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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">XcKSqBhqDcJjK7KMyxJFmzc</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2014002400003</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00003</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20140184</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Special Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Biomarkers in Cardiology &#8211; Part 1 &#8211; In Heart Failure and Specific Cardiomyopathies</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <collab>EXpert Group on Biomarkers</collab>
        </contrib>
        <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica</institution>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica (DCC); Departamento de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (DEIC)</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Departamento de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Marcelo W. Montera</bold>, Estrada do Jo&#225;, 200/301 Bl.2 &#8211; S&#227;o Conrado. Postal Code 22610-142, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil E-mail: <email>mmontera@uol.com.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>103</volume>
      <issue>06</issue>
      <fpage>451</fpage>
      <lpage>459</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>30</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>30</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Cardiovascular diseases are the leading causes of mortality and morbidity in Brazil. The primary and secondary preventions of those diseases are a priority for the health system and require multiple approaches to increase their effectiveness. Biomarkers are tools used to more accurately identify high-risk individuals, to speed the diagnosis, and to aid in treatment and prognosis determination. This review aims to highlight the importance of biomarkers in clinical cardiology practice, and to raise relevant points of their use and the promises for the coming years. This document was divided into two parts, and this first one discusses the use of biomarkers in specific cardiomyopathies and heart failure.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Biological markers</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiomyopathies</kwd>
        <kwd>Evidence-Based Practice</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="51"/>
        <page-count count="9"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Although in the broad sense the term &#8216;biomarkers&#8217; can consist of findings of imaging or functional tests showing deviations from normality, therefore indicating diseases or risk for their development, from the current medical practice viewpoint, biomarkers are considered when measured in bloodstream or secretions.</p>
      <p>Organizing the knowledge on biomarkers and their applicability to medical practice is mandatory. Based on state-of-the-art knowledge, the desirable basic characteristics of a biomarker are easily designed. A biomarker measurement should be easy, rapid, accurate, reproducible, and cost-effective, and the assessing capacity of a novel biomarker should exceed that of clinical processes or already existing biomarkers.</p>
      <p>As a corollary of their development, in addition to serving to screen diseases, biomarkers should contribute to increase diagnosis speed and accuracy, or their measurement should be either the target or the marker of therapeutic response. They should also aid in decision-making, considering that some of them play a predictive role.</p>
      <p>The present paper is an important contribution to cardiology because its writing gathered experts aimed at delineating evidence for the use of currently available biomarkers in the area.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Biomarkers of Heart Failure</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Natriuretic peptides</title>
          <p>Natriuretic peptides &#8211; B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) and N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) &#8211; are considered standard biomarkers in decompensated heart failure (HF). A BNP value &lt; 100 pg/mL practically excludes HF in patients with acute dyspnea<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>, while for a BNP value &gt; 400 pg/mL, that is a likely diagnosis. Other situations (acute ischemic syndrome, renal failure, atrial fibrillation, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary embolism, advanced age) can have BNP within the &#8220;gray zone&#8221;, where its measurement is less accurate. The NT-proBNP cutoff point to exclude the diagnosis of HF is 300 pg/mL, and its cutoff points to diagnose HF for the age groups &lt; 50 years, 50-75 and &gt; 75 years are 450, 900 and 1800 pg/mL, respectively. Natriuretic peptides are influenced by renal function. In patients with clearance &lt;60 mL/min, those cutoff points should be higher. Conversely, obese patients (body mass index &gt; 35) should have lower cutoff points.</p>
          <p>Elevated natriuretic peptide levels on admission indicate worse in-hospital outcome<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. On hospital discharge, BNP measurement (&#8216;dry BNP&#8217;) has a high predictive value for death and new hospitalization.</p>
          <p>In chronic HF, natriuretic peptides have a recognized value in situations of diagnostic doubts for both systolic and diastolic HF, and some studies have shown that their measurement in association with clinical examination increases diagnostic accuracy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. The cutoff points of BNP and NT-proBNP to exclude HF in the outpatient context are 35 pg/mL and 125 pg/mL, respectively.</p>
          <p>In addition, as prognostic markers, their value is recognized. We have observed the following: BNP levels in patients with Chagas disease and HF are high; they are markers of disease severity; and can be used non-invasively to better stratify individuals with Chagas heart disease and HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
          <p>The serial measurement of either BNP or NT-proBNP has been tested as a strategy to guide the outpatient treatment of those with chronic HF. A meta-analysis of eight clinical trials involving 1726 patients has shown a 30% reduction in mortality in the group guided by natriuretic peptides as compared with that of conventional management, especially in individuals younger than 75 years<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. However, there was no reduction in hospitalization rates. A recent study has shown a reduction in major cardiovascular events in patients undergoing NT-proBNP-guided treatment regardless of age<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Troponin</title>
          <p>Troponins are regulatory proteins of the cardiac and skeletal muscle contraction. Cardiac troponin has three subunits: cTnI, cTnC and cTnT. The subunit cTnl is not expressed in skeletal muscle injury, being specific to myocardial injury. Their measurement should be performed to rule acute myocardial infarction (AMI) out as a cause of cardiac decompensation. Mild elevations, in the absence of AMI, can occur, indicating poor prognosis. In the Acute Decompensated Heart Failure National Registry (ADHERE)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>, 5.6% of the 42,636 episodes of decompensated HF had a positive troponin T or I test. Troponin adds value to BNP. Patients with BNP &gt;840 pg/mL and positive for troponin have an in-hospital mortality of 10.2% as compared with only 2.2% of those with BNP &lt;840 pg/mL and normal troponin. Serial measurements seem to increase the prognostic power. Patients with normal troponin on admission and who, on the seventh day of hospitalization, become positive for troponin have a worse outcome than those negative for troponin, and that long-term outcome is similar to that of patients with an altered troponin test on admission<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>High-sensitivity troponins</title>
            <p>Currently there are troponin kits capable of detecting troponin T values as low as 0.003 ng/mL (or 3 pg/mL). There might be some confusion in clinical practice regarding the interpretation of such low troponin levels. To differentiate whether the elevation is due to AMI or minimum cellular damage, such as in acute HF, serial measurements are required. A study on patients with final diagnosis of AMI has reported a variation greater than 117% between the first and second troponin measurements at a 3-hour interval<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Thus, if troponin levels are not increased on the second measurement, the troponin elevation should be considered as resulting from acute HF. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that a detectable troponin level is a sign of poor prognosis, even in the absence of AMI.</p>
            <p>Troponin T is raised in approximately 50% of patients with acutely decompensated HF, and seems to indicate higher severity and increased risk for mortality<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. In the ADHERE registry, involving 84,872 patients, those with high cardiac troponin (4,240 patients, 6.2%) had higher in-hospital mortality as compared with those with normal troponin (8% <italic>versus</italic> 2.7%, p &lt; 0.001) regardless of other predictive factors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. It is worth noting that 40% of patients with elevated troponin had an ejection fraction (EF) higher than 40%.</p>
            <p>In the chronic HF setting, the importance of troponin detection has increased, mainly in myocardial injury assessment, prognostic stratification and in the search for a more optimized clinical treatment. The development of high-sensitivity troponin has increased the accuracy of the detecting method as compared with that of conventional troponin.</p>
            <p>A study assessing 5,284 patients of the Val-HeFT and GISSI-HF trials has shown that, despite low circulating concentrations, changes in serum high-sensitivity troponin are strong predictors of future cardiovascular events in patients with chronic HF, contributing to worsen the prognosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. In another study assessing 876 treated patients with a mean 34% EF, the combination of biomarkers, such as high-sensitivity troponin and NT-proBNP, has been used to establish mortality along with other risk factors. It has concluded that adding the measurement of high-sensitivity troponin and NT-proBNP to a model including known risk factors can improve the prognostic stratification of mortality<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>.</p>
            <p>High troponin levels (&gt; 99th percentile) are frequently found in stable patients with HF followed up at outpatient clinics, particularly when high-sensitivity assays are used, and they are associated with high likelihood of future adverse events. In that scenario, its predictive capacity does not depend on the measurement of natriuretic peptides. However, there are no studies assessing specific interventions for patients with chronic HF and high troponin levels.</p>
            <p>A study with 1,089 patients with no history of HF, valvular disease or left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy has shown that high levels of cTnI were associated with the risk of developing HF. The cTnI has predicted HF in individuals with no ischemic etiology. The cutoff point of 0.04 ug/L best identified patients at risk for developing HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
            <p>The usefulness of the routine assessment of troponin levels in patients with HF with preserved EF (HFPEF), as well as the therapeutic approach and correct diagnosis for raised troponin levels in patients with non-acute coronary syndrome, requires further assessment.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>C-reactive protein and micronutrients</title>
          <p>C-reactive protein (CRP) is an easily measured biomarker of acute and chronic inflammation, whose prognostic value has been widely demonstrated in HF.</p>
