration of
            monounsaturated fats (p &lt; 0.01 vs. other fish species).</p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t03">Table 3</xref> shows the concentrations of omega-6 and
            omega-3 and their ratio. Variables were statistically different among fishes (p &lt;
            0.01). <xref ref-type="table" rid="t04">Table 4</xref> shows the differences that were
            statistically significant among the fishes analyzed</p>
      <table-wrap id="t03">
        <label>Table 3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Concentration of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids and their ratio in fishes
                  assessed</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <thead>
            <tr style="border-bottom:hidden">
              <th>&#160;</th>
              <th align="center">Omega-6</th>
              <th align="center">Omega-3</th>
              <th rowspan="2" align="center">Ratio omega 6/3</th>
            </tr>
            <tr style="border-bottom:hidden">
              <th>&#160;</th>
              <th rowspan="2" align="center">(g/100 g)</th>
              <th rowspan="2" align="center">(g/100 g)</th>
            </tr>
            <tr style="border-bottom:hidden">
              <th>&#160;</th>
              <th rowspan="2" align="center">p &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref></th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th>&#160;</th>
              <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref></th>
              <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN02">*</xref></th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td>Whiting</td>
              <td align="center">0,02 &#177; 0,00</td>
              <td align="center">0,009 &#177; 0,00</td>
              <td align="center">2,22 &#177; 0,00</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>White grouper</td>
              <td align="center">0,16 &#177; 0,02</td>
              <td align="center">0,27 &#177; 0,10</td>
              <td align="center">0,64 &#177; 0,20</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Filhote</td>
              <td align="center">1,46 &#177; 0,01</td>
              <td align="center">0,38 &#177; 0,01</td>
              <td align="center">3,85 &#177; 0,13</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Namorado</td>
              <td align="center">0,04 &#177; 0,005</td>
              <td align="center">0,04 &#177; 0,01</td>
              <td align="center">1,19 &#177; 0,17</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Weakfish</td>
              <td align="center">0,36 &#177; 0,02</td>
              <td align="center">0,90 &#177; 0,11</td>
              <td align="center">0,40 &#177; 0,07</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Seabass</td>
              <td align="center">0,15 &#177; 0,02</td>
              <td align="center">0,03 &#177; 0,01</td>
              <td align="center">5,25 &#177; 1,14</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Robalo</td>
              <td align="center">0,016 &#177; 0,005</td>
              <td align="center">0,01 &#177; 0,00</td>
              <td align="center">0,18 &#177; 0,06</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Sardine</td>
              <td align="center">0,02 &#177; 0,00</td>
              <td align="center">0,09 &#177; 0,00</td>
              <td align="center">0,22 &#177; 0,00</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Trout</td>
              <td align="center">1,44 &#177; 0,05</td>
              <td align="center">0,16 &#177; 0,01</td>
              <td align="center">9,03 &#177; 0,43</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Salmon</td>
              <td align="center">0,29 &#177; 0,07</td>
              <td align="center">0,79 &#177; 0,19</td>
              <td align="center">0,36 &#177; 0,016</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn id="TFN02">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>ANOVA: difference among the various fishes assessed.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="t04">
        <label>Table 4</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Breakdown of the differences found in the post hoc analysis with Bonferroni
                  correction among fishes assessed</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <thead>
            <tr style="border-bottom:hidden">
              <th>&#160;</th>
              <th align="center">Omega-6</th>
              <th align="center">Omega-3</th>
              <th align="center">Ratio omega 6/3</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th>&#160;</th>
              <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01*</th>
              <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01*</th>
              <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01*</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td>Whiting</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, seabass, trout,
                        salmon</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, seabass, robalo, sardine,
                        trout, salmon</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>White grouper</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, filhote, namorado, weakfish, robalo, sardine,
                        trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, weakfish, seabass, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, filhote, seabass, trout</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Filhote</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, namorado, weakfish, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, trout</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, namorado, weakfish, seabass, robalo, sardine,
                        salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, namorado, weakfish, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, trout, salmon</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Namorado</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, seabass, trout,
                        salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Filhote, weakfish, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Filhote, seabass, trout</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Weakfish</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, filhote, namorado, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, trout</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, filhote, namorado, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, trout</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, filhote, seabass, trout</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Seabass</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, filhote, namorado, weakfish, robalo, sardine,
                        trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, filhote, namorado, weakfish, robalo,
                        sardine, trout, salmon</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Robalo</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, seabass, trout,
                        salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Filhote, weakfish, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, filhote, seabass, trout</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Sardine</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, weakfish, seabass, trout,
                        salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Filhote, weakfish, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, filhote, seabass, trout</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Trout</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, namorado, weakfish, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Weakfish, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">White grouper, filhote, namorado, weakfish, robalo, sardine,
                        trout, salmon</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, filhote, namorado, seabass, robalo,
                        sardine, trout, salmon</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, white grouper, filhote, namorado, weakfish,
                        seabass, robalo, sardine, trout</td>
              <td align="center">Whiting, filhote, seabass, trout</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn>
            <p>Lines show statistical differences (p value &lt;0.05).</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
      <p>Most fishes had low omega-3 concentrations. For example, the omega-3 concentration in
            whiting was 0.009 g/100 g, requiring an individual to consume at least 20 kg/day of
            whiting to achieve the recommended amount of omega-3 (2 g/day)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. On the other hand, weakfish (0.9 g/100 g), salmon (0.79 g/100
            g), and filhote (0.38 g/100 g) had the highest omega-3 concentration. Salmon is best
            known as a source of omega-3.</p>
      <p>According to other studies, the ideal ratio between omega-6 and omega-3 is 1/1 or
               2/1<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Thus, whiting (2.22) and namorado
            (1.19) had the best ratios; there is no statistic difference between them (p = 0.228).
