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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">JJKqv8R6cVqmr6kjfhGVYVL</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2014002400013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20140148</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Development of Anatomophysiologic Knowledge Regarding the Cardiovascular System: From Egyptians to Harvey</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bestetti</surname>
            <given-names>Reinaldo Bulgarelli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Restini</surname>
            <given-names>Carolina Baraldi A.</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Couto</surname>
            <given-names>Luc&#233;lio B.</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <aff>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Ribeir&#227;o Preto</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Ribeir&#227;o Preto</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP  </named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country>Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - UNAERP, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Reinaldo B. Bestetti</bold>. Jeronimo Panazollo, 434, Ribeir&#226;nia, Postal Code 14096-430, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brazil. E-mail:   <email>rbestetti44@gmail.com</email>; <email>rbestetti@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>10</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>103</volume>
      <issue>06</issue>
      <fpage>538</fpage>
      <lpage>545</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>30</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Our knowledge regarding the anatomophysiology of the cardiovascular system (CVS) has progressed since the fourth millennium BC. In Egypt (3500 BC), it was believed that a set of channels are interconnected to the heart, transporting air, urine, air, blood, and the soul. One thousand years later, the heart was established as the center of the CVS by the Hippocratic Corpus in the medical school of Kos, and some of the CVS anatomical characteristics were defined. The CVS was known to transport blood via the right ventricle through veins and the pneuma via the left ventricle through arteries. Two hundred years later, in Alexandria, following the development of human anatomical dissection, Herophilus discovered that arteries were 6 times thicker than veins, and Erasistratus described the semilunar valves, emphasizing that arteries were filled with blood when ventricles were empty. Further, 200 years later, Galen demonstrated that arteries contained blood and not air. With the decline of the Roman Empire, Greco-Roman medical knowledge about the CVS was preserved in Persia, and later in Islam where, Ibn Nafis inaccurately described pulmonary circulation. The resurgence of dissection of the human body in Europe in the 14th century was associated with the revival of the knowledge pertaining to the CVS. The main findings were the description of pulmonary circulation by Servetus, the anatomical discoveries of Vesalius, the demonstration of pulmonary circulation by Colombo, and the discovery of valves in veins by Fabricius. Following these developments, Harvey described blood circulation.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiovascular System</kwd>
        <kwd>Knowledge</kwd>
        <kwd>Civilization / history</kwd>
        <kwd>Egypt</kwd>
        <kwd>Greek World / history</kwd>
        <kwd>Anthropology, Cultural / trends</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="50"/>
        <page-count count="8"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Knowledge about the cardiovascular system (CVS), which led Harvey to the discovery of blood circulation, was achieved only gradually through the ages. It started in Egypt around 3500 BC, was elaborated by ancient Greeks, was better defined in Alexandria, and, in the West, ceased after the fall of the Roman Empire. This knowledge was preserved in the Islamic world and in European monasteries, and it later advanced with the revival of the anatomical dissection in European universities, paving the way to Harvey's discovery. This review provides an overview about how knowledge about the CVS developed through the ages.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Egypt</title>
        <p>In ancient Egypt (3500 BC), the heart was considered the central element of a system of channels distributed throughout the body, transporting blood, feces, semen, benign and malignant spirits, and even the soul: the <italic>metw</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. Erroneously, the Egyptians believed that such elements flowed within a vessel linked to the heart (receptor vessel), probably the aorta, coming from the brain. A second collector vessel, they believed, was located in the anal region<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
        <p>There was a clear notion that the peripheral pulse originated from the heartbeat, as it can be noted in the Edwin Smith papyrus (1700 BC), and that pulse measurement could be performed using a clepsydra. The doctor perhaps compared the patient's pulse with his own. Therefore, only marked increases or decreases in the heartbeat as well as pulse irregularities could be detected<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
        <p>The Edwin Smith papyrus stated that abnormalities in the peripheral pulse could be the reflex of an underlying cardiac disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. In the Ebers papyrus (1500 BC), the central relationship between the heart and the channels system had also been emphasized in addition to peripheral pulse measurement. Furthermore, the Ebers papyrus also emphasized the presence of heart disease diagnosed by abnormalities in peripheral pulse palpation: "when the heart is diseased...its vessels become inactive so that you cannot feel them"<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.</p>
        <p>Despite Egyptians' knowledge about the relationship between the heartbeat and the peripheral pulse, the manner in which the elements of the <italic>metw</italic> were distributed throughout the body was not ascribed to the heart's force. Indeed, the palpation of the pulse was believed to be the consequence of the air present in the channels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. In addition, it was believed that the elements of the <italic>metw</italic> ebbed and flowed throughout the body.</p>
        <p>The Egyptians did not routinely perform autopsy and did not use dissection as a form of medical teaching, so they did not further advance their understanding of the anatomophysiologic properties of the CVS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. Nevertheless, the Egyptians were the first to associate the heartbeat with peripheral pulse as well as to establish an association between the air and the CVS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Greece</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Pre-aristotelian Period</title>
          <p>The emergence of philosophers in Greece around the 7th century BC, for example, Thales from Miletus, paved the way for questions regarding the human anatomy. Medical schools came into existence along with philosophers in the 5th century BC. Alcmaeon from the medical school of Croton (520-450 BC) was the first to produce anatomical knowledge from experimental observations. He believed that the brain was the center of emotions, knowledge, mind, and the soul. Further, he associated the functions of the sense organs with the brain<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
          <p>Furthermore, Alcmaeon believed that the venous system was distinct from the arterial system, although he did not make an anatomical distinction between them. The function of the vessels was associated with wakefulness: withdrawal of blood from veins induced sleeping, but arteries, which brought blood to the brain, promoted wakefulness<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. According to him, all vessels originated in the head, and their function was to distribute the pneuma (spirit) to the brain<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Nevertheless, other individuals believed that the pneuma was distributed to the brain directly via nasal breathing<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. Alcmaeon ascribed no role of the heart in the CVS.</p>
          <p>Empedocles from Agrigento (492-432 BC) had a different view. For him, the heart was the seat of the soul and the center of the CVS; blood vessels distributed the pneuma, which was internalized by pulmonary respiration<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Nonetheless, Empedocles also believed in the existence of fleshy tubes that contained blood and the terminal portions of which externalized in the skin, absorbing and expelling air<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. Empedocles did not provide anatomical details of the heart.</p>
          <p>The school of Kos, the main exponent of which was Hippocrates (460-375 BC), contributed in a decisive way to the rationalization of medicine. With regard to the CVS, the book <italic>On the Heart</italic>, which was attributed to the members of the school of Kos, reported for the first time the anatomical details of the heart, ascribing to the CVS the transportation of life throughout the body. According to the authors of such books, the lungs surrounded the heart, in the thorax, in order to cool the excess heat produced by incessant cardiac activity. The heart had a pyramidal shape, red color, and intrinsic electric activity. In contrast to the rest of the body, which was nourished with blood delivered through veins, the heart nourished itself from the pure substance created during blood dialysis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
          <p>According to the school of Kos, two ventricles existed and were united by the interventricular septum. The right ventricle was larger than the left ventricle, although the latter was thicker than the former because it had to tolerate the excessive heat produced by this chamber. The right ventricle communicated with the left one through a pore in the interventricular septum. The left ventricle, in contrast to the right ventricle, had no blood, but only yellow bile and membranes. It housed the mind and the spirit, which predominated over the rest of the soul<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
          <p>All vessels of the CVS originated in the heart, connecting to it through membranes extending from the cardiac wall. Vessels were recognized (pulmonary veins) and were believed to transport air to the left ventricle; another great vessel-the pulmonary artery-transported air to the right ventricle, and at the same time, it transported blood to the lungs. Two cardiac valves were described, each one containing three leaflets; however, the anatomic structure of the aorta was not mentioned. These authors described two structures similar to the structure of the cardiac ear (atrium), which had the objective of capturing air, but they believed such structures did not belong to the heart<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. The pericardium also was described: by absorbing water from the epiglottis, it was believed to cool the heart<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. There was no mention of the vena cava.</p>