          <p>Mueller et al. have reported that patients in the highest CRP tertile have higher in-hospital mortality than those in the first tertile (15% vs 2%). The accumulated mortality rates in up to 24 months for the first, second and third CRP tertiles were 33.5%, 42.4% and 53.6%, respectively<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. In a Brazilian study, patients with CRP &gt; 3.0 mg/dL on admission (excluding those with manifest infection) had higher mortality in a mean 12.4-month follow-up as compared with those with CRP below that value<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. Thus, CRP acts as a marker of mortality during hospitalization and after discharge of patients with decompensated acute HF. Similarly, high CRP also predicts the risk of cardiovascular events in individuals with chronic HF in the outpatient context. A large study on the impact of CRP on morbidity and mortality in chronic HF has been published by the CORONA trial researchers. Of 4,000 patients with HF, those with high CRP levels had characteristics of severe syndrome, such as low EF, high prevalence of New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional class III/IV, poor quality of life and worse neurohormonal profile<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Although there are numerous studies supporting the role of CRP in prognostic stratification, its routine measurement is not recommended in any HF clinical scenario, because high levels of that marker determine no specific therapy. However, it is worth noting that CRP elevation is particularly common in acute HF and can help the diagnosis of infections, which often cause clinical decompensation or coexist with it.</p>
          <p>Micronutrients, such as coenzyme Q10, L-carnitine, thiamine, amino acids, vitamins (A, D and E), zinc and selenium, are defined as essential cofactors for energy transfer, biochemical maintenance and cardiac function. Several studies have suggested that those micronutrients can contribute to the HF pathophysiology, influencing pathological ventricular remodeling<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Severe selenium and thiamine deficiencies are reversible causes of HF. Although the levels of micronutrients, such as thiamine, coenzyme Q-10 and L-carnitine, can be reduced in patients with acute HF, there is no large randomized study demonstrating the benefits of their replacement. In addition, recent observational studies have suggested that vitamin D deficiency is an independent marker of worse prognosis in HF in the outpatient context, and that its supplementation has a clinical benefit<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. Considering that most studies on micronutrients are observational and have a small case series, their measurement is not routinely recommended in HF.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Galectin</title>
          <p>Heart failure remains one of the most prevalent and challenging clinical conditions in cardiology, with high mortality in both its acute and chronic forms, mainly in individuals older than 65 years. As the early identification of the increased risk of HF patients can affect their outcomes, biomarkers begin to be recognized for diagnostic and prognostic purposes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>.</p>
          <p>Experimental and clinical studies have associated galectin-3 with myocardial hypertrophy, reporting its stimulating effect on cell migration, fibroblast proliferation and fibrosis development.</p>
          <p>A study assessing galectin-3 in patients with acute dyspnea at the emergency room has reported higher galectin-3 levels in patients with acute dyspnea due to HF than in those with dyspnea due to other causes. In addition, it was the best independent predictor of 60-day mortality or of the combined outcome of death and relapse, even after correction for age, sex, BNP, renal function and diabetes mellitus<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>.</p>
          <p>The DEAL-HF study, following up 232 patients with HF and NYHA functional class II-IV for 6.5 years, has concluded that galectin-3 is an important predictor of mortality risk when adjusted for sex, age, HF severity, and renal dysfunction, being, thus, a prognostic marker<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>.</p>
          <p>In addition, high galectin-3 levels have been reported to associate with echocardiographic ventricular remodeling characteristics and to predict mortality in patients with severe chronic HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.</p>
          <p>The predictive value of galectin-3 seems to be stronger in patients with HFPEF than in those with HF and reduced EF. Galectin-3 measurement in chronic HF in the outpatient setting is considered experimental.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarkers in viral and non-viral myocarditis</title>
          <p>The biomarkers of myocardial damage can be increased in a small group of patients with acute myocarditis, but they can help the diagnosis. Troponin I is a biomarker that reflects the existence of myocardial necrosis in the course of an inflammatory process, and can be increased in at least 50% of the biopsy-confirmed viral myocarditis cases. Troponin I has 89% specificity and 34% sensitivity in adults with acute myocarditis, but, in the pediatric population, troponin T has 83% specificity and 71% sensitivity. Troponin is more often present than CK-MB, which is elevated in only 5.7% of patients with biopsy-confirmed viral myocarditis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Promising biomarkers</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Exhaled acetone in heart failure</title>
            <p>Recently, a Brazilian study has confirmed that exhaled acetone is increased in patients with HF as compared with healthy individuals, and that is even higher in decompensated patients admitted to the clinical emergency than in compensated patients. That study has also reported that the new biomarker correlates positively with BNP in both compensated and decompensated HF patients, and that it increases progressively with the NYHA functional class. Therefore, exhaled acetone is a new and promising non-invasive biomarker of HF diagnosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Specific Cardiomyopathies</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Genetic Biomarkers in Cardiology</title>
          <p>Inherited cardiovascular diseases, cardiomyopathies and channelopathies have familial presentation, being caused by gene mutations. Those diseases have highly variable clinical characteristics, with phenotype overlapping in several cases, the genetic diagnosis being, thus, useful to individualize the diagnosis, predict disease progression and guide therapy.</p>
          <p>As a rule, genetic tests should not be ordered without signing the written informed consent, and should be accompanied by genetic counselling before and after testing.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>Genetic tests in cardiovascular diseases</title>
            <p>Inherited cardiovascular diseases are usually monogenic (one single genetic variant is responsible for the disease, usually with a Mendelian inheritance), even when a substantial proportion of affected patients has more than one pathogenic variant. That group includes cardiomyopathies (hypertrophic, dilated, restrictive, arrhythmogenic, and non-compacted), channelopathies (long and short QT syndromes, Brugada syndrome, catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, inherited conduction disorders), and the inherited diseases that affect the aorta (Marfan, Loeys-Dietz, familial aneurysms of the thoracic aorta).</p>
            <p>Those conditions share the percent increased risk for sudden death of young and athletic individuals and of older patients, and can be asymptomatic. Although clinicians should be aware of the genetic testing limitations, considering that not all mutations have been identified, current tests already assess the most prevalent gene mutations.</p>
            <p>The frequency of detection of mutations by use of genetic testing is different for each type of disease, being as follows: 75% for channelopathies; 60% for hypertrophic cardiomyopathies; and 5%-20% for dilated cardiomyopathy.</p>
            <p>Recently the European and North American Societies of Cardiac Arrhythmia have developed guidelines for the adequate use of genetic tests in cardiomyopathies and channelopathies (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Tables 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">2</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. Regarding channelopathies, the guidelines recommend changes in the therapeutic management when certain genetic changes are detected, determining progressive incorporation of genetic tests into clinical practice.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t01">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for genetic testing in cardiomyopathies (<italic>Adapted from Ackerman et al</italic>. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>)</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Panel targeted to HCM (beta-myosin heavy chain gene, myosin binding protein C gene and troponin T gene)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> &#8211; The patient clinically diagnosed with HCM based on clinical and family history, as well as on the electrocardiographic/echocardiographic phenotype;  </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#8211; In family members, after confirming the specific mutation in the index case.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Dysplasia/ Cardiomyopathy (ARVD/CM)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Panel targeted to ARVD/CM (Mutations in PKP2, DSC2, DSG2, DSP, JUP and TMEM43 genes)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> &#8211; Any patient clinically suspected of having ARVD/D based on clinical and family history, as well as on the electrocardiographic/echocardiographic phenotype;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#8211; In family members after identifying an ARVD/D-associated mutation in an index case.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Dilated Cardiomyopathy (DCM)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Comprehensive panel or targeted to DCM (LMNA and SCN5A genes and others)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> &#8211; Patients with DCM and significant cardiac conduction defect (such as first-, second- and third-degree heart block) and/or family history of early sudden death;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#8211; Genetic testing with investigation of specific mutations in family members after identifying a DCM-associated mutation in an index case.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Progressive Cardiac Conduction Defect (CCD)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Panel targeted to CCD (specific mutations in SCN5A or Lamin A/C genes)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#8211; As part of the diagnostic algorithm in patients with isolated CCD or CCD with congenital heart disease, in the presence of documented family history of CCD.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> &#8211; In family members after identifying a CCD-associated mutation in an index case.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t02">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recommendations for genetic testing in hereditary channelopathies (<italic>Adapted from Ackerman et al</italic>. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>)</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <thead>
                  <tr align="left">
                    <th>Long QT Syndrome (LQTS)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Panel targeted to LQT1-3 (mutations in KCNQ1, KCNH2 and SCN5A genes)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> &#8211; Any patient to whom a cardiologist has established a strong diagnostic suspicion of LQTS based on clinical and family history, as well as on the electrocardiographic phenotype (12-lead ECG at rest and/or exercise test or dobutamine stress test); any asymptomatic patient with QT prolongation in the absence of other clinical condition that can prolong that interval (such as electrolyte abnormalities, hypertrophy, block, considered idiopathic) based on ECG with 12 serial leads defined as QTc &gt;480 ms (pre-puberty) or &gt;500 ms (adults);  </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#8211; In family members after identifying a LQTS-associated mutation in an index case.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Catecholaminergic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia (CPVT)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Panel targeted to CPVT1 or 2 (mutations in RYR2 and CASQ2 genes)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> &#8211; Any patient clinically suspected of having CPVT based on clinical and family history, as well as on the electrocardiographic phenotype (bicycle or treadmill exercise test or dobutamine stress test);</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#8211; In family members after identifying a CPVT-associated mutation in an index case.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Brugada Syndrome (BrS)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Panel targeted to BrS (Specific mutation in the SCN5A gene)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> &#8211; Comprehensive panel for BrS (SCN5A gene mutations): recommended for any patient clinically suspected of having BrS based on clinical and family history, as well as on the electrocardiographic phenotype (12-lead ECG at rest and/or dobutamine stress test). Genetic testing is NOT indicated in the context of an isolated type 2 or type 3 Brugada ECG pattern.  </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#8211; In family members after identifying a BrS-associated mutation in an index case.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Short QT Syndromes (SQTS)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>