            The worst ratios were found in trout (9.03) and sea bass (5.25), with a statistic
            difference of p &lt;0.05. However, despite their good ratios, whiting and namorado had
            very low omega-3 concentrations.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discussion</title>
      <p>In this study, we quantified fats found in the most consumed fishes in Brazil. Analyses
            were done once fishes were grilled, and our data showed important variations among
            species. Our results show that all fishes had low saturated fat levels; however, they
            also had small omega-3 concentrations. Differences in cholesterol concentrations among
            fishes were observed as well.</p>
      <p>Cholesterol intake, particularly from saturated fats, is associated with increasing
            LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C) concentrations in the blood<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>, which is the opposite when poly/monounsaturated fats are consumed. Both
            cholesterol and dietary fats exert effects upon cholesterolemia by modulating the
            expression of LDL receptors in the liver<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>.</p>
      <p>Dietary cholesterol intake can change blood LDL-C concentrations. It is not recommended
            to consume &gt;200 mg/day of cholesterol in a healthy diet<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Therefore, white grouper should be consumed as part of a primary
            cardiovascular prevention and should not exceed 186 g/day in patients who are undergoing
            secondary cardiovascular prevention. However, it is important to emphasize that
            cholesterolemia is determined mostly because of saturated fatty acid consumption instead
            of dietary cholesterol<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Therefore, some
            questions remain regarding whether fishes consumption with the highest content of
            cholesterol has deleterious effects on the cardiovascular health.</p>
      <p>Brazilian guidelines for fat consumption and cardiovascular health<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> states that more mono/poly-unsaturated fats (20% and 10%,
            respectively) should be consumed, with reduced amounts of saturated fat (up to 10% of
            total caloric intake)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Based on this guideline,
            filhote is the species that better matches these recommendations.</p>
      <p>Regarding omega-3, weakfish presented the highest tissue concentrations, making it a
            good source of omega-3, particularly if at least 222 g/day of this fish is consumed.
            Second comes the salmon, and a consumption of 253 g/day is recommended to achieve the
            recommendations of 2 g/day of omega-3 to prevent cardiovascular diseases. On the other
            hand, whiting had such low omega-3 concentrations that at least 20 kg of this fish would
            have to be consumed to achieve levels that are usually associated with the reduction of
            cardiovascular risks. This amount is unfeasible for human consumption on a daily basis;
            the same applies to sea bass andnamorado.</p>
      <p>Epidemiological and intervention studies associate fish consumption with better lipid
            profiles and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>. This could be
            explained by the fact that fish have the lowest saturated fat and cholesterol
            concentrations and greater polyunsaturated fat concentrations. Furthermore, there are
            possible functional effects of omega-3 sourced from deep sea fishes, such as
            antiplatelet and antiarrhythmic actions<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>.</p>
      <p>The Chicago Western Electric study, which assessed 1,822 men between 40&#8211;55 years old,
            for 30 years, showed that fish consumption was inversely associated with mortality from
            coronary disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. Similar data were found in
            the cohort of Zutphen in The Netherlands, where 852 middleaged men were studied for 20
            years. The consumption of at least 30 g/day of freshwater fish, regardless the species,
            was associated with 50% reduction in mortality from coronary heart disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>.</p>
      <p>Positive results were also discussed in a major review by Mozaffarian (2011), regarding
            sudden cardiac death and higher fish consumption. This review was focused on
            polyunsaturated fat intake, particularly omega-3<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>.</p>
      <p>The Nurse's Health Study, performed in the United States with 85,000 women, showed that
            the consumption of two to four servings of fish per week reduced one-third risks of
            heart diseases. There were benefits in even those who consumed fish only one to three
            times a month. As a result of this research, the American Heart Association began
            recommending the consumption of two servings of fish per week<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>.</p>
      <p>Even in lower-risk groups, such as young women, studies have found beneficial effect on
            reducing cardiovascular risks in those who consume more fish compared with those who eat
            little or do not consume fish at all<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.</p>
      <p>Evidence of fish consumption benefits also exist in secondary cardiovascular prevention,
            as shown in the Diet and Reinfarction Trial. They studied 2,000 men in secondary
            prevention for myocardial infarction for 2 years. Randomized into four groups, those who
            consumed more fish had 29% lower mortality compared with the controls and had fewer
            fatal infarcts<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
      <p>Fish intake has been recommended as part of a Mediterraneanstyle diet, and its benefits
            in cardiovascular prevention was shown in the Italian cohort GISSI-Prevenzione. This
            study comprised 172 centers that followed up with 11,323 men and women for approximately
            6 and a half years; all patients presented a history of myocardial infarction. They were
            encouraged to increase fish, fruits and raw or cooked vegetables, and olive oil
            consumptions. Individuals who followed the recommendations had lower risk of
            cardiovascular events<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>. This study also provided
            patients with supplemental eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid at an average
            dosage of 850 mg/day. Omega-3 consumption from deep sea fishes was associated with a
            significant reduction in deaths from coronary heart diseases (30% reduction) and sudden
            cardiac death (45% reduction).</p>
      <p>A review spanning seven cohorts and one control case study also showed that the amount
            of omega-3 intake was correlated with greater benefits for those who consumed &gt;250
            mg/day of fish compared with those who consumed less<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, not only is fish consumption beneficial in itself but their omega-3
            concentration can have positive effect. This, in turn, is related to the species and its