          <p>In another book from the Hippocratic Corpus, <italic>The Sacred Disease</italic>, the CVS was described with only a few details, and there was little reference to the heart. According to this author, a pair of vessels originated in the liver and spleen and led to the brain and lower limbs. Branches of these vessels joined the heart in the thorax<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>.</p>
          <p>The Sicilian branch of the school of Cnidus, probably with works by Philistion of Locri around 370 BC, also contributed to the anatomical knowledge about the CVS: the presence of two ventricles was well known, the left being more hypertrophied than the right; the presence of two atria, whose beats were discordant in time with those of the ventricles, was also observed; moreover, the author noted the presence of a vessel connected to one ventricle only, along with semilunar valves<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Apparently, nothing was known about the anatomy of atrioventricular valves<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref> illustrates these findings.</p>
          <fig id="f01" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Scheme of the cardiovascular system according to the ancient Greeks. Note the presence of two parallel vessels originating in the liver and spleen, connected to the heart in the thorax and to the lower limbs and to the head. Observe the heart with a pore in the interventricular septum connecting the right ventricle to the left ventricle, two vessels connected to the right ventricle, and one vessel to the left ventricle coming from the lungs. The right ventricle is larger than the left, and the latter is thicker than the former. The right ventricle contains blood, whereas the left ventricle is filled with air and yellow bile, according to the Hippocratic Corpus (5<sup>th</sup> century BC).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-06-0538-40148-gf01.tif"/></fig>
          <sec>
            <title>Aristotelian Period</title>
            <p>Aristotle (384-322 BC) believed that the heart was the most important organ of the body and was the seat of the soul. He did not believe that the pneuma was inspired by the body; the pneuma was a part of the soul, but the breath contained only air, the main function of which was to cool the heart<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. In the same manner, he conceived the brain as a mechanism for cardiac cooling<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. He performed hundreds of animal dissections<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>, but apparently, he did not have an opportunity to dissect the human body. Therefore, he supported animal experimentation as a method to gain knowledge<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
            <p>The great innovation-although erroneous-introduced by Aristotle in the anatomy of the CVS was the description of three cardiac ventricles, in descending order of volume from the right to the left part of the body, but all connected to the lungs. He also described the presence of vessels connecting both ventricles to the lungs, which transported air to the heart. Aristotle believed that the pulmonary artery and superior vena cava were subdivisions of another great vessel, which he called the "great vein." In addition, he described another vessel connected to the medial ventricle, which he named the aorta. Further, he believed that the heart was the origin of all nerves and vessels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
            <p>According to Aristotle, in comparison with the left ventricle, which had air and more pure blood, the right ventricle contained blood that was warmer and more abundant. This observation was probably related to the mechanism of animal death (strangulation) before dissection. In contrast to other contributors to the Hippocratic Corpus, he did not mention cardiac valves and the cardiac atria. Thus, there were two great vessels in Aristotle's cardiac model: the great vessel (vena cava and pulmonary artery) and the aorta (aorta and pulmonary veins)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Today, it is believed that the medial ventricle was indeed the aorta, whereas the left ventricle corresponded to the left atrium, which Aristotle did not differentiate<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
            <p>Praxagoras of Kos (340 BC) advanced the anatomic knowledge about the CVS in differentiating, although without anatomical support, between veins and arteries, which were simply called blood vessels (<italic>phlebes</italic>)<italic>.</italic> Indeed, he differentiated between veins and arteries on the basis of the erroneous assumption that veins transported blood and that arteries transported the pneuma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Furthermore, he stated that only arteries were associated with cardiac pulse, contrary to what was previously believed, and, for the first time, he emphasized the diagnostic value of the pulse<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Nevertheless, he made an important mistake in stating that veins transported blood, whereas arteries transported the pneuma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Alexandrian Period</title>
        <p>Better anatomical knowledge about the CVS appeared later in the works of Herophilus of Chalcedon (325-255 BC) and Erasistratus of Chios (310-250 BC) in the school of Alexandria in Egypt. Before this, dissections of corpses were not performed; almost all anatomical knowledge came from the dissection of animals. On the contrary, in the famous school of Alexandria, dissections of the human body were routinely performed, probably stimulated by support from the Ptolemaic pharaohs<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>.</p>
        <p>Herophilus's main contribution to the knowledge about the CVS was his differentiation of the thickness of arteries relative to veins, suggesting that the former were 6 times thicker than the latter. He termed the vessel connected to the right ventricle "the arterial vein," and he observed that arteries were less thicker than veins in the lungs<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. He also believed that only arteries were associated with the heartbeat because the contraction and relaxation movements depended on the heart<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>.</p>
        <p>Furthermore, Herophilus recognized that nerves originated in the brain and spinal cord and not in the heart; he denied the participation of the heart in the process of breath<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Importantly, he included the atria as a part of the heart's anatomy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. He was probably the first to publicly perform anatomical dissections<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. He described the carotid arteries, subclavian vein, splanchnic vessels, genital apparatus vessels, and lymphatic vessels. In addition, he differentiated the nerve endings of small vessels and observed blood in arteries<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. He believed that arteries originated in the heart, but he did not specify where they originated<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
        <p>Erasistratus recognized the heart's activity as an impeller pump that contracted due to its so-called intrinsic force. To the contrary to what Herophilus believed, Erasistratus emphasized that arteries did not have active movements of contraction and relaxation, but they were passively filled due to heart contraction. Erasistratus described the atrioventricular valves: those on the right side were named tricuspid and those on the left side were named bicuspid. In addition, he discovered the progressive subdivision of veins and arteries to the point that, due to their extremely small caliber, it was no longer possible to make anatomical distinction between them, but he emphasized that those vessels were always filled with blood. He named such small vessels synanastomoses, which were later denominated capillaries<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. Some authors believe that Erasistratus was the first to describe the valves in veins<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>.</p>
        <p>Erasistratus, however, believed that arteries also transported the pneuma. For this reason, although he had described the arterial endings and the beginnings of vein structures, he did not identify the functional continuity between them. The blood was formed in the liver and transported to the right ventricle and thence throughout the body via veins. The air (pneuma) was inspired by the lungs and reached the left part of the heart via pulmonary veins. In the left ventricle, the vital spirit was formed and was distributed throughout the body by hollow nerves (arteries, which did not contain blood). In synanastomoses, the pneuma and blood were used for the body's nutrition, whereas the products of metabolism were excreted. Therefore, nothing returned to the left ventricle<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Unlike Herophilus, Erasistratus believed that blood vessels originated in the heart<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
        <p>With the conquest of Egypt by the Roman Empire, the scientific activity in Alexandria progressively declined, and dissection of human bodies was no longer performed.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Roman Period</title>
        <p>Rufus of Ephesus, a contemporary of Jesus Christ, believed that the atria were part of the heart because they pulsed together. In the 2nd century AD, Galen (130-200 AD), a gladiators' physician in the temple of Asclepius in Pergamun, demonstrated that arteries contained blood, not air, as was the belief until that time. Further, Galen stated that the heart was a muscle with different orientation planes, which permitted its strong and incessant activity.</p>
        <p>Galen recognized that the left ventricle was more hypertrophied than the right ventricle; he attributed these differences to the presence of air in the left ventricle, and he emphasized the function of the right ventricle in handling blood.</p>
        <p>Two vessels originated in the right ventricle; one transported blood to the lungs (pulmonary artery), whereas the other transported peripheral blood back to the heart (vena cava). The left ventricle was the source of the great artery (aorta) as well as of other venous structures (pulmonary veins) that transported blood from the lungs to the heart<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