                      <bold>Panel targeted to SQTS (Specific mutations in KCNQ1, KCNJ2 and KCNH2 genes)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#8211; Any patient to whom a cardiologist has established a strong diagnostic suspicion of SQTS based on clinical and family history, as well as on the electrocardiographic phenotype.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td> &#8211; In family members after identifying an SQTS-associated mutation in an index case.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Restrictive Cardiomyopathies</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Amyloidosis</title>
            <p>Of the restrictive cardiomyopathies, amyloidosis has the highest correlation with biomarkers in literature. It is characterized by heterogeneous disorders caused by extracellular deposition of fibrillar proteins, with two major cardiac forms.</p>
            <sec>
              <title>Light-chain or primary systemic amyloidosis</title>
              <p>Light-chain amyloidosis is acquired, related to bone marrow changes, two thirds of the affected patients are of the male sex, and most of them are older than 50 years. Treatment outcome and prognosis are highly dependent on cardiac involvement and severity. The treatment outcomes of patients with similar clinical presentations vary greatly, which is partially related to the subjectivity of the heart involvement assessment. Thus, developing risk classification systems became essential, especially associating the use of cardiac troponins and BNP.</p>
              <p>a) Troponins: Several studies on troponin I or T of patients with systemic amyloidosis have shown that those proteins are often detectable in cardiac disease and associate with survival. A recent study has shown that plasma high-sensitivity troponin levels of patients with light-chain amyloidosis are invariably associated with the cardiac involvement severity, even in patients with insignificant troponin release, and are likely to improve early diagnosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. Its association with NT-proBNP has proved to be useful for therapeutic follow-up and prognosis.</p>
              <p>b) Natriuretic peptides: Several studies have demonstrated the efficacy of natriuretic peptides in predicting cardiac involvement in amyloidosis even before the presence of ventricular dysfunction on echocardiography, suggesting that their variation is due not only to the elevation of ventricular filling pressures, but also correlates with myocyte damage resulting from the extracellular amyloid deposition<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. BNP and NT-proBNP seem to be sensitive biomarkers of myocardial dysfunction and prognosis. A recent analysis of renal failure has shown the need to use higher NT-proBNP and BNP cutoff points to detect cardiac involvement and to assess prognosis in that group. Both natriuretic peptides are independent prognostic markers, but only BNP has maintained its acuity in end-stage renal disease patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>.</p>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Transthyretin amyloidosis</title>
            <p>Transthyretin amyloidosis is related to a molecule produced by the liver, transthyretin. There are two types: a genetic/inherited form, and a non-inherited form, resulting from the breakdown of normal transthyretin molecules. The latter is called senile systemic amyloidosis and affects mainly men from the seventh decade of life on. Apparently, it is less harmful to myocytes than the systemic form, which is justified by the mild change in troponins T and I, as well as the unchanged echocardiographic pattern. In that context, BNP seems to be a sensitive marker of HF and could be useful for the purpose of follow-up<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Differential diagnosis between pericarditis and restrictive cardiomyopathy</title>
            <p>The clinical distinction between restrictive cardiomyopathy and constrictive pericarditis is difficult, representing a diagnostic challenge. A small recent series has shown that BNP levels are markedly high in patients with restrictive cardiomyopathy and NYHA functional class III or IV, while, in patients with similar clinical findings and constrictive pericarditis, BNP levels are much lower<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. However, BNP levels vary with the different etiologies of restrictive cardiomyopathy and constrictive pericarditis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>, requiring new studies to assess whether the BNP/proBNP ratio plays a potential role in that scenario and in variations, such as associated renal disease.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Endomyocardial fibrosis</title>
            <p>The measurement of NT-proBNP as a biomarker has been assessed in some studies, which have shown its increased serum levels in endomyocardial fibrosis as compared with a normal control group<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>.</p>
            <p>Although scarce, studies have shown that measuring natriuretic peptides can be useful for the diagnosis, follow-up and prognosis of restrictive cardiomyopathy, especially amyloidosis (in association with troponins or not), endomyocardial fibrosis and pericardial diseases.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Prognostic Biomarkers in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy</title>
          <sec>
            <title>B-type natriuretic peptide</title>
            <p>In hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, the mechanism leading to an increase in BNP levels is myocyte stretching related to myocyte hypertrophy and disarrangement, in addition to hemodynamic changes related to LV outflow tract obstruction, increased LV filling pressure and myocardial ischemia.</p>
            <p>Studies on BNP in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy have shown that high BNP levels correlate with the intensity of symptoms (dyspnea) and NYHA functional class, presence and degree of LV diastolic dysfunction, LV systolic dysfunction, LV hypertrophy degree and LV outflow tract gradient. High BNP levels can also associate with the presence of myocardial late enhancement imaging (fibrosis) in patients with symptomatic sustained ventricular tachycardia.</p>
            <p>Studies on prognosis are scarce. Kitaoka et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>, assessing the outcomes of cardiac death and hospitalization in 130 patients (mean age, 60 years; mean follow-up, 3.7 years), have observed that BNP was not a predictor, its use for prognostic assessment being, thus, limited. Pieroni et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>, following 40 patients (mean age, 42 years) up for six years, have reported that 10 patients who progressed to the dilated form had a significant increase in plasma and myocardial BNP levels as compared with previous values. That fact correlated significantly with the elevation in LV end-diastolic pressure.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide</title>
            <p>Comparative studies have shown that both methods (BNP and NT-proBNP measurements) are similar regarding systolic and diastolic heart function assessment. The study using NT-proBNP as a diagnostic marker in family members with hypertrophic heart disease confirmed on echocardiography and genetic testing has shown high sensitivity and specificity as compared with electrocardiography<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. The prospective multicenter study by D&#8217;Amato et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>, assessing the prognostic value of NT-proBNP in 128 patients (mean age, 50 years; mean follow-up, 4 years), has reported that NT-proBNP predicted events related to HF and not to cardiac mortality.</p>
            <p>The genetic study of mutations in beta-myosin heavy chain gene, myosin binding protein C gene and troponin T gene, which account for two thirds of mutations, is currently performed at Brazilian research centers and tertiary referral hospitals. It is recommended for the index case and relatives after providing written informed consent. It helps the diagnosis in cases of doubt and mainly in descendants to define those with the mutation, considering that they might not develop the disease.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers in Chagas Disease</title>
          <p>In Chagas disease, predicting the factors that correlate with disease progression, morbidity and mortality to aid in decision-making, follow-up and treatment of that complex disease is a challenge. A simple, quantitative and inexpensive risk biomarker, which adds value to conventional methods, is required to help in the diagnosis and prognosis of patients with chagasic HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
          <p>The natriuretic peptide family and cardiac troponins are currently the most promising tools. Thus, the identification and risk stratification of patients with   <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection, with or without apparent heart disease, is paramount to decision-making and treatment.</p>
          <p>There are no clinical randomized studies assessing the role of biomarkers in patients with Chagas disease. Consequently, their measurement is not routinely indicated to assess that disease. However, there are specific clinical circumstances under which those markers can estimate prognosis and help the diagnosis and early treatment.</p>
          <p>Some studies have assessed natriuretic peptides (ANP and BNP) and shown that those biomarkers have diagnostic and prognostic power in patients with several forms of Chagas disease, with and without HF, and even in asymptomatic individuals. A cohort of 110 patients with Chagas disease, with and without heart disease, has been clinically assessed and the natriuretic peptides (ANP and BNP) were analyzed<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>. Patients were followed up for as long as three years, when the outcomes &#8216;death&#8217; and &#8216;need for cardiac transplantation&#8217; were assessed. Mild elevations in ANP (&gt; 47.6 pg/mL) and BNP (&gt; 62.6 pg/ml) levels could predict those outcomes. In addition, the levels of those peptides were higher in patients with chagasic HF than in those with dilated cardiomyopathy of other etiologies for the same functional class of HF. The ANP and BNP levels were also high in asymptomatic patients with Chagas disease and no evidence of ventricular dysfunction, and had a high predictive value for the outcomes analyzed<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pericardial Diseases</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Etiological diagnosis and activity of acute pericarditis</title>
            <sec>
              <title>Therapeutic response monitoring and clinical outcome</title>
              <p>Pericarditis is an inflammatory disease, thus the use of biomarkers that identify pericardial injury is fundamental to the diagnosis and clinical follow-up of patients.</p>
              <p>Most patients with pericardial impairment have an increase in CRP levels. Those, who initially have normal CRP levels, eventually develop an elevation. False negative results are present in patients on anti-inflammatory drugs and in those with myocarditis. Measuring and monitoring CRP until normalization are required for the removal of the drugs used in acute pericarditis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>.</p>
              <p>Imazzio et al, prospectively assessing 200 patients with viral and idiopathic acute pericarditis, have measured their CRP levels on presentation and every week until normalization. CRP was increased in 156 patients (78%) and negative in 44, the possible causes being: initial early measurement, in 15 patients (34%); and previous use of anti-inflammatory drugs, in 22 (50%). The CRP levels normalized as follows: 60% of patients in the first week; 85% in the second week; 95% in the third week; and 100% in the fourth week. Persistent CRP elevation after one week was considered a risk factor for recurrence<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>.</p>
              <p>The implication of that information, according to those authors, is that the treatment with anti-inflammatory drugs from one to two weeks is empirical, and approximately 40% of patients after the first week still have high CRP levels and would benefit from a more prolonged attack dose.</p>