            origin. In our study, all species presented low omega-3 concentrations, which may be
            related to the type of food consumed by them<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>
            and incorporated into their fatty tissue.</p>
      <p>Altogether, our study showed low omega-3 concentrations in most Brazilian fishes
            assessed the differences in fats among the species. Therefore, questions remain whether
            all fishes bring the same beneficial effects or only specific species, such as the ones
            that live in cold water<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>.</p>
      <p>Despite our findings, we believe that substitution of foods such as meats and dairy
            products, which have the highest saturated fat content, with fish is recommended as part
            of a diet to prevent cardiovascular diseases.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Limitations</title>
      <p>In this study, we assessed only some types of fish and only one preparation method. It
            is possible that the preparation method may influence the chemical composition of
            cholesterol and fatty acids of fishes. In addition, there may be variations in the
            composition of fats in fishes of the same species or in those captured from different
            locations along the Brazilian coast due to the variation in the phytoplankton<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Fishes analyzed in our study presented low saturated fat content but some may have high
            cholesterol concentrations, as is the case of white grouper. Omega-3 concentrations were
            low in most fishes analyzed.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by Instituto Nacional de Metrologia e Estat&#237;stica.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Concentra&#231;&#227;o de &#193;cidos Graxos e Colesterol de Peixes Habitualmente
               Consumidos no Brasil</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scherr</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gagliardi</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Carolina Moron</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff05">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Miname</surname>
            <given-names>Marcio Hiroshi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff05">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Raul Dias</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff05">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff04">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o e do Diabetes</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o e do Diabetes, Rio de Janeiro,
               RJ - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff05">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Unidade Cl&#237;nica de L&#237;pides - Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o
               (InCor) - Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o
               Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Ana Carolina Moron Gagliardi Miguel,</bold> Rua
               Bernardo Ferraz de Almeida, 187 apt.&#186; 11, Jardim Faculdade. CEP 18030-290, Sorocaba,
               S&#227;o Paulo - Brasil. E-mail: <email>anacarolina.moron@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento:
                  Scherr C; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados, An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica
                  do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Scherr C, Gagliardi ACM,
                  Miname MH, Santos RD; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Scherr C, Gagliardi ACM, Santos
                  RD.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract xml:lang="pt">
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento:</title>
          <p>In&#250;meros estudos demonstram os efeitos ben&#233;ficos do consumo de peixe para o
                  aparelho cardiovascular. Isso seria decorrente da presen&#231;a de &#225;cidos graxos
                  poli-insaturados nesses alimentos. Contudo, as concentra&#231;&#245;es desses nutrientes
                  podem variar conforme a regi&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo:</title>
          <p>Analisar a composi&#231;&#227;o e a quantidade de colesterol e &#225;cidos graxos de peixes
                  brasileiros e do salm&#227;o de cativeiro, habitualmente consumidos em nosso meio.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos:</title>
          <p>Foi analisada a concentra&#231;&#227;o de colesterol e &#225;cidos graxos, particularmente o
                  &#244;mega-3, de 10 tipos diferentes de peixes grelhados, sendo um deles o salm&#227;o. Cada
                  amostra foi composta por tr&#234;s subamostras (&#8220;postas&#8221;), e cada uma retirada de uma
                  por&#231;&#227;o, do in&#237;cio, do meio e do final do peixe, com o objetivo de minimizar
                  problemas com rela&#231;&#227;o a poss&#237;veis diferen&#231;as entre as por&#231;&#245;es musculares e de
                  gorduras.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados:</title>
          <p>O maior teor de colesterol encontrado foi no cherne (107,6 mg/100 g), e o menor
                  foi no badejo (70 mg/100 g). A concentra&#231;&#227;o de &#244;mega-3 variou de 0,01 g/100 g no
                  badejo a 0,900 g/100 g na pescadinha. J&#225; a gordura saturada variou de 0,687 g/100
                  g no pirarucu a 4,530 g/100 g no filhote. O salm&#227;o apresentou a maior quantidade
                  de gordura poli-insaturada (3,29 g/100 g), e a pescadinha, o maior teor de gordura
                  monoinsaturada (5,98 g/100 g). Quando avaliada as rela&#231;&#245;es &#244;mega 6/3, as melhores
                  foram as do badejo (2,22) e do namorado (1,19), no entanto essas esp&#233;cies
                  apresentam muito pouca quantidade de &#244;mega-3.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o:</title>
          <p>Todos os peixes brasileiros estudados e o salm&#227;o importado t&#234;m baixos teores de
                  gordura saturada, contudo a maioria desses peixes tamb&#233;m tem baixos teores de
                  &#244;mega-3.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>&#193;cidos Graxos</kwd>
        <kwd>Colesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>Peixes</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a da Art&#233;ria Coronariana / preven&#231;&#227;o &amp; controle</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Os h&#225;bitos de vida est&#227;o intimamente ligados &#224;s doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e,
               particularmente, &#224; alimenta&#231;&#227;o. V&#225;rios estudos j&#225; abordaram essa rela&#231;&#227;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref> Em 2002, Hu e Willet<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref> fizeram uma revis&#227;o ampla dos estudos at&#233; aquela &#233;poca e
               conclu&#237;ram que tr&#234;s estrat&#233;gias diet&#233;ticas eram eficazes na preven&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a
               arterial coron&#225;ria: 1) substituir gorduras saturadas ou trans por
               poli/monoinsaturadas; 2) aumentar o consumo de &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega-3; 3) consumir
               mais frutas, vegetais, nozes, gr&#227;os integrais, evitando os carboidratos
               refinados.</p>
        <p>Existe um n&#250;mero expressivo de evid&#234;ncias relacionando o aumento no consumo de