        <p>Galen however made several mistakes related to the anatomy of the CVS, mainly because his dissections were performed on animals and not on humans. He stated that pores in the interventricular septum of the heart permitted blood flow from the right to the left ventricle<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Furthermore, he did not consider the atria as a part of the heart. He also believed in the existence of several types of pneuma (spirits). The digested food was distributed to the liver, where it was transformed into blood, which mingled with the animal spirit. This, in turn, flowed and ebbed through the vena cava system (a mechanism that he compared to the activities of tides) to nourish the body<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>.</p>
        <p>The blood that reached the right ventricle was transported to the lungs, where the impurities were vented; subsequently, the cleansed blood flowed to the heart and thence throughout the body. Part of the blood that entered the right ventricle via the interventricular septum pores reached the left ventricle. There, the blood mingled with the air coming from the trachea and pulmonary veins, thus forming the vital spirit, which ebbed and flowed via arteries throughout the body<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. In addition, the mixture of the vital spirit with blood in contact with the heat of gaseous impurities produced by the heart flowed back to the lungs through the bicuspid atrioventricular valve<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. The blood that reached the brain found the third type of pneuma (the animal spirit), which was then distributed to the body through hollow nerves. Finally, Galen believed that blood vessels actively dilated when the heart contracted, in opposition to the belief of Erasistratus<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>.</p>
        <p>Following Galen's period, dissections were performed less often, and anatomic studies were left behind. Galen considered the human body to be the temple of the soul, and his teleological explanations for all phenomena were in concert with the dominant force that had settled in Rome in the 4th century AD. Because knowledge was supposed to be derived from faith, anatomical knowledge was not considered important. This explains why Galen's erroneous beliefs lasted until the Renaissance, and the functioning of the CVS was understood only in the 17th century.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Medieval Period</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Byzantine Period</title>
          <p>With the progressive decline of the Occidental Roman Empire, there were essentially no further advances in medical knowledge. One exception was Oribasius' work (325-403 AD) in Byzantium (Oriental Roman Empire). Working with magnifying lenses, this author confirmed Erasistratus' description of the anastomosis between veins and arteries, mainly in the kidneys. Oribasius renamed such anastomoses as   <italic>capillaries</italic>. Furthermore, he correctly described renal circulation: perfusion through the renal artery branch of the aorta and venous return through the renal vein branch of the inferior vena cava<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>.</p>
          <p>In 431 AD, the Nestorians, followers of Nestorius, the patriarch of Constantinople, were accused of heresy and were expelled from Constantinople. They immigrated to Edessa, in the north of Assyria (Mesopotamia), where a school of medicine had been founded in 363 AD and a hospital had been built by St. Ephraim<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>. In this school, the Assyrians were involved in close study of Greek medical literature<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>. When the school of Edessa was closed in 489 AD, the Nestorians took refuge in the city of Gondishapur (also transliterated as Gundishapur) in Persia, founded in 271 AD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>, taking with them the works by Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen translated to Syriac. Greek doctors experienced a similar displacement after the school of Athens was closed in 529 AD. These intellectuals became part of the school of Gondishapur, created in 555 AD, which served as a model for subsequent Persian medical schools. A teaching hospital was constructed and inspired the creation of other hospitals not only in the Islamic world but also in Europe<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>.</p>
          <p>The Arabs who won Persia and Mesopotamia in the 7th century incorporated this model for their schools of medicine, including Spain and Portugal, where the Arabs ruled for centuries. In this manner, medical knowledge acquired in the previous centuries, but forgotten in the Middle Ages in Europe, was preserved in the schools of the Islamic world. When important medical works were translated into Latin, from the 11th century onward, medical knowledge finally returned to Europe.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Islamic Period</title>
          <p>During the Islamic Period, dissections of human bodies were prohibited for religious reasons; only animal dissections were allowed; thus, there was no marked scientific progress regarding the CVS. Rhazis (865-925 AD) contributed importantly in disagreeing with Galen regarding the presence of bone in the cardiac base<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. Haly Abbas (930-994 AD) advanced the morphological characterization of the pulmonary artery in two muscle layers, in describing the aorta more precisely, and in describing the coronary arteries in 965<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. Importantly, he suggested a functional communication between the endings of veins and arteries<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>. However, it is controversial whether or not he hypothesized communication between both ventricles<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>.</p>
          <p>Still in the 10th century, Al-Akhawayni Bukhari (?-983 AD) made important contributions to the understanding of CVS anatomophysiology, facilitated perhaps by the fact that he was able to perform autopsies on human cadavers in ancient Persia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. He stated that the heart had four cavities, the pulmonary vessels, and the aorta, all of them with valves that impeded blood reflux. He described the pericardium with anatomic precision.</p>
          <p>Although Al-Akhawayni Bukhari recognized two pores in the interventricular septum that permitted communication between both ventricles, he emphasized that most of the blood received by the right ventricle was transported to the lungs. From the lungs, blood was transported to the left ventricle, from there to the aorta, and from the aorta throughout the body. Thus, Al-Akhawayni Bukhari described a rudimentary lung circulation, emphasizing that the function of the heart was to pump blood and that blood vessels transported only blood, not the pneuma. He also described, with precision, the coronary arteries<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> in 975 AD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>, at about the same time as Hally Abbas.</p>
          <p>It fell to Avicenna (980-1037 AD), however, to go back in time. Although he clearly recognized the cardiac systole and diastole<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>, Avicenna adopted the cardiocentric model of Aristotle and accepted the presence of pores in the interventricular septum. In his view, the left ventricle was the cardiac chamber that housed the pneuma, and it was the seat of emotions<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>.</p>
          <p>In 1260, Ibn Nafis (1210-1288 AD) commented on Avicenna's works and almost described pulmonary circulation. Although it is probable that Ibn Nafis occasionally performed autopsies on humans<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>, his description seems to be more theoretical rather than practical<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>. Nevertheless, the ethical conviction with which he described the anatomical characteristics of the interventricular septum proves that he really performed anatomical dissections on humans<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Therefore, he denied the presence of pores in the interventricular septum in such a way that there was no communication between both ventricles; he also denied the presence of three ventricles<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>.</p>
          <p>He stressed that blood was transported to the right ventricle; from this cavity, through the pulmonary artery, it reached the lungs; from these organs, through pulmonary veins, it returned to the heart, whence, via the aorta, it was distributed throughout the body. Still under Galen's influence, he believed that the transformation of the vital spirit took place in the left ventricle and was distributed along with blood. In his view, the rest of the body circulation occurred according to Galen's ideas. Ibn Nafis believed that cardiac nutrition was made possible by vessels that permeated the heart body (coronary arteries)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>European Period</title>
          <p>In the 10th century, with the establishment of the medical school of Salerno, Italy, there was a revival of medical learning. The classical medical works of the Greeks, whose practical teachings guided ancient medicine, remained lost in time, but they were, however, stored in monasteries and copied by Benedictine monks. Because they were not being put into practice, they fell into disuse, and surgical procedures were abandoned. Only with the founding of the medical school of Salerno did animal dissection became routine. Furthermore, Salerno's masters translated ancient Greek works into Latin, including data related to surgical procedures. In this manner, they emphasized surgical therapeutics, which led to a revival in the need for anatomical knowledge<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>.</p>
          <p>The Catholic Church did not prohibit human anatomical dissections. On special occasions when the cause of death was unclear or in periods of epidemics, autopsies were performed for accurately diagnosing the underlying cause of death<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>. A register, dating approximately 1306, records an autopsy performed by Pietro d'Abano for medico-legal purposes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>. The lack of bodies for dissection was another important limiting factor for anatomical knowledge<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>.</p>