              <p>Another sensitive and highly specific marker for cardiac injury is troponin I. A retrospective single-center study has shown increased troponin I levels in 49% of 69 patients with acute pericarditis, values over the threshold for myocardial infarction being observed in 22%. Troponin I elevation was almost exclusively present in patients with ST-segment elevation, and those with higher values were young and had recent infection. Troponin elevation in those patients suggests myocardial lesion associated with acute pericardial inflammation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>.</p>
              <p>Another study has reported troponin I elevation in 32.2% of 118 consecutive patients, associated with early age (32 years), male sex, ST-segment elevation (97.4%), and pericardial effusion on presentation (86.8%). In that study, troponin was measured on admission, every 6 hours in the first 24 hours from symptom onset, and, then, daily. An increase over the threshold for myocardial infarction was observed in 7.2%. Two patterns of troponin I elevation were observed: mild troponin I elevation (0.4 ng/mL) without CKMB elevation for 3 days; and greater troponin I elevation (1.5 ng/mL), similar to the threshold for myocardial infarction, associated with CKMB elevation and segmentary echocardiographic abnormalities. All patients had normal coronary arteries on coronary angiography, the change resulting from myopericarditis. The authors have attributed the longer duration of troponin I elevation to more severe myocardial impairment. Despite the different time patterns of troponin progression, the complications were similar between both groups<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Etiological diagnosis and activity of chronic and constrictive pericarditis</title>
            <p>Pericarditis, with or without chronic pericardial effusion, can progress slowly and even lead to tamponade. Constrictive pericarditis results from chronic inflammation of the pericardium, which becomes thick and calcified, leading to restriction of diastolic ventricular filling, decreased systolic volume and low cardiac output. Viral infection, tuberculosis, connective tissue diseases, neoplasms, previous heart surgery, metabolic diseases and radiotherapy are frequent causes of the disease, which can manifest differently according to the location, extension and severity of pericardial thickening or effusion.</p>
            <p>Because the prognosis varies depending on the cause of pericarditis, etiological assessment is important. In that scenario, etiological biomarkers can be used:</p>
            <p>a) Tuberculosis: in pericardial fluid, and, thus, only in cases of pericardial effusion, adenosine deaminase (ADA) activity &#8805; 40 U/L has 89% sensitivity and 72% specificity, being thus a good etiological marker. Other markers in pericardial fluid: lysoenzyme &gt; 6.5 &#956;g/dL has 100% sensitivity and 91% specificity; and interferon &#947; &gt; 200 pg/mL has sensitivity and specificity of up to 100%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>.</p>
            <p>b) Connective tissue diseases: those most often leading to chronic pericardial effusion are: systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjogren syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic scleroderma, Behcet syndrome, Mediterranean familial fever and systemic vasculitis. Markers of acute inflammation, such as erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), CRP and alpha1-glycoprotein acid, can aid the diagnosis of inflammation, mainly when persistently increased. Antinuclear antibody (ANA) titles &#8805; 1/640 can suggest connective tissue diseases associated with the rheumatoid factor (RF), whose sensitivity and specificity depend on the underlying disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. Other tests can be used, depending on the rheumatological disease in question.</p>
            <p>c) Neoplasms: when measured in pericardial fluid, carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) levels &gt; 5 ng/mL have maximum sensitivity and specificity of 75% and 100%, respectively, for the diagnosis of malignant effusion<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>. Other markers, such as alpha-fetoprotein, CA19-9, CA125, CA72 and CA 15-3, should be measured in the pericardial fluid when malignant effusion is suspected.</p>
            <p>Measuring BNP or NT-proBNP can be useful for differential diagnosis and follow-up. The increase of those markers in patients with constrictive pericarditis, as well as their correlation with echocardiographic rates that assess diastolic function, has been well defined<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. In the post-pericardiectomy follow-up of patients with constrictive pericarditis, BNP can be used to assess the results and diastolic function improvement. NT-proBNP has proved to correlate with the severity of clinical decompensation, and values &gt; 436 ng/L are associated with tamponade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>. In the differential diagnosis between constrictive pericarditis and restrictive myocardial syndromes, BNP can be useful, with much higher levels in the latter. However, data derive from studies with small populations and are controversial in constrictive pericarditis, while in pericardial effusion they seem much more consistent, although a cutoff point has not been well established. A single study has defined the NT-proBNP level of 800 pg/mL as cutoff to differentiate between restrictive cardiomyopathy and constrictive pericarditis, the former having higher levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>.</p>
            <p>Currently, there are few methods to predict reversibility with treatment based on anti-inflammatory drugs. A pilot study with 29 patients has shown that those with higher serum levels of CRP and ESR usually progress to reversibility with anti-inflammatory therapy. However, those data still need to be confirmed in cohorts with larger samples<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>.</p>
            <p>In addition, CRP has been suggested for the differential diagnosis between constrictive pericarditis and restrictive cardiomyopathies, and a cutoff of 0.57 mg/dL has been proposed, with higher levels in pericardial disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
            <p>Anti-heart antibodies (AHA) and anti-intercalated disk antibodies (AIDA) can be used to assess the risk for recurrent pericarditis, and have been observed in as much as 70% of patients with that clinical condition. A higher risk for recurrence is suggested by AHA titles &#8805; 1/80<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Funding disclosure statement</title>
        <p>Abbot Diagn&#243;sticos do Brasil has provided financial support to the expert group meeting; however, that company had no participation in this scientific paper writing and publication.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Complete list of authors</title>
        <p>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita, RJ; Marcelo Westerlund Montera, RJ; Jo&#227;o David de Souza Neto, CE; Sabrina Bernardez-Pereira, SP; Aguinaldo F. Freitas Jr., GO; Andr&#233; Volschan, RJ; Andreia Biolo, RS; Antonio Carlos Bacelar Nunes Filho, SP; Antonio Carlos Palandri Chagas, SP; Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge, RJ; Dirceu Rodrigues Almeida, SP; Edmundo Arteaga, SP; Edval Gomes dos Santos Junior, BA; Fabio Fernandes, SP; F&#233;lix Jos&#233; Alvares Ramires, SP; Fernando Bacal, SP; Flavio Tarasoutshi, SP; Gilson Soares Feitosa, BA; Humberto Villacorta Junior, RJ; Jo&#227;o Fernando Monteiro Ferreira, SP; Jos&#233; Mauro Vieira Junior, RJ; Lidia Ana Zytynski Moura, PR; Lucas Jos&#233; Tachoti Pires, SP; Luis Claudio Lemos Correia, BA; Luis Eduardo Paim Rohde, RS; Marcelo Rivas, SP; Maria da Consola&#231;&#227;o V. Moreira, MG; Sergio Emanuel Kaiser, RJ; Silvia Moreira Ayub Ferreira, SP; Silvia Marinho Martins, PE; Tania Lema da Rocha Martinez, SP.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by ABBOT Diagn&#243;sticos do Brasil</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Biomarcadores em Cardiologia &#8211; Parte 1 &#8211; Na insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca e nas Cardiomiopatias Espec&#237;ficas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <collab>Grupo de Especialistas em Biomarcadores</collab>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica</institution>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica (DCC); Departamento de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (DEIC)</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff04">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Departamento de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Marcelo W. Montera</bold>, Estrada do Jo&#225;, 200/301 Bl.2 &#8211; S&#227;o Conrado. CEP 22610-142, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil E-mail:   <email>mmontera@uol.com.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract xml:lang="pt">
        <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares s&#227;o as principais causas de mortalidade e morbidade no Brasil. As preven&#231;&#245;es prim&#225;ria e secund&#225;ria dessas doen&#231;as s&#227;o priorit&#225;rias para o sistema de sa&#250;de e requerem m&#250;ltiplas abordagens para aumentar sua efic&#225;cia. Os biomarcadores s&#227;o ferramentas utilizadas para identificar com mais precis&#227;o indiv&#237;duos de alto risco, diagnosticar com mais rapidez, assim como auxiliar no tratamento e na determina&#231;&#227;o do progn&#243;stico. Esta revis&#227;o tem por objetivo ressaltar a import&#226;ncia dos biomarcadores na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica da cardiologia, assim como levantar os pontos relevantes de sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o e o que h&#225; de promissor para os pr&#243;ximos anos. Nesse sentido, este documento foi dividido em duas partes. Esta primeira parte aborda a utiliza&#231;&#227;o dos biomarcadores na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e nas cardiomiopatias espec&#237;ficas.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Marcadores Biol&#243;gicos</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatias</kwd>
        <kwd>Pr&#225;tica Cl&#237;nica Baseada em Evid&#234;ncias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Embora, no senso amplo, o termo &#8216;biomarcadores&#8217; possa se constituir de achados de imagem ou testes funcionais que demonstrem desvios da normalidade, sendo assim denunciadores de doen&#231;a ou de risco para o seu desenvolvimento, no sentido da pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica atual, os biomarcadores s&#227;o considerados quando medidos no sangue circulante ou em secre&#231;&#245;es.</p>
        <p>Faz-se mister ordenar o conhecimento e a sua aplicabilidade &#224; pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica. Caracter&#237;sticas b&#225;sicas desej&#225;veis de um biomarcador s&#227;o f&#225;ceis de serem delineadas de acordo com os conhecimentos atuais. Ele deve ser de f&#225;cil e r&#225;pida mensura&#231;&#227;o, de forma acurada e reprodut&#237;vel, a um custo razo&#225;vel e apresentar qualidade avaliadora que suplante com vantagens os processos cl&#237;nicos ou os biomarcadores j&#225; existentes.</p>
        <p>Como corol&#225;rio de seu desenvolvimento, os biomarcadores, al&#233;m de servirem ao rastreamento de doen&#231;as, poder&#227;o contribuir para maior rapidez e precis&#227;o no diagn&#243;stico ou eventualmente ter&#227;o sua mensura&#231;&#227;o como alvo ou marcador de resposta terap&#234;utica, al&#233;m de auxiliarem na tomada de decis&#245;es, levando-se em conta o papel preditivo de alguns deles.</p>
        <p>O presente documento traz uma grande contribui&#231;&#227;o &#224; comunidade cardiol&#243;gica quando re&#250;ne especialistas que tra&#231;am um retrato adequado das evid&#234;ncias existentes para aplica&#231;&#227;o dos biomarcadores atualmente dispon&#237;veis na &#225;rea.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Biomarcadores da Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Pept&#237;deos Natriur&#233;ticos (BNP e NT-proBNP)</title>
            <p>Os pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos &#8211; pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico tipo B (BNP) e fra&#231;&#227;o amino terminal do proBNP (NT-proBNP) &#8211; s&#227;o considerados biomarcadores padr&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) descompensada. Um valor de BNP &lt; 100 pg/mL praticamente exclui IC em pacientes com dispneia aguda<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. Acima de 400 pg/mL, o diagn&#243;stico &#233; prov&#225;vel. Outras situa&#231;&#245;es (s&#237;ndrome isqu&#234;mica aguda, insufici&#234;ncia renal, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica, embolia pulmonar, idosos) podem cursar com BNP dentro da &#8220;zona cinzenta&#8221;, onde o exame &#233; menos acurado. O corte de NT-proBNP para excluir o diagn&#243;stico &#233; 300 pg/mL e os cortes para diagnosticar a IC para as faixas et&#225;rias &lt; 50 anos, 50-75 e &gt; 75 anos s&#227;o, respectivamente, 450, 900 e 1800 pg/mL. Os pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos sofrem influ&#234;ncia da fun&#231;&#227;o renal. Em pacientes com <italic>clearance</italic> &lt; 60 mL/min, esses cortes devem ser mais altos. De modo inverso, pacientes obesos (&#237;ndice de massa corporal &gt; 35) devem ter cortes mais baixos.</p>