               &#244;mega-3 com a diminui&#231;&#227;o do risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref> Do ponto de
               vista epidemiol&#243;gico, o aumento do consumo de peixes est&#225; associado com menor
               mortalidade e morbidade cardiovascular. Numerosos estudos tamb&#233;m mostraram efeitos
               positivos no metabolismo das lipoprote&#237;nas, coagula&#231;&#227;o e fun&#231;&#227;o das plaquetas, fun&#231;&#227;o
               endotelial e rigidez arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref></p>
        <p>Finalmente, &#233; importante ressaltar que nem todos os peixes cont&#234;m as mesmas
               quantidades de &#244;mega-3, n&#227;o conferindo a todas as esp&#233;cies de peixe nem a toda forma
               de preparo deles os mesmos efeitos protetores verificados com aquelas esp&#233;cies de
               &#225;guas geladas e profundas, pela diversidade do fitopl&#226;ncton que serve de alimenta&#231;&#227;o
               a eles.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref></p>
        <p>Este estudo foi realizado com o objetivo de determinar a composi&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos
               e colesterol nos peixes mais consumidos no Brasil, provenientes do territ&#243;rio
               nacional, e no salm&#227;o de cativeiro, na maioria das vezes, importado do Chile.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="materials|methods">
        <title>Materiais e M&#233;todos</title>
        <p>Os peixes utilizados para a an&#225;lise foram adquiridos no mercado formal em v&#225;rias
               regi&#245;es do pa&#237;s. Todos os preparos dos peixes foram realizados pelo Centro de
               Tecnologia de Carnes (CTC) do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos (ITAL), seguindo
               um protocolo padronizado para este estudo, que determinou que os peixes fossem limpos
               e manipulados para fornecer aproximadamente 1 kg por prepara&#231;&#227;o. Ap&#243;s o preparo,
               foram homogeneizados em <italic>cutter</italic> e embalados a v&#225;cuo em uma &#250;nica
               por&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Nas esp&#233;cies salm&#227;o e namorado, foram utilizados tr&#234;s peixes de cada tipo e retirada
               uma amostra de cada peixe, totalizando tr&#234;s amostras. Cada amostra foi composta por
               tr&#234;s subamostras (&#8220;postas&#8221;), e de cada subamostra foi retirada uma por&#231;&#227;o do peixe do
               in&#237;cio, do meio e do final. Foram desprezadas as partes habitualmente n&#227;o comest&#237;veis
               de cada peixe (cabe&#231;a e rabo), e do restante foram retiradas amostras do 1/3 inicial,
               m&#233;dio e final. Esse procedimento foi adotado com o objetivo de minimizar problemas
               com rela&#231;&#227;o a poss&#237;veis diferen&#231;as entre as por&#231;&#245;es musculares e de gordura, que
               poderiam influenciar no resultado final das an&#225;lises. Nas demais esp&#233;cies foi
               utilizado 1 kg, composto de v&#225;rios peixes da mesma esp&#233;cie para cada tipo de
               preparo.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Preparo das amostras</title>
          <p>Neste estudo foram analisadas as composi&#231;&#245;es teciduais de colesterol e &#225;cidos
                  graxos de 10 peixes, sendo nove nacionais e o salm&#227;o de cativeiro (este n&#227;o
                  encontrado em &#225;guas nacionais). Dos nacionais, tr&#234;s s&#227;o de &#225;gua doce (filhote,
                  truta e pirarucu), tr&#234;s s&#227;o de &#225;guas salgadas da costa brasileira (namorado,
                  pescadinha e sardinha) e tr&#234;s de alto mar (badejo, robalo e cherne). A escolha
                  desses peixes deveu-se ao alto consumo e &#224; distribui&#231;&#227;o em alto mar (tr&#234;s), costa
                  (tr&#234;s) e &#225;gua doce (Bel&#233;m, Manaus e S&#227;o Paulo).</p>
          <p>A forma de preparo padronizada de todos os peixes foi a grelhada. Foram separadas
                  amostras de 1 kg sem adicionar nenhum ingrediente ao alimento. A grelha de
                  cozimento foi aquecida e os peixes colocados sobre a mesma, deixando&#8209;se grelhar
                  bem um lado at&#233; dourar (aproximadamente 20 minutos) e virando somente uma vez
                  (tempo total de cozimento de aproximadamente 40 minutos).</p>
          <p>A an&#225;lise da composi&#231;&#227;o qu&#237;mica das gorduras foi realizada ap&#243;s o processo de
                  grelhar. A t&#233;cnica empregada para quantificar os &#225;cidos graxos foi a cromatografia
                  gasosa, que consiste na separa&#231;&#227;o e posterior quantifica&#231;&#227;o do teor desses &#225;cidos
                  graxos que comp&#245;em a amostra. Foram utilizados m&#233;todos espec&#237;ficos para avalia&#231;&#227;o
                  da composi&#231;&#227;o dos alimentos em rela&#231;&#227;o aos lip&#237;dios totais,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>
                     colesterol<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> e composi&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">13</xref> As medidas utilizadas foram padronizadas em
                  miligramas por 100 g de peixe para o colesterol e gramas por 100 g para os &#225;cidos
                  graxos. Foi calculada a raz&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega-6/&#244;mega-3.</p>
          <p>Para avaliar os resultados utilizaram-se como base as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da Ag&#234;ncia
                  Nacional de Vigil&#226;ncia Sanit&#225;ria (Anvisa), tendo como par&#226;metro uma dieta de 2.000
                  kcal, o que perfaz a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de ingest&#227;o de at&#233; 55 g de lip&#237;dios por dia,
                  sendo menos de 22 g de &#225;cidos graxos saturados e de at&#233; 300 mg por dia de
                     colesterol.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
          <p>Os dados s&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio-padr&#227;o. A normalidade dos dados foi
                  testada pelo teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov. Foi utilizado o teste ANOVA e aan&#225;lise
                     <italic>post-hoc</italic> de Bonferroni para compara&#231;&#227;o das medidas de lip&#237;deos
                  totais, &#225;cidos graxos e colesterol entre os diferentes tipos de peixes grelhados
                  (dez tipos) para cada vari&#225;vel estudada (sete vari&#225;veis). O crit&#233;rio de
                  determina&#231;&#227;o de signific&#226;ncia adotado foi o n&#237;vel de 5%.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Resultados</title>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t05">Tabela 1</xref> mostra a composi&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;deos
               totais dos peixes avaliados. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t06">Tabela 2</xref>
               mostra onde houve diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa entre os peixes
               analisados. Pode&#8209;se observar que h&#225; diferen&#231;as significativas nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de
               colesterol e &#225;cidos graxos nas diferentes esp&#233;cies estudadas. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao teor
               m&#233;dio de colesterol, ele variou de 70 mg/100 g no badejo a 107,6 mg/100 g no cherne