          <p>In Bologna, in 1316, Mondino da Luzzi (1276-1326 AD) restarted systematic anatomical dissections of humans with the main objective of gaining knowledge about the structure of the human body<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>. However, such dissections were performed by a barber. The main consequence of this incorrect practice was the lack of progress in anatomical knowledge. Thus, Mondino da Luzzi believed in the presence of three ventricles. Even worse, along with the third ventricle, Mondino da Luzzi emphasized the presence of pores in the interventricular septum<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>, and he did not identify the atria.</p>
          <p>Berengario da Carpi (1470?-1550 AD) modified the study of anatomy by personally dissecting some corpses. For this reason, in 1521, he clearly showed the existence of only two ventricles, two atria, and semilunar and atrioventricular valves, thus recovering the knowledge acquired by the ancient Greeks and the Alexandria school and adding to that the existence of papillary muscles as components of the subvalvar apparatus<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
          <p>Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1518 AD), who probably dissected the human body, ascribed a functional significance to the atria, showing that the atria contracted when the ventricles dilated. Moreover, he emphasized that the heart is a mere muscle, not a seat of spirits or air. In addition, he presented a detailed picture of the mitral apparatus and described the moderator band of the right ventricle. However, da Vinci still believed in the existence of pores in the interventricular septum and adopted Galen's model of blood distribution throughout the body<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>.</p>
          <p>Michel Servetus (1511-1553 AD) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>), a theologian trained in anatomy, described pulmonary circulation in a few pages of his <italic>Christianismi Restitutio</italic> (1553), which led to his death at the stake in 1553. Nevertheless, Servetus believed that the blood in the right ventricle passed through the left side of the heart through the pulmonary capillaries; there were no pores in the interventricular septum. Further, blood mingled with air in the lungs, but not in the left ventricle, furthering his claim that the change in blood color occurred in the lungs and also explaining the size of the pulmonary artery, which is much larger than necessary if the function of this vessel was only pulmonary nutrition<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. He believed that blood passed from the pulmonary artery to pulmonary veins via blood capillaries<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>. These convictions arose following the routine practice of anatomical dissection.</p>
          <fig id="f02" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Michel Servetus, who described pulmonary circulation. Semmelweiss Medical History Museum, Budapest, Hungary. Courtesy of the author (RBB).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-06-0538-40148-gf02.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Andrea Vesalius (1514-1564 AD) became the most celebrated anatomist of the medieval period. After he was hired to work at the Faculty of Padua in 1537, he performed a large number of anatomical dissections. The consequence was the publication of his book <italic>De humani corporis fabrica libri septem</italic>in 1543 in which Vesalius corrected many mistakes made by earlier anatomists. With respect to the CVS, he showed the absence of <italic>rede mirabilis</italic> in human beings<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
          <p>However, in the first edition of <italic>Fabrica</italic>, Vesalius did not allude to the absence of pores in the interventricular septum<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>. Only in 1559, after Matteo Realdo Colombo (1516-1559 AD) asserted the absence of pores in the septum, did Vesalius definitively correct previous mistakes related to cardiac anatomy. It was he who gave the name   <italic>mitral</italic> to the atrioventricular valve, which separates the left atrium from the left ventricle<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>.</p>
          <p>In his book <italic>De re anatomica libri XV</italic> (1559), Matteo Realdo Colombo, contrary to Vesalius, correctly described the anatomical position of the kidneys and demonstrated pulmonary circulation. He stated that blood was transported from the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery and from there to the lungs, where it was attenuated; thence, it moved from the lungs, along with air, through the pulmonary vein and to the left ventricle. Further, he drew attention to the width of the pulmonary artery, as Servetus had done. Notably, Colombo never mentioned the existence of pores in the interventricular septum<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>.</p>
          <p>It is also debatable whether Colombo, like Servetus and Ibn Nafis, was influenced by Servetus himself. Apparently, Servetus sent a draft of his book to Padua in 1546. Whether or not Colombo had access to it is still an open question<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> as is his putative contact with Ibn Nafis's work<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>.</p>
          <p>With the exception of Antonio Benivieni, in 1507, a few scientists gave enough attention to the anatomopathological abnormalities in humans. Colombo interestingly described cardiac abnormalities such as the hydrothorax probably secondary to decompensate chronic heart failure, bacterial endocarditis, myocardial infarction, and chronic pericarditis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>.</p>
          <p>Although Amatus Lusitanus described the existence of valves in the azygos vein in 1551, he proposed an incorrect explanation about the anatomical significance of these structures. In his seminal publication of 1603, <italic>De venarum ostiolis</italic>, Fabricius ab Aquapendente described the presence of such valves in almost all bodies, their structures and anatomical characteristics, and the perception that they worked to contain blood reflux. Nevertheless, Fabricius saw only a partial opposition to blood reflux and suggested that part of blood was distributed via veins to tissues<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
          <p>William Harvey was a student of Fabricius at Padua University. Taking into account Fabricius' discovery of vein valves, he perceived their correct functions, i.e., to contain blood and direct blood flow. This provides some perspective about his discovery of blood circulation in 1628.</p>
          <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref> presents a schematic timeline of the main discoveries discussed in the text.</p>
          <fig id="f03" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Development of knowledge about the cardiovascular system through the ages: Panel A, events before Christ (BC); Panel B, events following Christ (Anno Domini, AD); IVS: intraventricular septum.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-06-0538-40148-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="con">
        <p>
          <bold>Author contributions</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Conception and design of the research and Analysis and interpretation of the data: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA; Acquisition of data: Bestetti RB; Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA, Couto LB.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Evolu&#231;&#227;o do Conhecimento Anatomofisiol&#243;gico do Sistema Cardiovascular: dos Eg&#237;pcios a Harvey</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bestetti</surname>
            <given-names>Reinaldo Bulgarelli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Restini</surname>
            <given-names>Carolina Baraldi A.</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Couto</surname>
            <given-names>Luc&#233;lio B.</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <aff>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Ribeir&#227;o Preto</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Ribeir&#227;o Preto</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country>Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - UNAERP, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Reinaldo B. Bestetti</bold>. Jeronimo Panazollo, 434, Ribeir&#226;nia, CEP 14096-430, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brasil. E-mail:   <email>rbestetti44@gmail.com</email>;   <email>rbestetti@cardiol.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract xml:lang="pt">
        <p>O conhecimento da anatomofisiologia do Sistema Cardiovascular (SCV) progride desde o quarto mil&#234;nio AC. No Egito (3500 AC), acreditava-se que um conjunto de canais conectava-se ao cora&#231;&#227;o, transportando ar, urina, ar, sangue e a alma. Mil anos ap&#243;s, o Corpo Hipocr&#225;tico, na escola m&#233;dica de K&#243;s, estabeleceu o cora&#231;&#227;o como o centro do SCV, definindo algumas caracter&#237;sticas deste &#243;rg&#227;o. O SCV transportava sangue via ventr&#237;culo direito pelas veias, e o pneuma via ventr&#237;culo esquerdo pelas art&#233;rias. Duzentos anos depois, em Alexandria, com o aparecimento da dissec&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica do corpo humano, Herophilus descobriu que as art&#233;rias eram seis vezes mais espessas que as veias, enquanto que Erasistratus descreveu as v&#225;lvulas semilunares, enfatizando que as art&#233;rias eram preenchidas por sangue quando o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo se esvaziava. Duzentos anos depois, Galeno demonstrou que as art&#233;rias continham sangue, n&#227;o ar. Com o decl&#237;nio do Imp&#233;rio Romano, todo o conhecimento m&#233;dico Greco-romano do SCV foi preservado na P&#233;rsia, e posteriormente no Isl&#227;, onde Ibn-Nafis descreveu incompletamente a circula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar. Aqui, deve-se enfatizar a incompleta descri&#231;&#227;o da circula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar por Ibn-Nafis. A ressurg&#234;ncia da dissec&#231;&#227;o do corpo humano na Europa no s&#233;culo XIV &#233; associada ao renascimento do conhecimento do SCV. Os principais marcos foram a descri&#231;&#227;o da circula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar por Servetus, as descobertas anat&#244;micas de Vesalius, a demonstra&#231;&#227;o da circula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar por Colombo, e a descoberta das v&#225;lvulas das veias por Fabricius. Tal contexto abriu o caminho para Harvey descobrir a circula&#231;&#227;o do sangue.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Sistema Cardiovascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Conhecimento</kwd>
        <kwd>Civiliza&#231;&#227;o / hist&#243;ria</kwd>
        <kwd>Egito</kwd>
        <kwd>Mundo Grego / hist&#243;ria</kwd>