            <p>Pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos elevados &#224; admiss&#227;o indicam pior evolu&#231;&#227;o hospitalar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. A dosagem por ocasi&#227;o da alta hospitalar (BNP seco) tem alto valor na predi&#231;&#227;o de morte e nova hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
            <p>Na IC cr&#244;nica, os pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos t&#234;m seu valor reconhecido nas situa&#231;&#245;es de d&#250;vidas diagn&#243;sticas tanto na IC sist&#243;lica como diast&#243;lica, e alguns estudos mostram que a sua dosagem associada ao exame cl&#237;nico aumenta a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. Os valores de corte para excluir IC no contexto ambulatorial s&#227;o 35 pg/mL para BNP e 125 pg/mL para NT-proBNP.</p>
            <p>Como marcadores progn&#243;sticos, seu valor tamb&#233;m &#233; reconhecido. Em nosso meio, observou-se o seguinte: n&#237;veis de BNP em pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas e IC s&#227;o elevados; s&#227;o marcadores de severidade da doen&#231;a; e podem ser usados n&#227;o invasivamente para estratificar melhor o portador de cardiopatia chag&#225;sica com IC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
            <p>A dosagem seriada de BNP ou NT-proBNP vem sendo testada como estrat&#233;gia para guiar o tratamento ambulatorial de pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica. Meta-an&#225;lise de oito ensaios cl&#237;nicos envolvendo 1.726 pacientes mostrou redu&#231;&#227;o de 30% na mortalidade no grupo guiado por pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos em compara&#231;&#227;o ao manuseio convencional, especialmente em indiv&#237;duos abaixo de 75 anos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. N&#227;o houve, no entanto, redu&#231;&#227;o nas taxas de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Estudo recente demonstrou redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares maiores em pacientes com tratamento guiado por NT-proBNP independentemente da idade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Troponina</title>
            <p>Troponinas s&#227;o prote&#237;nas que participam do processo de contra&#231;&#227;o dos m&#250;sculos card&#237;aco e esquel&#233;tico. A troponina card&#237;aca &#233; composta por tr&#234;s subunidades: cTnI, cTnC e cTnT. A cTnl n&#227;o &#233; expressa pela inj&#250;ria da musculatura esquel&#233;tica, sendo espec&#237;fica para a inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica. Devem ser solicitadas para excluir infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) como causa da descompensa&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Pequenas eleva&#231;&#245;es, na aus&#234;ncia de IAM, podem ocorrer, indicando mau progn&#243;stico. No registro ADHERE (<italic>Acute Decompensated Heart Failure National Registry</italic>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>troponina T ou I positiva estava presente em 5,6% dos 42.636 epis&#243;dios de IC descompensada. A troponina adiciona valor ao BNP. Pacientes com BNP &gt; 840 pg/mL e troponina positiva apresentaram mortalidade hospitalar de 10,2% comparados a apenas 2,2% naqueles com BNP &lt; 840 pg/mL e troponina normal. Dosagens seriadas parecem aumentar o poder progn&#243;stico. Pacientes com troponina admissional normal e que positivam a troponina por volta do s&#233;timo dia de interna&#231;&#227;o t&#234;m pior evolu&#231;&#227;o do que aqueles com troponina negativa, sendo essa evolu&#231;&#227;o de longo prazo semelhante &#224; daquele que apresenta o exame alterado &#224; admiss&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
            <sec>
              <title>Troponinas de alta sensibilidade</title>
              <p>Hoje existem <italic>kits</italic> de troponina que conseguem detectar valores t&#227;o baixos quanto 0,003 ng/mL (ou 3 pg/mL) de troponina T. Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, pode haver alguma confus&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; interpreta&#231;&#227;o desses valores. Para diferenciar se a eleva&#231;&#227;o se deve a IAM ou a dano celular m&#237;nimo, como na IC aguda, &#233; necess&#225;rio realizar dosagem seriada. Em um estudo, pacientes com diagn&#243;stico final de IAM apresentaram varia&#231;&#227;o da troponina entre a primeira e a segunda dosagem, com intervalo de 3 horas, maior que 117%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Portanto, se n&#227;o h&#225; aumento dos valores na segunda dosagem, deve-se considerar que a eleva&#231;&#227;o &#233; decorrente da IC aguda, devendo-se ter em mente, no entanto, que troponina detect&#225;vel &#233; sinal de mau progn&#243;stico, mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de IAM.</p>
              <p>Troponina T est&#225; elevada em cerca de 50% dos pacientes com IC agudamente descompensada e parece indicar maior gravidade e maior risco de mortalidade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. Na an&#225;lise do registro ADHERE, envolvendo 84.872 pacientes, aqueles com troponina card&#237;aca elevada (4.240 pacientes, 6,2%) apresentaram maior mortalidade intra-hospitalar quando comparados &#224;queles com troponina normal (8%   <italic>versus</italic> 2,7%, p &lt; 0,001) independentemente de outros fatores preditivos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Vale ressaltar que 40% dos pacientes com troponina elevada apresentavam fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (FE) maior do que 40%.</p>
              <p>No cen&#225;rio da IC cr&#244;nica, tem crescido a import&#226;ncia da detec&#231;&#227;o da troponina principalmente na avalia&#231;&#227;o da inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica e na estratifica&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica, como tamb&#233;m na busca de um tratamento cl&#237;nico mais otimizado. O desenvolvimento da troponina de alta sensibilidade aumentou a acur&#225;cia do m&#233;todo em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; troponina convencional.</p>
              <p>Um estudo que analisou 5.284 pacientes dos ensaios Val-HeFT e GISSI-HF mostrou que, apesar das baixas concentra&#231;&#245;es circulantes, altera&#231;&#245;es na troponina s&#233;rica de alta sensibilidade s&#227;o fortes preditores de eventos cardiovasculares futuros em pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica e contribuem para um pior progn&#243;stico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>. Em outro estudo de acompanhamento de 876 pacientes tratados e com FE m&#233;dia de 34%, a combina&#231;&#227;o de biomarcadores como troponina de alta sensibilidade e NT-proBNP foi usada para estabelecer mortalidade juntamente com outros fatores de risco. A conclus&#227;o &#233; que a adi&#231;&#227;o da dosagem de troponina de alta sensibilidade e de NT-proBNP a um modelo que inclui fatores de risco conhecidos pode melhorar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica de mortalidade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>.</p>
              <p>N&#237;veis elevados de troponina (&gt; percentil 99) s&#227;o frequentes em pacientes ambulatoriais est&#225;veis com IC, particularmente quando se usam ensaios de alta sensibilidade, e est&#227;o associados &#224; alta probabilidade de eventos adversos futuros. Nesse cen&#225;rio, sua capacidade preditiva independe das medidas de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos. Entretanto, n&#227;o existem estudos que avaliem interven&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas para pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica e n&#237;veis elevados de troponinas.</p>
              <p>Um estudo envolvendo 1.089 pacientes sem hist&#243;ria de IC, doen&#231;a valvar ou hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) mostrou que n&#237;veis elevados de cTnI estavam associados ao risco de desenvolver IC. A cTnI previu IC em indiv&#237;duos sem etiologia isqu&#234;mica. O ponto de corte de 0,04 ug/l foi o que melhor identificou pacientes com risco de desenvolver IC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.</p>
              <p>A utilidade da avalia&#231;&#227;o de rotina dos n&#237;veis de troponina em pacientes com IC com FE preservada (ICFEP), bem como da abordagem terap&#234;utica e do correto diagn&#243;stico para n&#237;veis aumentados de troponina em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coronariana n&#227;o aguda, necessita ainda ser mais bem avaliada.</p>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Prote&#237;na C reativa e micronutrientes</title>
            <p>A prote&#237;na C reativa (PCR) &#233; um biomarcador de inflama&#231;&#227;o aguda e cr&#244;nica de f&#225;cil dosagem, cujo valor progn&#243;stico j&#225; foi amplamente demonstrado na IC.</p>
            <p>Mueller e col. encontraram que pacientes no tercil mais elevado de PCR apresentaram mortalidade hospitalar maior que aqueles no primeiro tercil (15% vs 2%). As taxas de mortalidade acumulada em at&#233; 24 meses para o primeiro, segundo e terceiro tercis de PCR foram 33,5%, 42,4% e 53,6%, respectivamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Em um estudo brasileiro, pacientes com PCR &gt; 3,0 mg/dL &#224; admiss&#227;o (excluindo-se aqueles com infec&#231;&#227;o manifesta) apresentaram maior mortalidade em seguimento m&#233;dio de 12,4 meses, comparados &#224;queles com PCR abaixo desse valor<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. Portanto, a PCR funciona como marcador de mortalidade hospitalar e ap&#243;s a alta de pacientes com IC aguda descompensada. De forma similar, PCR elevada tamb&#233;m prediz riscos de eventos cardiovasculares em pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica ambulatorial. Um grande estudo de impacto da PCR na morbimortalidade em IC cr&#244;nica foi publicado pelos investigadores do estudo CORONA. Numa popula&#231;&#227;o de 4.000 pacientes com IC, aqueles que apresentavam a PCR elevada tamb&#233;m tinham caracter&#237;sticas de gravidade da s&#237;ndrome, como baixa FE, alta preval&#234;ncia de classe funcional segundo a <italic>New York Heart Association</italic> (NYHA) III/IV, pobre qualidade de vida e piora do perfil neurohormonal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Apesar dos in&#250;meros estudos que comprovam o papel da PCR na estratifica&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica, n&#227;o se recomenda sua dosagem de rotina em nenhum cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico da IC, uma vez que n&#237;veis elevados desse marcador n&#227;o implicam em terap&#234;uticas espec&#237;ficas. Cabe ressaltar, entretanto, que a eleva&#231;&#227;o de PCR &#233; particularmente comum na IC aguda, podendo auxiliar no diagn&#243;stico de quadros infecciosos, que com frequ&#234;ncia causam descompensa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica ou coexistem com ela.</p>
            <p>Micronutrientes, como coenzima Q10, L-carnitina, tiamina, amino&#225;cidos, vitaminas (A, D e E), zinco e sel&#234;nio, s&#227;o definidos como cofatores essenciais para a transfer&#234;ncia de energia, a manuten&#231;&#227;o bioqu&#237;mica e a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Diversos estudos sugerem que esses micronutrientes podem contribuir para a fisiopatologia da IC, influenciando o remodelamento ventricular patol&#243;gico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Defici&#234;ncia grave de sel&#234;nio e tiamina, por exemplo, s&#227;o causas revers&#237;veis de IC. Ainda que os n&#237;veis de micronutrientes, como tiamina, coenzima Q-10 e L-carnitina, possam estar reduzidos em pacientes com IC aguda, n&#227;o h&#225; estudos randomizados de grande porte que demonstrem benef&#237;cios na sua reposi&#231;&#227;o. Estudos observacionais recentes tamb&#233;m sugerem que a defici&#234;ncia de vitamina D seja marcador independente de pior progn&#243;stico na IC ambulatorial e que sua suplementa&#231;&#227;o tenha impacto cl&#237;nico ben&#233;fico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. Considerando que os estudos de micronutrientes s&#227;o em sua maioria observacionais e com casu&#237;stica pequena, sua dosagem n&#227;o &#233; recomendada como rotina na IC.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Galectina</title>