               (P &lt;0,05). Dessa forma, para ultrapassar as quantidades di&#225;rias recomendadas de
               colesterol, o badejo teria que ser consumido em quantidade superior a 428 g/dia, e o
               cherne na quantidade de 279 g/dia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Contudo,
               n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa entre as esp&#233;cies com maior teor de colesterol
               (cherne <italic>versus</italic> filhote, p = 0,776; cherne <italic>versus</italic>
               salm&#227;o, p = 0,511).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t05">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>L&#237;pides totais dos peixes analisados</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>&#160;</th>
                <th align="center">Colesterol (mg/100 g) P &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">*</xref></th>
                <th align="center">Saturados (g/100 g) P &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">*</xref></th>
                <th align="center">Poli-insaturados (g/100 g) P &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">*</xref></th>
                <th align="center">Monoinsaturados (g/100 g) P &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN03">*</xref></th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Badejo</td>
                <td align="center">70,03+1,68</td>
                <td align="center">0,69+0,03</td>
                <td align="center">0,03+0,00</td>
                <td align="center">0,37+0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cherne</td>
                <td align="center">107,61+2,91</td>
                <td align="center">1,56+0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,44+0,12</td>
                <td align="center">2,50+0,05</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Filhote</td>
                <td align="center">94,31+0,88</td>
                <td align="center">4,53+0,07</td>
                <td align="center">1,84+0,03</td>
                <td align="center">3,73+0,07</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Namorado</td>
                <td align="center">73,49+0,80</td>
                <td align="center">0,70+0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,08+0,01</td>
                <td align="center">0,63+0,01</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pescadinha</td>
                <td align="center">84,90+2,34</td>
                <td align="center">2,13+0,07</td>
                <td align="center">1,26+0,09</td>
                <td align="center">5,98+0,25</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pirarucu</td>
                <td align="center">88,12+3,84</td>
                <td align="center">1,76+0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,18+0,03</td>
                <td align="center">1,21+0,04</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Robalo</td>
                <td align="center">73,76+2,50</td>
                <td align="center">0,68+0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,07+0,10</td>
                <td align="center">0,34+0,005</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sardinha</td>
                <td align="center">86,05+1,55</td>
                <td align="center">1,85+0,05</td>
                <td align="center">0,02+0,00</td>
                <td align="center">0,60+0,03</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Truta</td>
                <td align="center">86,82+3,50</td>
                <td align="center">2,57+0,04</td>
                <td align="center">1,60+0,06 <sup>i</sup></td>
                <td align="center">4,03+0,07</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">93,33+18,42</td>
                <td align="center">2,57+0,66</td>
                <td align="center">3,11+0,72</td>
                <td align="center">2,41+0,71</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN03">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>ANOVA: diferen&#231;a entre os diversos peixes avaliados.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t06">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Detalhamento das diferen&#231;as encontradas na an&#225;lise post hoc por meio do
                     teste de Bonferroni entre os peixes analisados</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="center">Compara&#231;&#227;o entre peixes/gordura analisada</th>
                <th align="center">Colesterol</th>
                <th align="center">Saturados</th>
                <th align="center">Poli-insaturados</th>
                <th align="center">Monoinsaturados</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Badejo</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, pirarucu, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Pescadinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu,
                           sardinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Cherne</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, namorado, robalo, sardinha, truta</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, namorado, robalo, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Pescadinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, truta</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Filhote</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, namorado, robalo</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, cherne, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, cherne, namorado, pirarucu, robalo, sardinha,
                           salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, cherne, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Namorado</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, truta</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, pirarucu, sardinha, truta,
                           salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Filhote, pescadinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Pescadinha</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, namorado, robalo</td>
                <td align="center">Namorado, pirarucu, robalo, sardinha, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, cherne, filhote, namorado, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Pirarucu</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne</td>
                <td align="center">Filhote, namorado, robalo, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Filhote, pescadinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, robalo, truta,
                           salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Robalo</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, pirarucu, sardinha, truta,
                           salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Filhote, pescadinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, pirarucu, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Sardinha</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne</td>
                <td align="center">Filhote, namorado, robalo, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Filhote, pescadinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Truta</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, Cherne, filhote, namorado, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, Cherne, namorado, pirarucu, robalo, sardinha,
                           salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="center">Salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, namorado, robalo</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, cherne, filhote, namorado, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, cherne, filhote, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu,