        <kwd>Antropologia Cultural / tend&#234;ncias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O conhecimento do sistema cardiovascular (SCV), que levou William Harvey &#224; descoberta da circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, foi obtido por meio de grandes esfor&#231;os ao longo dos tempos. Tais descobertas come&#231;aram no Egito em 3500 a.C., tornando-se um pouco mais elaboradas na Gr&#233;cia antiga, e bem mais elaboradas em Alexandria, e cessaram na &#233;poca dos romanos. Este conhecimento foi preservado no mundo isl&#226;mico e nos mosteiros europeus e reviveu com a introdu&#231;&#227;o da dissec&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica nas universidades europeias, abrindo o caminho para a descoberta de Harvey. Esta revis&#227;o fornece uma vis&#227;o geral de como o conhecimento do SCV foi adquirido atrav&#233;s dos tempos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Egito</title>
        <p>No Egito antigo (1500 a.C.), o cora&#231;&#227;o era considerado o elemento central de um sistema de canais distribu&#237;dos por todo o corpo, respons&#225;vel pelo transporte de sangue, fezes, s&#234;men, esp&#237;ritos malignos e benignos, e at&#233; mesmo a alma: o metw<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. Erroneamente, os eg&#237;pcios acreditavam que tais elementos circulavam dentro de um vaso ligado ao cora&#231;&#227;o (vaso receptor), provavelmente a aorta, que vinha do c&#233;rebro. Um segundo vaso coletor estaria localizado na regi&#227;o anal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
        <p>Havia a no&#231;&#227;o de que o pulso perif&#233;rico originava-se do batimento card&#237;aco, como pode ser visto no papiro de Edwin Smith (1700 a.C.), e que a medi&#231;&#227;o do pulso podia ser executada utilizando um rel&#243;gio d'&#225;gua. &#201; conceb&#237;vel que o m&#233;dico comparasse o pulso do paciente com o dele pr&#243;prio. Portanto, apenas grandes aumentos ou diminui&#231;&#245;es no batimento card&#237;aco, bem como as irregularidades de pulso, poderiam ser detectadas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
        <p>O papiro de Edwin Smith revelou que anormalidades no pulso perif&#233;rico poderiam ser o reflexo de uma doen&#231;a card&#237;aca subjacente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. No papiro de Ebers (1500 a.C.), a importante rela&#231;&#227;o entre o cora&#231;&#227;o e o sistema de vasos tamb&#233;m tinha sido enfatizada, bem como a medi&#231;&#227;o da pulsa&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, a presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca diagnosticada por meio de anormalidades na pulsa&#231;&#227;o havia sido destacada: "quando o cora&#231;&#227;o est&#225; doente .... seus vasos provavelmente tornam-se inativos, de modo que voc&#234; n&#227;o consegue palp&#225;-los"<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.</p>
        <p>Apesar do conhecimento da rela&#231;&#227;o entre a frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e a pulso perif&#233;rico, a maneira pela qual os elementos de <italic>metw</italic> estariam distribu&#237;dos por todo o corpo n&#227;o foi atribu&#237;da &#224; for&#231;a do cora&#231;&#227;o. De fato, a pulsa&#231;&#227;o seria consequ&#234;ncia do ar mantido no canais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, acreditava-se que os elementos da <italic>metw</italic> flu&#237;am por todo o corpo.</p>
        <p>Considerando que os eg&#237;pcios n&#227;o realizavam aut&#243;psias rotineiramente, e que a dissec&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o era utilizada como uma forma de aprendizagem m&#233;dica, os eg&#237;pcios n&#227;o conseguiram avan&#231;ar no conhecimento anatomofisiol&#243;gico do SCV<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. No entanto, eles foram os primeiros a associar o batimento card&#237;aco com a pulsa&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica, bem como estabelecer a correla&#231;&#227;o entre o ar e o SCV<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Gr&#233;cia</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Per&#237;odo pr&#233;-aristot&#233;lico</title>
          <p>O surgimento dos fil&#243;sofos na Gr&#233;cia por volta do s&#233;culo 7 a.C., come&#231;ando com Thales de Mileto, abriu o caminho necess&#225;rio para a realiza&#231;&#227;o de investiga&#231;&#245;es sobre a anatomia humana. As escolas de medicina apareceram junto com os fil&#243;sofos no s&#233;culo 5 a.C. Alcm&#233;on, da escola de medicina de Crotona (520-450 a.C.), foi o primeiro a produzir o conhecimento anat&#244;mico a partir de observa&#231;&#245;es experimentais. Alcm&#233;on acreditava que o c&#233;rebro era o centro das emo&#231;&#245;es, conhecimento, mente, e alma, e associou as fun&#231;&#245;es dos &#243;rg&#227;os dos sentidos ao c&#233;rebro<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>.</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m disso, Alcm&#233;on acreditava que o sistema venoso era distinto do sistema arterial, apesar de ele n&#227;o ter feito uma distin&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica entre eles. A fun&#231;&#227;o dos vasos foi associada &#224; vig&#237;lia: o sangue, retirado das veias, induzia o sono. As art&#233;rias, levando sangue ao c&#233;rebro, induzia a vigilia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. De acordo com Alcm&#233;on, todos os vasos originavam-se na cabe&#231;a, e sua fun&#231;&#227;o era distribuir o pneuma (esp&#237;rito) ao c&#233;rebro<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. No entanto, outros autores acreditavam que o pneuma era distribu&#237;do ao c&#233;rebro diretamente da respira&#231;&#227;o nasal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. Alcm&#233;on n&#227;o atribuiu nenhuma fun&#231;&#227;o ao cora&#231;&#227;o no SCV.</p>
          <p>Emp&#233;docles de Agrigento (492-432 a.C.) tinha uma vis&#227;o diferente. Para ele, o cora&#231;&#227;o era a sede da alma e o centro do SCV; vasos sangu&#237;neos distribu&#237;am o pneuma, que era internalizado atrav&#233;s da respira&#231;&#227;o pulmonar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Emp&#233;docles tamb&#233;m acreditava na exist&#234;ncia de vasos corp&#243;reos, que continham sangue, e cujas por&#231;&#245;es terminais exteriorizavam-se na pele, absorvendo e expelindo ar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. Emp&#233;docles n&#227;o forneceu detalhes anat&#244;micos do cora&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>A escola de C&#243;s, cujo principal expoente foi Hip&#243;crates (460-375 a.C.), contribuiu de forma decisiva para a racionaliza&#231;&#227;o da medicina. Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao SCV, no livro "O cora&#231;&#227;o" ("On the heart"), atribu&#237;do aos membros da escola de C&#243;s, os detalhes anat&#244;micos do cora&#231;&#227;o foram descritos pela primeira vez, atribuindo ao SCV o transporte de vida por todo o corpo. De acordo com estes autores, os pulm&#245;es circundavam o cora&#231;&#227;o no t&#243;rax para resfriar o excesso de calor produzido pela atividade card&#237;aca incessante. O cora&#231;&#227;o apresentava um formato piramidal, colora&#231;&#227;o vermelha, e atividade el&#233;trica intr&#237;nseca. Em contraste com o restante do corpo, que era alimentado com sangue atrav&#233;s das veias, o cora&#231;&#227;o nutria a si pr&#243;prio a partir da subst&#226;ncia pura criada durante a dialise do sangue<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
          <p>Dois ventr&#237;culos s&#227;o reconhecidos como unidos pelo septo interventricular. O ventr&#237;culo direito &#233; maior do que o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, embora o esquerdo seja mais espesso do que o direito, considerando que a parede ventricular esquerda tem que suportar o calor excessivo produzido por esta c&#226;mara. O ventr&#237;culo direito se comunica com o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo atrav&#233;s de um poro no septo interventricular. O ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, em contraste com o direito, n&#227;o tem sangue, mas apenas bile amarela e membranas, e abriga a mente e o esp&#237;rito, que predominam sobre o restante da alma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
          <p>Todos os vasos do SCV se originam no cora&#231;&#227;o e se conectam a ele atrav&#233;s de membranas que se estendem da parede card&#237;aca. Alguns vasos foram identificados (veias pulmonares), que transportariam ar ao ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Outro grande vaso (art&#233;ria pulmonar) transportaria ar ao ventr&#237;culo direito, e ao mesmo tempo, sangue aos pulm&#245;es. Duas v&#225;lvulas card&#237;acas foram descritas, cada uma contendo tr&#234;s folhetos. No entanto, a estrutura anat&#244;mica da aorta n&#227;o foi descrita. Eles descreveram duas estruturas semelhantes ao &#225;trio card&#237;aco, que teria o objetivo de captar o ar, mas tais estruturas n&#227;o pertenceriam ao cora&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. O peric&#225;rdio tamb&#233;m foi descrito, o qual, atrav&#233;s da absor&#231;&#227;o de &#225;gua da epiglote, resfriaria o cora&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. N&#227;o houve men&#231;&#227;o da veia cava.</p>
          <p>Em outro livro do <italic>Corpus Hippocraticum</italic>, "A doen&#231;a sagrada" ("The sacred disease"), o SCV &#233; descrito em detalhe, e pouca men&#231;&#227;o &#233; feita ao cora&#231;&#227;o. H&#225; um par de vasos origin&#225;rios do f&#237;gado e ba&#231;o, em dire&#231;&#227;o ao c&#233;rebro e aos membros inferiores. Ramifica&#231;&#245;es destes vasos se juntam ao cora&#231;&#227;o no t&#243;rax<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>.</p>
          <p>A divis&#227;o siciliana da escola de Cnido, provavelmente com as obras de Philistion de Locri em torno de 370 a.C., tamb&#233;m contribuiu para o conhecimento anat&#244;mico da SCV. A presen&#231;a de dois ventr&#237;culos era bem conhecida, o esquerdo sendo mais hipertrofiado do que o direito; a presen&#231;a de dois &#225;trios, cujos batimentos s&#227;o discordantes em rela&#231;&#227;o aos batimentos dos ventr&#237;culos; a presen&#231;a de um vaso conectado a um &#250;nico ventr&#237;culo; e a presen&#231;a de valvas semilunares<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Aparentemente, nada se sabia sobre a anatomia das valvas atrioventriculares<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. A   <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 1</xref> ilustra o conjunto de descobertas descritas anteriormente.</p>