            <p>A IC permanece sendo uma das mais prevalentes e desafiadoras condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas em cardiologia, com elevada mortalidade tanto na forma aguda como cr&#244;nica, principalmente em indiv&#237;duos acima de 65 anos. A identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce do alto risco dos pacientes pode afetar os resultados, e os biomarcadores come&#231;am a ser reconhecidos com a finalidade diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>.</p>
            <p>Estudos experimentais e cl&#237;nicos t&#234;m associado galectina-3 a hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica, relacionando seu efeito estimulador sobre a migra&#231;&#227;o celular, prolifera&#231;&#227;o de fibroblastos e desenvolvimento de fibrose.</p>
            <p>Em estudo avaliando galectina-3 entre pacientes com dispneia aguda na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, observou-se que seus n&#237;veis apresentam-se mais elevados em pacientes com dispneia aguda por IC quando comparados a pacientes com dispneia por outras causas. Tamb&#233;m foi o melhor preditor independente de mortalidade em 60 dias ou de desfecho composto de morte e recorr&#234;ncia, mesmo ap&#243;s corre&#231;&#227;o para idade, sexo, BNP, fun&#231;&#227;o renal e diabetes <italic>mellitus</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>.</p>
            <p>O estudo DEAL-HF acompanhou 232 pacientes com IC em classe funcional NYHA II-IV durante 6,5 anos, chegando &#224; conclus&#227;o de que a galectina-3 &#233; um grande preditor de risco de mortalidade quando ajustado para sexo, idade, severidade da IC e disfun&#231;&#227;o renal, sendo, portanto, um marcador progn&#243;stico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>.</p>
            <p>Tamb&#233;m h&#225; relatos de que n&#237;veis elevados de galectina-3 est&#227;o associados a caracter&#237;sticas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas de remodelamento ventricular e predizem mortalidade em pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica grave<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.</p>
            <p>O valor preditivo da galectina-3 parece ser mais forte em pacientes com ICFEP do que naqueles com IC e FE reduzida. Sua mensura&#231;&#227;o na IC cr&#244;nica ambulatorial &#233; ainda considerada experimental.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Biomarcadores nas miocardites virais e n&#227;o virais</title>
            <p>Os biomarcadores de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica podem estar elevados em pequena parcela de pacientes com miocardite aguda, mas podem auxiliar no diagn&#243;stico. A troponina I &#233; um biomarcador que reflete a exist&#234;ncia de necrose mioc&#225;rdica no curso de um processo inflamat&#243;rio e pode estar elevada em pelo menos 50% dos casos de miocardite viral comprovados com bi&#243;psia. Apresenta uma especificidade de 89% e uma sensibilidade de 34% em adultos com miocardite aguda, ao passo que, na popula&#231;&#227;o pedi&#225;trica, a troponina T apresenta especificidade de 83% e sensibilidade de 71%. A troponina est&#225; presente numa frequ&#234;ncia maior que a CK-MB, a qual se eleva apenas em 5,7% dos pacientes com miocardite comprovada por bi&#243;psia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Biomarcadores promissores</title>
            <sec>
              <title>Acetona exalada na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
              <p>Recentemente, um estudo brasileiro confirmou a eleva&#231;&#227;o da acetona exalada em pacientes com IC quando comparados com indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, sendo ainda mais elevada em pacientes descompensados admitidos na emerg&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica quando comparados aos compensados. Revelou ainda que esse novo biomarcador apresenta correla&#231;&#227;o positiva com BNP tanto entre pacientes com IC compensada quanto descompensada e aumenta de acordo com a classe funcional (NYHA). Trata-se, portanto, de um novo e promissor biomarcador n&#227;o invasivo do diagn&#243;stico de IC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>.</p>
            </sec>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiomiopatias Espec&#237;ficas</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Biomarcadores Gen&#233;ticos em Cardiologia</title>
            <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares heredit&#225;rias, cardiomiopatias e canalopatias s&#227;o de apresenta&#231;&#227;o familiar e causadas por muta&#231;&#245;es g&#234;nicas. Essas doen&#231;as apresentam caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas altamente vari&#225;veis, com sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de fen&#243;tipos em muitos casos, e, portanto, o diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico &#233; &#250;til para individualizar o diagn&#243;stico, prever a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a e direcionar a terapia.</p>
            <p>Como regra, testes gen&#233;ticos n&#227;o devem ser solicitados sem a assinatura de um consentimento informado e devem ser acompanhados de aconselhamento gen&#233;tico antes e ap&#243;s o teste.</p>
            <sec>
              <title>Testes gen&#233;ticos nas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares</title>
              <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares heredit&#225;rias costumam ser monog&#234;nicas (uma variante gen&#233;tica &#250;nica &#233; respons&#225;vel pela doen&#231;a, em geral com heran&#231;a mendeliana), mesmo quando uma propor&#231;&#227;o substancial de pacientes afetados carrega mais de uma variante patog&#234;nica. Inclu&#237;das nesse grupo est&#227;o as cardiomiopatias (hipertr&#243;fica, dilatada, restritiva, arritmog&#234;nica e n&#227;o compactada), as canalopatias (QT longo e curto, s&#237;ndrome de Brugada, taquicardia ventricular polim&#243;rfica catecolamin&#233;rgica, dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o herdados), assim como as doen&#231;as heredit&#225;rias que afetam a aorta (Marfan, Loeys-Dietz, aneurisma familiar da aorta tor&#225;cica).</p>
              <p>Essas condi&#231;&#245;es t&#234;m em comum o risco de morte s&#250;bita percentualmente aumentado em indiv&#237;duos jovens e atletas, e tamb&#233;m entre os pacientes mais velhos, e podem cursar de forma assintom&#225;tica. Embora o cl&#237;nico deva reconhecer as limita&#231;&#245;es dos testes gen&#233;ticos, tendo em vista que nem todas as muta&#231;&#245;es foram identificadas, os atuais j&#225; avaliam as muta&#231;&#245;es g&#234;nicas de maior preval&#234;ncia.</p>
              <p>A frequ&#234;ncia da detec&#231;&#227;o das muta&#231;&#245;es pelos testes gen&#233;ticos &#233; diferente para cada tipo de doen&#231;a, sendo em torno de 75% nas canalopatias, 60% nas cardiomiopatias hipertr&#243;ficas e entre 5% e 20% na cardiomiopatia dilatada.</p>
              <p>Recentemente as Sociedades de Arritmia Card&#237;aca Europeia e Norte-Americana desenvolveram uma diretriz sobre a adequa&#231;&#227;o do uso de testes gen&#233;ticos nas cardiomiopatias e canalopatias (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t03">Tabelas 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t04">2</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s canalopatias, as diretrizes apontam para mudan&#231;a de conduta terap&#234;utica quando determinadas altera&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas s&#227;o detectadas, ocasionando progressiva incorpora&#231;&#227;o dos testes gen&#233;ticos na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t03">
                <label>Tabela 1</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para testes gen&#233;ticos nas miocardiopatias (<italic>Adaptado de Ackerman e cols</italic>. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>)</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <thead>
                    <tr>
                      <th align="left">Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica (CH)</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Painel orientado para CH (genes da cadeia pesada da beta-miosina, da prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; miosina e troponinas T):</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Paciente em quem o cardiologista estabeleceu o diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico de CH, baseado no exame da hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e familiar, assim como no fen&#243;tipo eletrocardiogr&#225;fico/ecocardiogr&#225;fico; e, ap&#243;s confirma&#231;&#227;o da muta&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica, nos seus descendentes.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Displasia/Cardiomiopatia Arritmog&#233;nica Ventricular Direita (D/MAVD)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Painel orientado para D/MAVD (Muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes PKP2, DSC2, DSG2, DSP, JUP e TMEM43)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Qualquer paciente em quem um cardiologista estabeleceu um &#237;ndice cl&#237;nico de suspeita de D/MAVD, baseado no exame da hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e familiar, assim como no fen&#243;tipo eletrocardiogr&#225;fico/ecocardiogr&#225;fico.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Membros da fam&#237;lia ap&#243;s a identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma muta&#231;&#227;o associada com D/MAVD em um caso &#237;ndice.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Cardiomiopatia Dilatada (CD)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Painel compreensivo ou orientado para CD (LMNA, SCN5A, outros)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Pacientes com CD e doen&#231;a significativa de condu&#231;&#227;o (por exemplo, bloqueio card&#237;aco de primeiro, segundo ou terceiro grau) e/ou uma hist&#243;ria familiar de morte s&#250;bita prematura.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Teste gen&#233;tico com investiga&#231;&#227;o de muta&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas para membros da fam&#237;lia ap&#243;s a identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma muta&#231;&#227;o associada com CD em um caso &#237;ndice.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Doen&#231;a Progressiva Card&#237;aca de Condu&#231;&#227;o (CCD)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Painel orientado para CCD (Muta&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas nos genes SCN5A ou Lamin A/C)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Como parte do algoritmo diagn&#243;stico em pacientes com CCD isolada ou CCD com doen&#231;a card&#237;aca cong&#234;nita, em presen&#231;a de uma hist&#243;ria familiar documentada de CCD.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td> &#8211; Membros da fam&#237;lia ap&#243;s a identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma muta&#231;&#227;o associada com CCD em um caso &#237;ndice.</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
              <table-wrap id="t04">
                <label>Tabela 2</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para testes gen&#233;ticos nas canalopatias heredit&#225;rias (<italic>Adaptado de Ackerman e cols.</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>)</title>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <thead>
                    <tr align="left">