                           robalo, sardinha, truta</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, truta</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn>
              <p>As linhas mostram onde ocorreu diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica com resultados de valor
                        de p &lt;0,05.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Analisando o teor de gorduras saturadas dos peixes estudados verificaram-se os mesmos
               teores, variando de 0,68 g/100 g no pirarucu a 4,53 g/100 g no filhote,
               necessitando-se, portanto, do consumo de 3.200 g/dia do primeiro ou 486 g do segundo
               para ultrapassar os n&#237;veis recomendados de gordura saturada no valor energ&#233;tico
                  total.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></p>
        <p>Analisando os &#225;cidos graxos insaturados, tem-se que salm&#227;o, filhote e truta (p
               &lt;0,01 <italic>versus</italic> os outros peixes) s&#227;o as esp&#233;cies com maior
               quantidade de poli-insaturados, e pescadinha, truta e filhote apresentam a quantidade
               de monoinsaturados mais significativa (p &lt;0,01 <italic>versus</italic> os outros
               peixes).</p>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t07">Tabela 3</xref> mostra as concentra&#231;&#245;es de &#244;mega-6
               e &#244;mega-3 dos peixes analisados e sua respectiva raz&#227;o. As vari&#225;veis apresentaram-se
               estatisticamente diferentes entre os peixes estudados (p &lt;0,01). J&#225; a <xref ref-type="table" rid="t08">Tabela 4</xref> mostra onde houve diferen&#231;a
               estatisticamente significativa entre os peixes analisados.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t07">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Concentra&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega-3 e &#244;mega-6 e sua raz&#227;o nos peixes
                     estudados</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <thead>
              <tr style="border-bottom:hidden">
                <th>&#160;</th>
                <th align="center">&#212;mega-6</th>
                <th align="center">&#212;mega-3</th>
                <th align="center">Raz&#227;o &#244;mega</th>
              </tr>
              <tr style="border-bottom:hidden">
                <th>&#160;</th>
                <th align="center">(g/100 g)</th>
                <th align="center">(g/100 g)</th>
                <th align="center">6/3</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>&#160;</th>
                <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></th>
                <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></th>
                <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01<xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN04">*</xref></th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Badejo</td>
                <td align="center">0,02 &#177; 0,00</td>
                <td align="center">0,009 &#177; 0,00</td>
                <td align="center">2,22 &#177; 0,00</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cherne</td>
                <td align="center">0,16 &#177; 0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,27 &#177; 0,10</td>
                <td align="center">0,64 &#177; 0,20</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Filhote</td>
                <td align="center">1,46 &#177; 0,01</td>
                <td align="center">0,38 &#177; 0,01</td>
                <td align="center">3,85 &#177; 0,13</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Namorado</td>
                <td align="center">0,04 &#177; 0,005</td>
                <td align="center">0,04 &#177; 0,01</td>
                <td align="center">1,19 &#177; 0,17</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pescadinha</td>
                <td align="center">0,36 &#177; 0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,90 &#177; 0,11</td>
                <td align="center">0,40 &#177; 0,07</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pirarucu</td>
                <td align="center">0,15 &#177; 0,02</td>
                <td align="center">0,03 &#177; 0,01</td>
                <td align="center">5,25 &#177; 1,14</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Robalo</td>
                <td align="center">0,016 &#177; 0,005</td>
                <td align="center">0,01 &#177; 0,00</td>
                <td align="center">0,18 &#177; 0,06</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sardinha</td>
                <td align="center">0,02 &#177; 0,00</td>
                <td align="center">0,09 &#177; 0,00</td>
                <td align="center">0,22 &#177; 0,00</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Truta</td>
                <td align="center">1,44 &#177; 0,05</td>
                <td align="center">0,16 &#177; 0,01</td>
                <td align="center">9,03 &#177; 0,43</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">0,29 &#177; 0,07</td>
                <td align="center">0,79 &#177; 0,19</td>
                <td align="center">0,36 &#177; 0,016</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN04">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>ANOVA: diferen&#231;a entre os diversos peixes avaliados.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t08">
          <label>Tabela 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Detalhamento das diferen&#231;as encontradas na an&#225;lise <italic>post
                        hoc</italic> por meio do teste de Bonferroni entre os peixes
                     analisados</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <thead>
              <tr style="border-bottom:hidden">
                <th>&#160;</th>
                <th align="center">&#212;mega-6</th>
                <th align="center">&#212;mega-3</th>
                <th align="center">Raz&#227;o &#244;mega 6/3</th>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <th>&#160;</th>
                <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01*</th>
                <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01*</th>
                <th align="center">p &lt; 0,01*</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Badejo</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, pirarucu, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, pirarucu, robalo, sardinha,
                           truta, salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Cherne</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, namorado, pescadinha, robalo, sardinha,
                           truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, pescadinha, pirarucu, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, pirarucu, truta</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Filhote</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, Cherne, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, truta</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu, robalo, sardinha,
                           salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, Cherne, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Namorado</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, pirarucu, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Filhote, pescadinha, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Filhote, pirarucu, truta</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pescadinha</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, Cherne, filhote, namorado, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, truta</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, Cherne, filhote, namorado, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, truta</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, pirarucu, truta</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Pirarucu</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, namorado, pescadinha, robalo, sardinha,