          <fig id="f04" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Esquema do sistema cardiovascular de acordo com os gregos antigos. Observe a presen&#231;a de dois vasos paralelos origin&#225;rios no f&#237;gado e no ba&#231;o, conectados ao cora&#231;&#227;o no t&#243;rax, aos membros inferiores e &#224; cabe&#231;a. Observe o cora&#231;&#227;o com um poro no septo interventricular conectando o ventr&#237;culo direito ao ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, dois vasos conectados ao ventr&#237;culo direito, e um vaso conectado ao ventr&#237;culo esquerdo vindo dos pulm&#245;es. O ventr&#237;culo direito &#233; maior do que o esquerdo, ao passo que o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo &#233; mais espesso do que o direito. O ventr&#237;culo direito cont&#233;m sangue, ao passo que o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo &#233; preenchido com ar e bile amarela, de acordo com o Corpus Hippocraticum (s&#233;culo 5 a.C.). VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; VD: Ventr&#237;culo direito; SIV: Septo interventricular.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-06-0538-40148-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Per&#237;odo aristot&#233;lico</title>
          <p>Arist&#243;teles (384-322 a.C.) acreditava que o cora&#231;&#227;o era o &#243;rg&#227;o mais importante do corpo, a sede da alma. Ele n&#227;o acreditava que o pneuma era inspirado pelo corpo. O pneuma era uma parte da alma, mas a respira&#231;&#227;o continha apenas ar, e a sua principal fun&#231;&#227;o era resfriar o cora&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Da mesma forma, ele concebeu o c&#233;rebro como um mecanismo de resfriamento card&#237;aco<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Ele realizou centenas de dissec&#231;&#245;es em animais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>, mas aparentemente n&#227;o teve a oportunidade de dissecar cad&#225;veres humanos. Portanto, ele acreditava que a experimenta&#231;&#227;o animal era um m&#233;todo importante para se obter conhecimento<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
          <p>Ainda que err&#244;nea, a grande inova&#231;&#227;o introduzida por Arist&#243;teles na anatomia do SCV foi descrever tr&#234;s ventr&#237;culos card&#237;acos, em ordem decrescente de volume do lado direito ao esquerdo do corpo, mas todos eles conectados ao pulm&#227;o. Ele tamb&#233;m descreveu a presen&#231;a de vasos comunicando ambos os ventr&#237;culos ao pulm&#227;o, que transportava ar ao cora&#231;&#227;o. Arist&#243;teles acreditava que a art&#233;ria pulmonar e a veia cava superior eram subdivis&#245;es de outro grande vaso, que ele chamou de "grande veia". Al&#233;m disso, ele descreveu outro vaso conectado ao ventr&#237;culo medial, que ele chamou de aorta, e acreditava que o cora&#231;&#227;o era a origem de todos os nervos e vasos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
          <p>Segundo Arist&#243;teles, o ventr&#237;culo direito continha sangue mais quente e em maior quantidade em rela&#231;&#227;o ao ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, que tinha ar e sangue mais puro. Provavelmente, este fato estava relacionado ao mecanismo de morte dos animais (estrangulamento) antes da dissec&#231;&#227;o. Ele n&#227;o mencionou as v&#225;lvulas card&#237;acas, em contraste com os membros do <italic>Corpus Hippocraticum</italic>, nem os &#225;trios card&#237;acos. Portanto, existiam dois grandes vasos no modelo card&#237;aco de Arist&#243;teles: o grande vaso (veia cava e a art&#233;ria pulmonar) e a aorta (aorta e veias pulmonares)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Hoje, acredita-se que o ventr&#237;culo m&#233;dio seja de fato a aorta, ao passo que o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo corresponde ao &#225;trio esquerdo, que n&#227;o foi identificado por Arist&#243;teles<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
          <p>Praxagoras de C&#243;s (340 a.C.) avan&#231;ou um pouco mais no conhecimento anat&#244;mico da SCV atrav&#233;s da distin&#231;&#227;o entre veias e art&#233;rias, embora sem confirma&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica, e estas foram chamadas de vasos sangu&#237;neos (flebes). De fato, Praxagoras fez esta distin&#231;&#227;o com base na suposi&#231;&#227;o err&#244;nea de que as veias transportavam o sangue, ao passo que as art&#233;rias transportavam o pneuma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, ele afirmou que apenas as art&#233;rias estavam associadas ao pulso card&#237;aco, ao contr&#225;rio do que se acreditava anteriormente, e enfatizou o valor diagn&#243;stico da medida do pulso card&#237;aco pela primeira vez<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. No entanto, ele cometeu um erro importante em afirmar que as veias transportavam sangue, enquanto que as art&#233;rias transportavam o pneuma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>O Per&#237;odo de Alexandria</title>
        <p>O conhecimento anat&#244;mico mais amplo a respeito do SCV ocorreu posteriormente, com as obras de Her&#243;filo da Calced&#244;nia (325-255 a.C.) e Eras&#237;strato de Quios (310-250 a.C.), da escola de Alexandria, no Egito. Antes deste per&#237;odo, dissec&#231;&#245;es de cad&#225;veres n&#227;o eram realizadas, e quase todo o conhecimento anat&#244;mico era proveniente da dissec&#231;&#227;o de animais. Em contraste, na famosa escola de Alexandria, dissec&#231;&#245;es do corpo humano eram realizadas rotineiramente, provavelmente estimuladas pelo fara&#243;s ptolomaicos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>.</p>
        <p>A contribui&#231;&#227;o principal de Her&#243;filo para o conhecimento da SCV estava associada &#224; diferencia&#231;&#227;o da espessura das art&#233;rias em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s veias, sendo que as art&#233;rias eram 6 vezes mais espessas do que as veias. O vaso conectado ao ventr&#237;culo direito foi denominado "veia arterial", observando-se que as art&#233;rias eram menos espessas do que as veias nos pulm&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Her&#243;filo tamb&#233;m acreditava que apenas as art&#233;rias estavam associadas ao batimento card&#237;aco devido aos movimentos de contra&#231;&#227;o e relaxamento dependentes do cora&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>.</p>
        <p>Her&#243;filo reconheceu que os nervos se originavam no c&#233;rebro e na medula espinal, e n&#227;o no cora&#231;&#227;o, e negou a participa&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o no processo de respiracao<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, ele incluiu os &#225;trios como parte da anatomia do cora&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. Provavelmente, ele foi o primeiro a realizar dissec&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas publicamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Her&#243;filo descreveu as art&#233;rias car&#243;tidas, a veia subcl&#225;via, os vasos mesent&#233;ricos, vasos do aparelho genital, e os vasos linf&#225;ticos. Ele identificou as termina&#231;&#245;es nervosas dos pequenos vasos, e observou o sangue dentro das art&#233;rias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Ele acreditava que as art&#233;rias se originavam no cora&#231;&#227;o, mas n&#227;o especificou o seu local de origem<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
        <p>Eras&#237;strato reconheceu a atividade do cora&#231;&#227;o como uma bomba impulsora, que contrai devido &#224; sua for&#231;a intr&#237;nseca. Ao contr&#225;rio do que Her&#243;filo acreditava, Eras&#237;strato enfatizou que as art&#233;rias n&#227;o apresentavam movimento ativo de contra&#231;&#227;o e relaxamento, mas eram passivamente preenchidas devido &#224; contra&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o. Ele descreveu as valvas atrioventriculares, de modo que a valva card&#237;aca direita foi nomeada tric&#250;spide, e esquerda foi denominada bic&#250;spide. Al&#233;m disso, ele verificou uma subdivis&#227;o progressiva das veias e art&#233;rias ao ponto em que, devido ao seu calibre extremamente pequeno, n&#227;o seria mais poss&#237;vel distingui-las anatomicamente, enfatizando que esses vasos estavam sempre cheios de sangue. Ele chamou estes pequenos vasos de sinanastomoses, e foram mais tarde denominadas de capilares<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. Alguns autores acreditam que Eras&#237;strato foi o primeiro a descrever a presen&#231;a de v&#225;lvulas nas veias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>.</p>
        <p>No entanto, Eras&#237;strato acreditava que as art&#233;rias tamb&#233;m transportavam o pneuma. Por esse motivo, embora ele tenha observado termina&#231;&#245;es arteriais pr&#243;ximas ao in&#237;cio da estrutura das veias, ele n&#227;o identificou a rela&#231;&#227;o funcional de continuidade entre elas. O sangue seria formado no f&#237;gado e transportado ao ventr&#237;culo direito e, a partir dai, a todo o corpo atrav&#233;s das veias. O ar (pneuma) seria inspirado pelos pulm&#245;es e chegaria &#224; regi&#227;o esquerda do cora&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s das veias pulmonares. O esp&#237;rito vital seria formado no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e distribu&#237;do por todo o corpo atrav&#233;s de nervos ocos (art&#233;rias, que n&#227;o continham sangue). Nas sinanastomoses, pneuma e sangue seriam utilizados para a nutri&#231;&#227;o do organismo, ao passo que os produtos do metabolismo seriam excretados. Portanto, nenhum material retornaria ao ventr&#237;culo esquerdo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Ao contr&#225;rio de Her&#243;filo, Eras&#237;strato acreditava que os vasos sangu&#237;neos se originavam no cora&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
        <p>Com a conquista do Egito pelo Imp&#233;rio Romano, a atividade cient&#237;fica em Alexandria diminuiu progressivamente, e as dissec&#231;&#245;es de corpos humanos foram interrompidas.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>O per&#237;odo romano</title>
        <p>Rufus de &#201;feso, contempor&#226;neo de Jesus Cristo, acreditava que os &#225;trios faziam parte do cora&#231;&#227;o, pois pulsavam em conson&#226;ncia. No ano 2 d.C., Galeno (130-200 d.C.), um m&#233;dico de gladiadores no templo de Ascl&#233;pio em P&#233;rgamo, demonstrou que as art&#233;rias continham sangue, e n&#227;o ar, como se acreditava at&#233; ent&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, Galeno afirmou que o cora&#231;&#227;o era um m&#250;sculo com diferentes planos de orienta&#231;&#227;o, o que permitia a sua atividade forte e incessante.</p>
        <p>Galeno reconheceu que o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo era mais hipertrofiado que o direito, e atribuiu a fun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo &#224; sua capacidade de reter o ar, ao passo que a fun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito seria a de transportar sangue.</p>
        <p>Dois vasos se originariam no ventr&#237;culo direito: um transportaria sangue aos pulm&#245;es (art&#233;ria pulmonar), ao passo que o outro transportaria sangue perif&#233;rico de volta ao cora&#231;&#227;o (veia cava). A partir do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo surgiria a grande art&#233;ria (aorta), bem como outras estruturas venosas (veias pulmonares), que transportariam sangue dos pulm&#245;es ao cora&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