                      <th>S&#237;ndrome do QT Longo (SQTL)</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Painel orientado para LQT1-3 (muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes KCNQ1, KCNH2 e SCN5A)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Qualquer paciente no qual um cardiologista estabeleceu uma suspeita diagn&#243;stica forte de SQTL baseado na hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e familiar, e fen&#243;tipo eletrocardiogr&#225;fico (ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es em repouso e/ou teste de estresse provocado por exercita&#231;&#227;o ou infus&#227;o de catecolaminas); qualquer paciente assintom&#225;tico com prolonga&#231;&#227;o de QT na aus&#234;ncia de outras condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que possam prolongar aquele intervalo (como anormalidades eletrol&#237;ticas, hipertrofia, bloqueio, considerado idiop&#225;tico) baseado em ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es seriais definidos como QTc &gt;480 ms (pr&#233;-puberdade) ou &gt;500 ms (adultos).</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Membros da fam&#237;lia, ap&#243;s a identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma muta&#231;&#227;o associada com SQTL em um caso &#237;ndice.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Taquicardia Ventricular Polim&#243;rfica Catecolamin&#233;rgica (TVPC)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Painel orientado para TVPC1 ou 2 (muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes RYR2 e CASQ2):</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Qualquer paciente em quem um cardiologista estabeleceu um &#237;ndice cl&#237;nico de suspeita de TVPC, baseado na hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e familiar, assim como no fen&#243;tipo eletrocardiogr&#225;fico expresso durante teste de estresse provocado com bicicleta, esteira ou infus&#227;o de catecolamina.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Membros da fam&#237;lia, ap&#243;s a identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma muta&#231;&#227;o associada com TVPC em um caso &#237;ndice.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>S&#237;ndrome de Brugada (SBr)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Painel orientado para SBr (Muta&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica no gene SCN5A)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Painel compreensivo para SBr (muta&#231;&#245;es no gene SCN5A): recomendado para qualquer paciente em quem um cardiologista estabeleceu um &#237;ndice cl&#237;nico de suspeita de SBr, baseado na hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e familiar, assim como no fen&#243;tipo eletrocardiogr&#225;fico expresso (ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es de repouso e/ou teste provocativo com drogas).</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>Testes gen&#233;ticos N&#195;O s&#227;o indicados no contexto de um padr&#227;o isolado de ECG de Brugada tipo 2 ou tipo 3.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Membros da fam&#237;lia, ap&#243;s a identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma muta&#231;&#227;o associada com SBr em um caso &#237;ndice.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>S&#237;ndromes de QT Curto (SQTC)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>
                        <bold>Painel orientado para SQTC (Muta&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas nos genes KCNQ1, KCNJ2, KCNH2)</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td>&#8211; Qualquer paciente em quem um cardiologista estabeleceu um &#237;ndice cl&#237;nico forte de suspeita de SQTC, baseado na hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e familiar, assim como no fen&#243;tipo eletrocardiogr&#225;fico.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td> &#8211; Membros da fam&#237;lia, ap&#243;s a identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma muta&#231;&#227;o associada com SQTC em um caso &#237;ndice.</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Cardiomiopatias restritivas</title>
            <sec>
              <title>Amiloidose</title>
              <p>Das cardiomiopatias restritivas, a amiloidose apresenta a maior correla&#231;&#227;o com biomarcadores na literatura. Caracteriza-se por desordens heterog&#234;neas causadas por uma deposi&#231;&#227;o extracelular de prote&#237;nas fibrilares, com duas formas card&#237;acas principais.</p>
              <sec>
                <title>Amiloidose de cadeia leve ou sist&#234;mica prim&#225;ria</title>
                <p>Adquirida, relacionada a altera&#231;&#245;es da medula &#243;ssea, sendo dois ter&#231;os dos pacientes do sexo masculino, tendo a grande maioria idade acima de 50 anos. O resultado do tratamento e o progn&#243;stico s&#227;o altamente dependentes do espectro e da gravidade do envolvimento card&#237;aco, havendo grande variabilidade no resultado do tratamento entre pacientes com apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica semelhante, o que, em parte, relaciona-se com a subjetividade na avalia&#231;&#227;o do grau de envolvimento do &#243;rg&#227;o. Dessa forma, tornou-se essencial o desenvolvimento de sistemas de classifica&#231;&#227;o de risco, em especial associando-se o uso de troponinas card&#237;acas com BNP.</p>
                <p>a) Troponinas: Diversos estudos de troponina I ou T em pacientes com amiloidose sist&#234;mica demonstraram que essas prote&#237;nas s&#227;o frequentemente detect&#225;veis na doen&#231;a card&#237;aca e associam-se com a sobreviv&#234;ncia. Estudo recente com troponina de alta sensibilidade demostrou que valores plasm&#225;ticos dessa troponina em pacientes com amiloidose de cadeia leve est&#227;o invariavelmente associados com a gravidade do acometimento card&#237;aco, inclusive naqueles com libera&#231;&#227;o de troponina insignificante e, provavelmente, pode melhorar o diagn&#243;stico precoce<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. Seu uso associado ao NT-proBNP mostrou-se &#250;til para acompanhamento da terap&#234;utica e para progn&#243;stico.</p>
                <p>b) Pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos: Estudos demonstraram a efic&#225;cia dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos em predizer o comprometimento card&#237;aco na amiloidose antes mesmo da presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular na ecocardiografia, sugerindo que sua varia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o se deva apenas &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o das press&#245;es de enchimento ventricular, mas tamb&#233;m possua correla&#231;&#227;o com a les&#227;o do mi&#243;cito devido &#224; deposi&#231;&#227;o extracelular de amiloide<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>. O BNP e o NT-proBNP parecem ser biomarcadores sens&#237;veis da disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e do progn&#243;stico. Uma an&#225;lise recente da insufici&#234;ncia renal demonstrou a necessidade do uso de valores de corte superiores de NT-proBNP e BNP para detec&#231;&#227;o de comprometimento card&#237;aco e avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica nesse grupo. Ambos os pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos foram marcadores progn&#243;sticos independentes, por&#233;m apenas o BNP manteve sua acuidade nos pacientes em est&#225;gio final de insufici&#234;ncia renal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>.</p>
              </sec>
              <sec>
                <title>Amiloidose relacionada a transtirretina</title>
                <p>Trata-se de amiloidose relacionada &#224; mol&#233;cula de transtirretina produzida pelo f&#237;gado. Existem dois tipos: uma forma gen&#233;tica/heredit&#225;ria e outra forma n&#227;o heredit&#225;ria, resultado da quebra da mol&#233;cula de transtirretina normal, chamada amiloidose sist&#234;mica senil, que afeta principalmente homens a partir da s&#233;tima d&#233;cada de vida. Parece ser menos prejudicial para os mi&#243;citos do que a sist&#234;mica, o que foi justificado pela pouca altera&#231;&#227;o de troponinas T e I, bem como por padr&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fico inalterado. Nesse contexto, o BNP parece ser um marcador sens&#237;vel para a IC e poderia ser &#250;til para fins de seguimento<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>.</p>
              </sec>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>Diagn&#243;stico diferencial de pericardite e cardiomiopatia restritiva</title>
              <p>A distin&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica entre cardiomiopatia restritiva e pericardite constritiva &#233; dif&#237;cil, representando um desafio diagn&#243;stico. Uma pequena s&#233;rie recente mostrou que os n&#237;veis de BNP s&#227;o bastante elevados em pacientes com cardiomiopatia restritiva em classe funcional (NYHA) III ou IV, enquanto pacientes clinicamente semelhantes com pericardite constritiva apresentaram n&#237;veis muito mais baixos de BNP<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. Entretanto, os valores de BNP variam muito com as diferentes etiologias da cardiomiopatia restritiva e da pericardite constritiva<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>, o que torna necess&#225;rios novos estudos para avaliar se a rela&#231;&#227;o BNP/proBNP tem um potencial papel nesse cen&#225;rio e frente a varia&#231;&#245;es, como doen&#231;a renal associada.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>Endomiocardiofibrose</title>
              <p>O uso do NT-proBNP foi avaliado em estudos, tendo-se demonstrado aumento dos seus n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos na endomiocardiofibrose em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle normal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>.</p>
              <p>Dessa forma, ainda que escassos, os estudos v&#234;m demonstrando que o uso dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos pode ser de utilidade no diagn&#243;stico, seguimento e progn&#243;stico das CMR, especialmente amiloidose (associado ou n&#227;o &#224; dosagem de troponinas), endomiocardiofibrose e doen&#231;as peric&#225;rdicas.</p>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Biomarcadores de Progn&#243;stico na Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica</title>
            <sec>
              <title>Pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico tipo B (BNP)</title>
              <p>Na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica, o mecanismo que leva ao aumento do BNP &#233; o estiramento do mi&#243;cito relacionado com hipertrofia e desarranjo do mesmo, al&#233;m das altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas relacionadas com a obstru&#231;&#227;o ao fluxo na via de sa&#237;da do VE, aumento da press&#227;o de enchimento do VE e a isquemia mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
              <p>Os estudos do BNP na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica t&#234;m demonstrado que n&#237;veis elevados se correlacionam com a intensidade dos sintomas (dispneia) e a classe funcional (NYHA), presen&#231;a e grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE, disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE, grau de hipertrofia do VE e gradiente do fluxo da via de sa&#237;da do VE. Podem tamb&#233;m se associar com a presen&#231;a de realce tardio (fibrose) no mioc&#225;rdio em pacientes com taquicardia ventricular sustentada sintom&#225;tica.</p>
              <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao progn&#243;stico, h&#225; poucos trabalhos. Kitaoka e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>, estudando os desfechos de morte card&#237;aca e hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em 130 pacientes com idade m&#233;dia de 60 anos e seguimento m&#233;dio de 3,7 anos, observaram que o BNP n&#227;o foi preditor, sendo, portanto, limitada a utilidade de avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica. Pieroni e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>, acompanhando por seis anos 40 pacientes com idade m&#233;dia de 42 anos, observaram que os 10 pacientes que evolu&#237;ram para a forma dilatada apresentaram aumento significativo do BNP, tanto no plasma como no mioc&#225;rdio, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos valores pr&#233;vios. Tal fato correlacionou-se significativamente com a eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do VE.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>Fra&#231;&#227;o amino-terminal do proBNP (NT-proBNP)</title>
              <p>Estudos comparativos t&#234;m demonstrado que os dois m&#233;todos (dosagens do BNP e do NT-proBNP) apresentam similaridades no que concerne &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica do cora&#231;&#227;o. O estudo utilizando NT-proBNP como marcador diagn&#243;stico em familiares com cardiopatia hipertr&#243;fica confirmada por ecocardiograma e estudo gen&#233;tico demonstrou elevada sensibilidade e especificidade quando comparado ao eletrocardiograma<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. O estudo prospectivo multic&#234;ntrico de D&#8217;Amato e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> avaliou o valor progn&#243;stico do NT-proBNP em 128 pacientes com idade m&#233;dia de 50 anos e seguimento m&#233;dio de 4 anos, tendo relatado que o NT-proBNP foi preditor de eventos relacionados a IC e n&#227;o a mortalidade card&#237;aca.</p>
              <p>O estudo gen&#233;tico de muta&#231;&#245;es no gene da cadeia pesada da beta-miosina card&#237;aca, da prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; miosina e troponinas T, que s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por dois ter&#231;os das muta&#231;&#245;es, &#233; hoje realizado em nosso pa&#237;s em centros de pesquisa e hospitais de refer&#234;ncia terci&#225;ria. Est&#225; recomendado para o caso &#237;ndice e familiares, ap&#243;s consentimento livre e esclarecido. Auxilia no diagn&#243;stico em casos de d&#250;vida e principalmente nos descendentes para definir os portadores, lembrando que esses poder&#227;o n&#227;o vir a desenvolver a doen&#231;a.</p>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Biomarcadores de diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico na doen&#231;a de Chagas</title>