                           truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, Cherne, filhote, namorado, pescadinha, robalo,
                           sardinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Robalo</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, pirarucu, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Filhote, pescadinha, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, pirarucu, truta</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Sardinha</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, pescadinha, pirarucu, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Filhote, pescadinha, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, pirarucu, truta</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Truta</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, Cherne, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Pescadinha, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Cherne, filhote, namorado, pescadinha, robalo, sardinha,
                           truta, salm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, Cherne, filhote, namorado, pirarucu, robalo,
                           sardinha, truta, salm&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, Cherne, filhote, namorado, pescadinha, pirarucu,
                           robalo, sardinha, truta</td>
                <td align="center">Badejo, filhote, pirarucu, truta</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn>
              <p>As linhas mostram onde ocorreu diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica com resultados de valor
                        de p &lt;0,05.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao &#244;mega-3, ele se mostrou presente em baixas quantidades na maioria dos
               peixes estudados. No badejo, o teor foi de 0,009 g/100 g, o que levaria o indiv&#237;duo a
               ter que consumi-lo em quantidade de 20 kg/dia para atingir os 2 g di&#225;rios
                  recomendados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Sobressaem nesse quesito a
               pescadinha (0,9 g/100 g), o salm&#227;o (0,79 g/100 g) e o filhote (0,38 g/100 g), sendo
               que, deles, o salm&#227;o &#233; o mais conhecido como fonte de &#244;mega-3.</p>
        <p>Segundo a literatura, a raz&#227;o ideal entre &#244;mega-6 e &#244;mega-3 deveria ser 1/1 ou
                  2/1,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> portanto as melhores rela&#231;&#245;es foram
               as do badejo (2,22) e do namorado (1,19) - sem diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica entre eles, p =
               0,228 -, e as piores raz&#245;es, ou seja, a maior quantidade de &#244;mega-6 em rela&#231;&#227;o ao
               &#244;mega-3 foram da truta (9,03) e do pirarucu (5,25) - com diferen&#231;a entre eles, p
               &lt;0,05). No entanto, mesmo com boa raz&#227;o desses l&#237;pides, o badejo e o namorado
               apresentam n&#237;veis de &#244;mega-3 muito baixos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
        <p>Neste estudo foram medidas as concentra&#231;&#245;es das gorduras de alguns peixes
               frequentemente consumidos em nosso pa&#237;s. As an&#225;lises foram realizadas ap&#243;s a coc&#231;&#227;o e
               evidenciaram importantes varia&#231;&#245;es entre as esp&#233;cies. Os resultados mostraram que
               todos os peixes que fizeram parte deste estudo apresentaram baixos teores de gordura
               saturada, contudo a maioria continha pouca quantidade de &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega-3. Foi
               notada tamb&#233;m diferen&#231;a nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de colesterol entre os peixes
               estudados.</p>
        <p>O consumo de colesterol, principalmente gorduras saturadas, associa-se a aumento das
               concentra&#231;&#245;es de LDL-colesterol (LDL-C) do sangue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> J&#225; as gorduras poli/monoinsaturadas exercem efeitos contr&#225;rios quando
               consumidas no lugar das saturadas. Tanto o colesterol como as gorduras diet&#233;ticas
               exercem efeito na colesterolemia por modularem a express&#227;o dos receptores de LDL no
                  f&#237;gado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></p>
        <p>O consumo de colesterol diet&#233;tico pode alterar as concentra&#231;&#245;es de LDL-C no sangue.
               N&#227;o se recomenda consumo superior a 200 mg/dia de colesterol dentro de uma dieta
                  saud&#225;vel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Seguindo essa premissa em
               rela&#231;&#227;o ao teor de colesterol, o cherne deveria ser consumido com alguma aten&#231;&#227;o na
               preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria e n&#227;o ultrapassar 186 g nos pacientes que estiverem em preven&#231;&#227;o
               secund&#225;ria. Contudo, &#233; importante enfatizar que a colesterolemia &#233; determinada muito
               mais por influ&#234;ncia do consumo de &#225;cidos graxos saturados que do colesterol da
                  dieta;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> logo, pode haver d&#250;vida se o
               consumo de peixes com maior teor deste &#250;ltimo tenha efeitos delet&#233;rios sobre a sa&#250;de
               cardiovascular.</p>
        <p>Na diretriz brasileira de consumo de gorduras para a sa&#250;de cardiovascular,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> a orienta&#231;&#227;o &#233; para que haja consumo maior de
               gorduras mono/poli-insaturadas (20% e 10%, respectivamente), com reduzida quantidade
               de gordura saturada (at&#233; 10% do VCT).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> Tendo
               como base essa diretriz, o filhote seria a esp&#233;cie que melhor contemplaria essas
               recomenda&#231;&#245;es.</p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao &#244;mega-3, a pescadinha foi a que apresentou as maiores concentra&#231;&#245;es
               teciduais, sendo boa fonte, principalmente se consumida na quantidade de ao menos 222
               g/dia, seguida pelo salm&#227;o, com consumo de 253 g/dia para atingir as recomenda&#231;&#245;es de
               2.000 mg/dia de &#244;mega-3 para preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a cardiovascular. Por outro lado, o
               badejo conteve quantidade t&#227;o pequena dessa gordura que seria necess&#225;rio consumo de
               mais de 20 kg desse peixe para atingir os valores usualmente associados com redu&#231;&#227;o
               do risco cardiovascular, quantidade invi&#225;vel para consumo humano di&#225;rio. O mesmo
               racioc&#237;nio deve-se ter para peixes como o pirarucu e o namorado em rela&#231;&#227;o ao
               &#244;mega-3.</p>
        <p>Estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos e de interven&#231;&#227;o associam o consumo de peixes com perfis