        <p>No entanto, Galeno cometeu v&#225;rios erros relacionados &#224; anatomia do SCV, principalmente porque as dissec&#231;&#245;es eram feitas em animais, e n&#227;o em seres humanos. Ele declarou que havia poros no septo interventricular do cora&#231;&#227;o que permitiriam o escoamento do sangue do ventr&#237;culo direito para o esquerdo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, Galeno n&#227;o considerou os &#225;trios como parte do cora&#231;&#227;o. Ele tamb&#233;m acreditava na exist&#234;ncia de v&#225;rios tipos de pneumas (esp&#237;ritos). O alimento digerido seria distribu&#237;do ao f&#237;gado, onde seria transformado em sangue, que se misturaria com o esp&#237;rito animal. Este, por sua vez, fluiria atrav&#233;s do sistema da veia cava, &#224; semelhan&#231;a do que ocorre com as mar&#233;s, para nutrir o corpo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>.</p>
        <p>O sangue que chegava ao ventr&#237;culo direito seria transportado aos pulm&#245;es, onde as impurezas seriam eliminadas. Depois disso, o sangue purificado retornaria ao cora&#231;&#227;o, e a partir dai seria distribu&#237;do por todo o corpo. Parte do sangue que entraria no ventr&#237;culo direito atrav&#233;s dos poros do septo interventricular chegaria ao ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. No ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, o sangue se misturaria com o ar vindo da traqueia e veias pulmonares, formando assim o esp&#237;rito vital, que fluiria atrav&#233;s das art&#233;rias por todo o corpo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. A mistura de esp&#237;rito vital e sangue, juntamente com o calor das impurezas gasosas produzidas pelo cora&#231;&#227;o, retornaria aos pulm&#245;es atrav&#233;s da valva atrioventricular bic&#250;spide<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. O sangue que chegava ao c&#233;rebro encontraria o terceiro tipo de pneuma (esp&#237;rito animal), que seria ent&#227;o distribu&#237;do ao corpo atrav&#233;s dos nervos ocos. Finalmente, Galeno acreditava que os vasos sangu&#237;neos se dilatavam ativamente durante a contra&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, em oposi&#231;&#227;o a cren&#231;a de Eras&#237;strato<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>.</p>
        <p>Ap&#243;s a &#233;poca de Galeno, dissec&#231;&#245;es deixaram de ser realizadas com frequ&#234;ncia e os estudos anat&#244;micos foram interrompidos, em parte porque Galeno considerava o corpo humano como o templo da alma, e suas explica&#231;&#245;es teleol&#243;gicas para todos os fen&#244;menos estavam de acordo com a ideia predominante estabelecida em Roma no s&#233;culo 4 d.C. Visto que o conhecimento provinha da f&#233;, o conhecimento anat&#244;mico n&#227;o era importante. Isso explica porque as cren&#231;as err&#244;neas de Galeno duraram at&#233; o Renascimento, e o funcionamento do SCV s&#243; foi entendido a partir do s&#233;culo XVII.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Per&#237;odo medieval</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Per&#237;odo bizantino</title>
          <p>Com o decl&#237;nio progressivo do imp&#233;rio romano ocidental, n&#227;o houve mais avan&#231;os no conhecimento m&#233;dico. Uma exce&#231;&#227;o foi o trabalho de Oribasio de P&#233;rgamo (325-403 d.C.) (Imp&#233;rio Romano Oriental). Trabalhando com lentes de aumento, este autor confirmou a descri&#231;&#227;o de Eras&#237;strato a respeito da anastomose entre veias e art&#233;rias, principalmente nos rins. Oribasio nomeou as anastomoses de "capilares". Al&#233;m disso, ele descreveu corretamente a circula&#231;&#227;o renal: perfus&#227;o atrav&#233;s da art&#233;ria renal, que era uma ramifica&#231;&#227;o da aorta, e o retorno venoso atrav&#233;s da veia renal, que era uma ramifica&#231;&#227;o da veia cava inferior<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>.</p>
          <p>Em 431 d.C., os nestorianos, seguidores de Nest&#243;rio, patriarca de Constantinopla, foram expulsos de Constantinopla, acusados de heresia. Eles imigraram para Edessa, no norte da Ass&#237;ria (Mesopot&#226;mia), onde uma escola de medicina tinha sido fundada em 363 d.C., e um hospital tinha sido constru&#237;do por S&#227;o Efraim<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>. Nesta escola, os ass&#237;rios mantiveram uma conex&#227;o pr&#243;xima com a literatura m&#233;dica grega<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>. Quando a escola de Edessa foi fechada em 489 d.C., os nestorianos se refugiaram na cidade de Gondishapur na P&#233;rsia, fundada em 271 d.C.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>, levando com eles as obras de Hip&#243;crates, Arist&#243;teles e Galeno traduzidas para o sir&#237;aco. O mesmo aconteceu com os m&#233;dicos gregos, que foram exilados em Gondishapur ap&#243;s a escola de Atenas ter sido fechada em 529 d.C. Esses intelectuais tornaram-se parte da escola de Gondishapur, criada em 555 d.C., e que posteriormente serviu de modelo para as escolas de medicina da P&#233;rsia. Um hospital de ensino foi constru&#237;do neste local, o que inspirou o surgimento de outros hospitais, n&#227;o s&#243; no mundo isl&#226;mico, mas tamb&#233;m na Europa<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>.</p>
          <p>Os &#225;rabes, que conquistaram a P&#233;rsia e a Mesopot&#226;mia no s&#233;culo VII d.C., incorporaram este modelo para a escola de medicina presente naquele local. Isso se refletiu na Europa, onde os &#225;rabes mantiveram sua hegemonia sobre a Espanha e Portugal durante s&#233;culos. Desta forma, todo o conhecimento m&#233;dico adquirido nos s&#233;culos anteriores e esquecido na Europa durante a Idade M&#233;dia seria preservado nas escolas m&#233;dicas do mundo isl&#226;mico. Com a tradu&#231;&#227;o dessas obras para o latim, a partir do s&#233;culo XI, o conhecimento m&#233;dico finalmente retornou &#224; Europa.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Per&#237;odo isl&#226;mico</title>
          <p>Durante este per&#237;odo, as dissec&#231;&#245;es do corpo humano eram proibidas por motivos religiosos; apenas dissec&#231;&#245;es de animais eram permitidas, e por este motivo n&#227;o houve progresso cient&#237;fico acentuado em rela&#231;&#227;o ao SCV. Rhazis (865-925 d.C.) contribuiu de forma significativa ao discordar de Galeno em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; presen&#231;a de osso na base card&#237;aca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. Haly Abbas (930-994 d.C.) avan&#231;ou um pouco mais na caracteriza&#231;&#227;o morfol&#243;gica da art&#233;ria pulmonar atrav&#233;s da identifica&#231;&#227;o de duas camadas musculares, ao descrever a aorta mais precisamente, e as art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias em 965<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>; ele sugeriu uma comunica&#231;&#227;o funcional entre as ramifica&#231;&#245;es terminais de veias e art&#233;rias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>. No entanto, &#233; controverso se ele havia admitido a comunica&#231;&#227;o entre os dois ventr&#237;culos ou n&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>.</p>
          <p>Ainda no s&#233;culo X, Al-Bukhari Akhawayni (?-983 d.C.) fez importantes contribui&#231;&#245;es para o desenvolvimento do conhecimento da anatomofisiologia do SCV, e isto pode ter sido consequ&#234;ncia da cren&#231;a de que o autor era capaz de realizar aut&#243;psias no corpo humano na P&#233;rsia antiga<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. Ele afirmou que o cora&#231;&#227;o tem quatro cavidades, vasos pulmonares e aorta, todos eles com valvas para impedir o refluxo sangu&#237;neo. Ele descreveu o peric&#225;rdio com precis&#227;o anat&#244;mica.</p>
          <p>Apesar de Al-Bukhari Akhawayni ter reconhecido dois poros no septo interventricular, o que permitiria a comunica&#231;&#227;o entre os dois ventr&#237;culos, ele enfatizou que a maior parte do sangue recebido pelo ventr&#237;culo direito era transportado aos pulm&#245;es. A partir dos pulm&#245;es, o sangue seria transportado ao ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, a partir da&#237; ate a aorta, e da aorta seria distribu&#237;do por todo o corpo. Al-Akhawayni descreveu uma circula&#231;&#227;o rudimentar do pulm&#227;o, enfatizando que a fun&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o era bombear o sangue, e os vasos sangu&#237;neos transportavam apenas sangue, e n&#227;o pneuma. Ele tamb&#233;m descreveu com precis&#227;o as art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> em 975 d.C.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>, mais ou menos na mesma &#233;poca que Hally Abbas.</p>
          <p>No entanto, coube a Avicena (980-1037 d.C.) voltar no tempo. Embora ele tenha reconhecido claramente a s&#237;stole e di&#225;stole card&#237;aca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>, Avicena adotou o modelo cardiocentrista de Arist&#243;teles e aceitou a presen&#231;a de poros no septo interventricular. O ventr&#237;culo esquerdo era a c&#226;mara card&#237;aca que abrigaria o pneuma e a sede das emo&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>.</p>
          <p>Em 1260, Ibn-Nafis (1210-1288 d.C.), comentando sobre as obras de Avicena, praticamente descreveu a circula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar. Embora seja prov&#225;vel que Ibn-Nafis tenha ocasionalmente realizado aut&#243;psias em humanos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>, a descri&#231;&#227;o de Ibn-Nafis parece ser mais te&#243;rica do que baseada em dissec&#231;&#245;es em humanos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>. No entanto, a convic&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica com a qual ele descreveu as caracter&#237;sticas anat&#244;micas do septo interventricular &#233; evid&#234;ncia de que ele realmente tenha realizado dissec&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas em seres humanos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Portanto, Ibn-Nafis negou a presen&#231;a de poros no septo interventricular-ou qualquer comunica&#231;&#227;o entre os dois ventr&#237;culos-bem como a presen&#231;a de tr&#234;s ventr&#237;culos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>.</p>
          <p>Ele ressaltou que o sangue seria transportado ao ventr&#237;culo direito, e dessa cavidade chegaria aos pulm&#245;es atrav&#233;s da art&#233;ria pulmonar. A partir dos pulm&#245;es, o sangue regressaria ao cora&#231;&#227;o por meio de veias pulmonares, e a partir do cora&#231;&#227;o, atrav&#233;s da aorta, o sangue seria distribu&#237;do por todo o corpo. Ainda sob a influ&#234;ncia de Galeno, ele acreditava que a transforma&#231;&#227;o do esp&#237;rito vital ocorria no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e seria distribu&#237;do juntamente com o sangue. Na sua opini&#227;o, o restante da circula&#231;&#227;o ocorreria de acordo com a ideia de Galeno. Ibn-Nafis acreditava que a nutri&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca era feito por vasos que permeavam o corpo do cora&#231;&#227;o (art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Per&#237;odo europeu</title>