               lip&#237;dicos mais favor&#225;veis com a redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de doen&#231;a cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> Isso pode ocorrer pela menor concentra&#231;&#227;o de gorduras saturadas e
               colesterol, maior concentra&#231;&#227;o de poli-insaturados e tamb&#233;m por poss&#237;veis efeitos
               funcionais exercidos pelos &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega-3 marinhos, como a&#231;&#227;o antiagregante
               plaquet&#225;ria e antiarr&#237;tmica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></p>
        <p>No estudo Chicago Western Eletric, que avaliou 1.822 homens entre 40-55 anos, durante
               30 anos, o consumo de peixes foi inversamente associado com mortalidade por
                  coronariopatia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> Dados semelhantes foram
               encontrados na coorte da cidade de Zutphen, na Holanda, onde 852 homens de meia-idade
               foram acompanhados por 20 anos, e o consumo de pelo menos 30 g/dia de peixe, sem
               especifica&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cie, associou-se com redu&#231;&#227;o de 50% na mortalidade por doen&#231;a
                  coronariana.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></p>
        <p>Resultados positivos tamb&#233;m foram encontrados em uma grande revis&#227;o de Mozaffarian
               (2011) em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca e o maior consumo de peixe, focada no
               consumo de gordura poli-insaturada, particularmente &#244;mega-3.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></p>
        <p>No Nurse's Health Study, realizado nos Estados Unidos com 85 mil mulheres,
               evidenciou-se que o consumo de duas a quatro por&#231;&#245;es de peixe por semana reduziu em
               1/3 o risco de doen&#231;as card&#237;acas. Mesmo aquelas que consumiam peixe apenas uma a tr&#234;s
               vezes por m&#234;s apresentaram benef&#237;cios. Como resultado dessa pesquisa, a American
               Heart Association passou a recomendar o consumo de duas por&#231;&#245;es de peixe por
                  semana.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></p>
        <p>At&#233; mesmo em grupos de menor risco, como em mulheres jovens, foi verificado efeito
               ben&#233;fico na diminui&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular naquelas que consomem mais peixe,
               quando comparadas com as que comem pouco ou n&#227;o consomem.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></p>
        <p>Na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria existem ind&#237;cios do benef&#237;cio do consumo de peixe, como no
               Diet and Reinfarction Trial (DART), pelo qual foram acompanhados 2.000 homens em
               preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria para infarto do mioc&#225;rdio por dois anos. Randomizados em quatro
               grupos, aqueles que consumiram mais peixe tiveram 29% menor mortalidade em rela&#231;&#227;o
               aos controles e tamb&#233;m tiveram menos infartos fatais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></p>
        <p>A ingest&#227;o de peixe tem sido recomendada como parte da dieta de estilo mediterr&#226;neo,
               e sua rela&#231;&#227;o ben&#233;fica na preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular foi mostrada na coorte italiana
               GISSI-Prevenzione, realizada em 172 centros que acompanharam 11.323 homens e mulheres
               com hist&#243;ria de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio. Os pacientes foram incentivados a aumentar o
               consumo de peixes, frutas e vegetais crus/cozidos e azeite de oliva, sendo
               acompanhados em m&#233;dia por seis anos e meio. Os indiv&#237;duos que seguiram o padr&#227;o
               diet&#233;tico recomendado evolu&#237;ram com menos risco de eventos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> Nesse estudo foi feita tamb&#233;m suplementa&#231;&#227;o de
               &#225;cido eicosapentaenoico (EPA) e &#225;cido docosaexaenoico (DHA) na dosagem m&#233;dia de 850
               mg/dia. O consumo desses &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega-3 marinhos associou-se a importantes
               redu&#231;&#245;es na morte por doen&#231;a coronariana (menos 30%) e morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca (menos
               45%).</p>
        <p>Em uma revis&#227;o de sete coortes e um estudo de caso controle, tamb&#233;m a quantidade de
               &#244;mega-3 ingerida foi correlacionada com maiores benef&#237;cios para aqueles que
               consumiram mais de 250 mg/dia em rela&#231;&#227;o aos que ingeriram menos que isso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref><sub>,</sub><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></p>
        <p>Portanto, n&#227;o s&#243; a ingest&#227;o de peixe pode ser ben&#233;fica, mas provavelmente tamb&#233;m a
               quantidade de &#244;mega-3 que esse alimento possua pode exercer efeitos favor&#225;veis. Isso,
               por sua vez, relaciona-se com a esp&#233;cie e a proced&#234;ncia. De fato, em nosso estudo,
               todas as esp&#233;cies apresentaram baixas concentra&#231;&#245;es de &#244;mega-3, fato que deve estar
               relacionado ao tipo de alimento consumido pelos peixes,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref> que &#233; incorporado ao seu tecido adiposo.</p>
        <p>Colocando-se ent&#227;o em perspectiva os achados deste estudo com a literatura e
               comprovando os baixos teores de &#244;mega-3 na maioria dos peixes nacionais analisados e
               as diferen&#231;as nas demais gorduras entre as esp&#233;cies, pode-se questionar se todos os
               peixes trazem os mesmos efeitos ben&#233;ficos ou s&#243; esp&#233;cies espec&#237;ficas, como as de &#225;gua
                  fria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></p>
        <p>Apesar dos achados, acreditamos que a substitui&#231;&#227;o de alimentos como carnes e
               latic&#237;nios, pelo seu maior teor de gordura saturada, por peixes &#233; recomend&#225;vel como
               parte de uma dieta para a preven&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a cardiovascular.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p>Neste estudo s&#243; foram analisados alguns tipos de peixes, como tamb&#233;m apenas uma
                  forma de preparo. &#201; poss&#237;vel que a forma de preparo influencie de maneira
                  importante a composi&#231;&#227;o qu&#237;mica de colesterol e &#225;cidos graxos dos peixes. Cabe
                  tamb&#233;m lembrar que podem existir varia&#231;&#245;es na composi&#231;&#227;o de gorduras entre peixes
                  da mesma esp&#233;cie ou capturados em diferentes locais da costa brasileira devido &#224;
                  varia&#231;&#227;o do fitopl&#226;ncton.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref><sub>,</sub><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Os peixes analisados neste estudo t&#234;m baixo teor de gordura saturada, mas alguns
               podem apresentar valores altos de colesterol, como foi o caso do cherne. Em rela&#231;&#227;o
               ao &#244;mega-3, suas concentra&#231;&#245;es foram baixas na maioria dos peixes analisados.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pelo Instituto Nacional de Metrologia e
                  Estat&#237;stica.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s&#8209;gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