          <p>No s&#233;culo X, com o advento da escola m&#233;dica de Salerno, na It&#225;lia, houve o renascimento da aprendizagem m&#233;dica. As obras m&#233;dicas cl&#225;ssicas dos gregos, cujos ensinamentos pr&#225;ticos guiaram a medicina antiga, haviam sido perdidas no tempo. No entanto, estas haviam sido mantidas em mosteiros e reproduzidas pelos monges beneditinos. N&#227;o mais sendo colocados em pr&#225;tica, tais ensinamentos haviam ca&#237;do em desuso, e os procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos haviam sido abandonados. Somente com o surgimento da escola m&#233;dica de Salerno &#233; que a dissec&#231;&#227;o de animais tornou-se rotina. Al&#233;m disso, os mestres de Salerno traduziram obras gregas antigas para o latim, incluindo informa&#231;&#245;es relativas a procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos. Por isso, eles enfatizavam a terap&#234;utica cir&#250;rgica, que ressurgiu devido a necessidade de obten&#231;&#227;o de conhecimento anat&#244;mico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>.</p>
          <p>N&#227;o havia proibi&#231;&#227;o pela Igreja Cat&#243;lica para a realiza&#231;&#227;o de dissec&#231;&#245;es humanas. Em ocasi&#245;es especiais, quando se suspeitava da causa da morte, ou durante o per&#237;odo de epidemias, a aut&#243;psia era realizada para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico correto da causa da morte<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>. Um registro de aut&#243;psias foi mantido por Pietro D'Abano em torno de 1306, com finalidade m&#233;dico-legal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>. A falta de cad&#225;veres para dissec&#231;&#227;o foi outro fator que limitou a obten&#231;&#227;o de conhecimento anat&#244;mico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>.</p>
          <p>Em 1316, Mondino da Luzzi (1276-1326 d.C.), em Bolonha, reiniciou dissec&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas sistem&#225;ticas em seres humanos, com o objetivo de conhecer a anatomia humana<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>. No entanto, tais dissec&#231;&#245;es eram realizadas por um barbeiro. A principal consequ&#234;ncia desta pr&#225;tica incorreta foi a falta de progresso no conhecimento anat&#244;mico. Assim, Mondino da Luzzi acreditava na presen&#231;a de tr&#234;s ventr&#237;culos card&#237;acos. Pior ainda, al&#233;m da presen&#231;a do terceiro ventr&#237;culo, Mondino da Luzzi enfatizou a presen&#231;a de poros no septo interventricular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. Este autor n&#227;o identificou os &#225;trios.</p>
          <p>Berengario de Carpi (1470? -1550 d.C.) foi a m&#233;dico italiano que alterou o conceito de anatomia. Ele p&#244;s-se &#224; mesa cir&#250;rgica e dissecou v&#225;rios cad&#225;veres. Sendo assim, em 1521, ele mostrou claramente a exist&#234;ncia de apenas dois ventr&#237;culos, dois &#225;trios, valvas semilunares e atrioventriculares, e a exist&#234;ncia de m&#250;sculos papilares como componentes do aparato subvalvar. Desta forma, este anatomista recuperou o conhecimento adquirido na Gr&#233;cia antiga e na escola de Alexandria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
          <p>Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1518 d.C.), que provavelmente dissecou cad&#225;veres humanos, atribuiu um significado funcional aos &#225;trios, mostrando que eles contraem quando os ventr&#237;culos se dilatam. Ele enfatizou que o cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; um simples m&#250;sculo, e n&#227;o um lugar de esp&#237;ritos ou ar. Al&#233;m disso, ele forneceu uma imagem detalhada do aparato mitral e descreveu a banda moderadora do ventr&#237;culo direito. No entanto, da Vinci ainda acreditava na exist&#234;ncia de poros no septo interventricular, e adotou o modelo de Galeno sobre a distribui&#231;&#227;o do sangue por todo o corpo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>.</p>
          <p>Miguel Servet (1511-1553 d.C.) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 2</xref>), te&#243;logo treinado em anatomia, descreveu a circula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar em detalhes em poucas p&#225;ginas na obra religiosa <italic>Christianismi Restitutio</italic> (1553), o que levou a sua morte na fogueira em 1553. Servet acreditava que o sangue do ventr&#237;culo direito passava ao lado esquerdo do cora&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s dos capilares pulmonares, e que n&#227;o havia poros no septo interventricular. Al&#233;m disso, o sangue misturava-se com ar nos pulm&#245;es e n&#227;o no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, e utilizou esta informa&#231;&#227;o como base para o seu argumento da mudan&#231;a da cor do sangue que ocorria nos pulm&#245;es, al&#233;m do tamanho da art&#233;ria pulmonar, que era muito maior do que a necess&#225;ria se a fun&#231;&#227;o deste vaso fosse apenas de nutri&#231;&#227;o pulmonar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. Servet acreditava que o sangue passava da art&#233;ria pulmonar para as veias pulmonares atrav&#233;s dos capilares sangu&#237;neos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>. Essas convic&#231;&#245;es foram obtidas atrav&#233;s da pr&#225;tica rotineira de dissec&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica.</p>
          <fig id="f05" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Miguel Servet, que descreveu a circula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar. Semmelweiss Medical History Museum, Budapeste, Hungria. Cortesia do autor (RBB).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-06-0538-40148-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Andrea Vesalius (1514-1564 d.C.), tornou-se o mais c&#233;lebre anatomista do per&#237;odo medieval. Tendo sido contratado para trabalhar na Faculdade de P&#225;dua em 1537, Vesalius realizou varias dissec&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas. A consequ&#234;ncia disso foi a publica&#231;&#227;o do livro <italic>De humani corporis fabrica, libri septem</italic>, em 1543, em que Vesalius corrigiu os in&#250;meros erros cometidos pelos anatomistas precedentes. No que diz respeito ao SCV, Vesalius demonstrou a aus&#234;ncia da   <italic>rede mirabilis</italic> em seres humanos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
          <p>No entanto, na primeira edi&#231;&#227;o do livro <italic>De humani corporis fabrica</italic>, Vesalius n&#227;o faz alus&#227;o &#224; aus&#234;ncia de poros no septo interventricular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>. Foi somente em 1559, depois de Colombo ter apontado a aus&#234;ncia de poros no septo interventricular, que Vesalius definitivamente corrigiu os erros relacionados &#224; anatomia card&#237;aca. Foi ele quem nomeou a valva atrioventricular, que separa o &#225;trio esquerdo do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, de "mitral"<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>.</p>
          <p>Matteo Realdo Colombo (1516-1559 d.C.), em seu livro <italic>De Re Anatomica libri XV</italic> de 1559, ao contr&#225;rio de Vesalius, descreveu corretamente a posi&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica dos rins e demonstrou a circula&#231;&#227;o pulmonar. Ele afirmou que o sangue era transportado do ventr&#237;culo direito &#224; art&#233;ria pulmonar, e a partir dai aos pulm&#245;es, onde o sangue seria atenuado e, juntamente com o ar, seria transportado ao ventr&#237;culo esquerdo atrav&#233;s da veia pulmonar. Ele tamb&#233;m enfatizou a largura da art&#233;ria pulmonar, como Servet havia feito. Colombo nunca mencionou a exist&#234;ncia de poros no septo interventricular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>.</p>
          <p>Tamb&#233;m &#233; discut&#237;vel se Colombo, a exemplo do que tinha acontecido com Servet e Ibn-Nafis, foi influenciado pelo pr&#243;prio Servet. Aparentemente, Servet enviou o rascunho de seu livro a P&#225;dua em 1546. Se Colombo teve acesso a ele &#233; ainda uma quest&#227;o em aberto<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>, e se Colombo teve ou n&#227;o contato com o trabalho de Ibn-Nafis tamb&#233;m &#233; uma quest&#227;o em aberto<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>.</p>
          <p>Com exce&#231;&#227;o de Ant&#244;nio Benivieni, em 1507, poucos cientistas deram aten&#231;&#227;o suficiente &#224;s anomalias anatomopatol&#243;gicas humanas. Colombo descreve curiosamente as anomalias card&#237;acas, o hidrot&#243;rax provavelmente secund&#225;rio a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica descompensada, a endocardite bacteriana, o enfarte do mioc&#225;rdio, e a pericardite cr&#244;nica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>.</p>
          <p>Embora Amatus Lusitanus tenha descrito a exist&#234;ncia de valvas na veia &#225;zigo em 1551, ele forneceu uma explica&#231;&#227;o errada sobre o significado anat&#244;mico dessas estruturas. Desta forma, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, em sua publica&#231;&#227;o seminal de 1603, <italic>De venarum ostiolis</italic>, foi o respons&#225;vel pela descri&#231;&#227;o da presen&#231;a, estrutura, e caracter&#237;sticas anat&#244;micas de tais valvas, e a percep&#231;&#227;o de que elas funcionavam para conter o refluxo sangu&#237;neo. No entanto, Fabricius observou apenas uma conten&#231;&#227;o parcial do refluxo sangu&#237;neo, afirmando que parte do sangue seria distribu&#237;do aos tecidos pelas veias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
          <p>William Harvey foi um disc&#237;pulo de Fabricius na Universidade de P&#225;dua. Levando em considera&#231;&#227;o a descoberta de Fabricius a respeito das v&#225;lvulas venosas, Harvey identificou corretamente a sua fun&#231;&#227;o, ou seja, a de conter o sangue. Isto abriu a perspectiva para a sua descoberta da circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea, muitos anos depois, em 1628.</p>
          <p>O esquema temporal das principais descobertas est&#225; apresentado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 3</xref>.</p>
          <fig id="f06" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Desenvolvimento do conhecimento do sistema cardiovascular atrav&#233;s dos tempos. Painel A) eventos antes de Cristo (a.C.). Painel B) eventos depois de Cristo (d.C.). SIV: septo interventricular.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-06-0538-40148-gf03-pt.tif"/></fig>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Bestetti RB; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Bestetti RB, Restini CBA, Couto LB.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