            <p>Na doen&#231;a de Chagas, predizer quais fatores se correlacionam com progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a, morbidade e mortalidade, para auxiliar nas decis&#245;es, acompanhamento e tratamento dessa enfermidade complexa, constitui um desafio. Existe a necessidade de um biomarcador de risco simples, quantitativo e econ&#244;mico, que agregue valores adicionais aos m&#233;todos convencionais, auxiliando no diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico de pacientes com IC de etiologia chag&#225;sica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
            <p>A fam&#237;lia dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos e as troponinas card&#237;acas constituem-se nas ferramentas mais promissoras da atualidade. Portanto, &#233; muito importante identificar e estratificar o risco de pacientes com infec&#231;&#227;o pelo <italic>T. cruzi</italic>, com ou sem cardiopatia aparente, para auxiliar as tomadas de decis&#227;o e o tratamento.</p>
            <p>N&#227;o existem estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados que avaliaram o papel dos biomarcadores em pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas. Consequentemente, eles n&#227;o s&#227;o indicados rotineiramente para avalia&#231;&#227;o daquela doen&#231;a. Entretanto, existem circunst&#226;ncias cl&#237;nicas espec&#237;ficas nas quais esses marcadores podem estimar o progn&#243;stico e auxiliar no diagn&#243;stico e no tratamento precoce.</p>
            <p>Alguns estudos analisaram os pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos (ANP e BNP) e demonstraram que esses biomarcadores t&#234;m pot&#234;ncia diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica nos pacientes com diversas formas da doen&#231;a de Chagas, com e sem IC, e at&#233; mesmo nos assintom&#225;ticos. Uma coorte de 110 pacientes portadores de doen&#231;a de Chagas, com e sem cardiopatia, foi avaliada clinicamente e os pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos (ANP e BNP) foram analisados<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>. Os pacientes foram acompanhados por um per&#237;odo de at&#233; tr&#234;s anos, quando os desfechos de morte e necessidade de transplante card&#237;aco foram avaliados. Discretas eleva&#231;&#245;es dos n&#237;veis do ANP (&gt; 47,6 pg/mL) e BNP (&gt; 62,6 pg/mL) foram capazes de predizer esses desfechos. Adicionalmente, os n&#237;veis desses pept&#237;deos foram mais elevados nos pacientes com IC de etiologia chag&#225;sica quando comparado &#224;queles com cardiomiopatia dilatada de outras etiologias para a mesma classe funcional da IC. Os n&#237;veis de ANP e BNP tamb&#233;m foram elevados nos pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas assintom&#225;ticos e sem evid&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, e tiverem alto valor preditivo para os desfechos analisados<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Pericardiopatias</title>
            <sec>
              <title>Diagn&#243;stico etiol&#243;gico e de atividade das pericardites agudas</title>
              <sec>
                <title>Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da resposta terap&#234;utica e evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</title>
                <p>A pericardite &#233; uma doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria, sendo, portanto, o uso de biomarcadores que identifiquem a agress&#227;o peric&#225;rdica de fundamental import&#226;ncia para o diagn&#243;stico e o acompanhamento cl&#237;nico dos pacientes.</p>
                <p>Na afec&#231;&#227;o peric&#225;rdica, h&#225; um aumento dos n&#237;veis de PCR na grande maioria dos pacientes. Nos casos em que tais n&#237;veis s&#227;o normais no in&#237;cio, h&#225; uma eleva&#231;&#227;o posterior. Os falsos negativos est&#227;o presentes nos pacientes em uso de anti-inflamat&#243;rios e nos casos de miocardite. A dosagem e a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da PCR at&#233; normaliza&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o de fundamental import&#226;ncia para a retirada dos f&#225;rmacos utilizados na crise aguda de pericardite<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>.</p>
                <p>Em um estudo de Imazzio e cols, 200 pacientes com pericardite aguda de etiologia viral e idiop&#225;tica foram acompanhados prospectivamente, tendo a PCR sido dosada na apresenta&#231;&#227;o e a cada semana at&#233; a normaliza&#231;&#227;o. A PCR estava aumentada em 156 pacientes (78%) e negativa em 44, as poss&#237;veis causas tendo sido: dosagem precoce inicial, em 15 pacientes (34%); e uso pr&#233;vio de anti-inflamat&#243;rios, em 22 (50%). A normaliza&#231;&#227;o da PCR no seguimento ocorreu em 60% na primeira semana, 85% na segunda semana, 95% na terceira semana e em 100% na quarta semana. A persist&#234;ncia da eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de PCR ap&#243;s uma semana foi considerada como fator de risco para recorr&#234;ncia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>.</p>
                <p>A implica&#231;&#227;o dessa informa&#231;&#227;o, segundo os autores do estudo, est&#225; no fato de que o tratamento com anti-inflamat&#243;rios por uma a duas semanas &#233; emp&#237;rico e cerca de 40% dos pacientes ap&#243;s a primeira semana ainda apresentam n&#237;veis elevados de PCR e se beneficiariam de dose de ataque mais prolongada.</p>
                <p>Outro marcador que &#233; sens&#237;vel e altamente espec&#237;fico para agress&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; a troponina I. Em um estudo retrospectivo em centro &#250;nico com 69 pacientes e pericardite aguda, a troponina I esteve aumentada em 49% deles, e valores acima do limiar de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio foram observados em 22%. A eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina I esteve presente quase exclusivamente nos caso de eleva&#231;&#227;o de segmento ST, e os pacientes que apresentavam valores maiores eram jovens e com infec&#231;&#227;o recente. A eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina nesses pacientes sugere les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica associada &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o aguda do peric&#225;rdio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>.</p>
                <p>Em outro estudo de 118 pacientes consecutivos, a eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina I esteve presente em 32,2% deles e associada a idade precoce (32 anos), sexo masculino, eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST (97,4%) e derrame peric&#225;rdico na apresenta&#231;&#227;o (86,8%). Nesse estudo, a troponina era medida na admiss&#227;o, a cada 6 horas nas primeiras 24 horas do in&#237;cio dos sintomas, e depois diariamente. A eleva&#231;&#227;o de valores acima do limiar de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio foi observada em 7,2%. Identificaram-se dois padr&#245;es de eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina I: eleva&#231;&#227;o discreta de troponina I (0,4 ng/mL) sem aumento de CKMB com dura&#231;&#227;o de 3 dias; e maior eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina I (1,5 ng/mL) associada a aumento de CKMB e anormalidades segmentares ecocardiogr&#225;ficas, semelhante ao limiar de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio. Todos os pacientes apresentavam coron&#225;rias normais &#224; cinecoronariografia, sendo essa altera&#231;&#227;o consequente &#224; miopericardite. Esses autores atribu&#237;ram o maior tempo de eleva&#231;&#227;o da troponina I ao comprometimento mioc&#225;rdio mais intenso. Apesar dos diferentes padr&#245;es temporais de evolu&#231;&#227;o da troponina, as complica&#231;&#245;es foram semelhantes entre os dois grupos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
              </sec>
              <sec>
                <title>Diagn&#243;stico Etiol&#243;gico e de Atividade das Pericardites Cr&#244;nicas e Constritivas</title>
                <p>A pericardite associada ou n&#227;o ao derrame peric&#225;rdico cr&#244;nico pode ter evolu&#231;&#227;o lenta e at&#233; levar ao tamponamento. A pericardite constritiva &#233; consequ&#234;ncia da inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica do peric&#225;rdio, que se torna espessado e calcificado, levando a restri&#231;&#227;o do enchimento diast&#243;lico dos ventr&#237;culos, queda do volume sist&#243;lico e baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco. Infec&#231;&#227;o viral, tuberculose, doen&#231;as do tecido conectivo, neoplasias, cirurgia card&#237;aca pr&#233;via, doen&#231;as metab&#243;licas e radioterapia s&#227;o causas frequentes da doen&#231;a, que pode se manifestar de diferentes formas de acordo com a localiza&#231;&#227;o, extens&#227;o e grau de espessamento peric&#225;rdico ou do derrame.</p>
                <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o etiol&#243;gica se faz importante, visto a varia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica dependente da causa. Nesse cen&#225;rio, biomarcadores etiol&#243;gicos podem ser utilizados:</p>
                <p>a) Tuberculose: no l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico, somente nos casos de derrame peric&#225;rdico, a atividade de adenosina deaminase (ADA) com valores &#8805; 40 U/l tem sensibilidade de 89% e especificidade de 72%, sendo, portanto, um bom marcador etiol&#243;gico. Outros marcadores no l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico: lisoenzima &gt; 6,5 &#956;g/dL tem sensibilidade de100% e especificidade 91% e interferon &#947; &gt; 200 pg/mL com sensibilidade e especificidade de at&#233; 100%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>.</p>
                <p>b) Doen&#231;as do tecido conectivo: as que levam a derrame peric&#225;rdico cr&#244;nico mais frequentemente s&#227;o: l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico, s&#237;ndrome de Sj&#246;gren, artrite reumatoide, esclerodermia sist&#234;mica, s&#237;ndrome de Beh&#231;et, febre familiar do Mediterr&#226;neo e vasculite sist&#234;mica. Marcadores de fase aguda da inflama&#231;&#227;o, como velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o (VHS), PCR e alfa1-glicoprote&#237;na &#225;cida, podem colaborar no diagn&#243;stico inflamat&#243;rio, principalmente quando persistentes. Fatores antinucleares (FAN) com t&#237;tulos &#8805; 1/640 podem sugerir doen&#231;as do tecido conectivo associadas ao fator reumatoide (FR), cuja sensibilidade e especificidade s&#227;o dependentes da doen&#231;a de base<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. Outros exames se aplicam na depend&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a reumatol&#243;gica em quest&#227;o.</p>
                <p>c) Neoplasias: quando dosado no l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico, o ant&#237;geno carcinoembriog&#234;nico (CEA) &gt;5 ng/mL apresenta sensibilidade de at&#233; 75% e especificidade de at&#233; 100% para o diagn&#243;stico de derrame neopl&#225;sico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>. Outros marcadores, como alfa-fetoprote&#237;na, CA19-9, CA125, CA72 e CA 15-3, devem ser dosados no l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico na suspeita de derrame neopl&#225;sico.</p>
                <p>No diagn&#243;stico diferencial e no seguimento, a dosagem do BNP ou de sua fra&#231;&#227;o terminal NT-proBNP pode ser &#250;til. Est&#225; bem definido o aumento desses marcadores em pacientes com pericardite constritiva al&#233;m de sua correla&#231;&#227;o com &#237;ndices ecocardiogr&#225;ficos que avaliam a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. No segmento p&#243;s pericardiectomia de pacientes com pericardite constritiva, o BNP pode ser indicado para avalia&#231;&#227;o dos resultados e da melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. O NT-proBNP mostrou correla&#231;&#227;o com a gravidade da descompensa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, sendo que valores &gt; 436 ng/L est&#227;o associados ao tamponamento<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>. No diagn&#243;stico diferencial entre a pericardite constritiva e s&#237;ndromes restritivas mioc&#225;rdicas, o BNP pode ser &#250;til, apresentando n&#237;veis muito mais elevados nas restri&#231;&#245;es. Entretanto, os dados s&#227;o de estudos em popula&#231;&#245;es pequenas e controversos na pericardite constritiva, enquanto no derrame peric&#225;rdico parecem ser mais consistentes apesar de um valor de corte n&#227;o estar bem estabelecido. Em um &#250;nico estudo ficou definido o n&#237;vel de NT-proBNP de 800pg/mL como corte para diferenciar a cardiomiopatia restritiva com n&#237;veis mais elevados que a pericardite constritiva<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>.</p>
                <p>Atualmente, poucos s&#227;o os m&#233;todos para predizer a exist&#234;ncia de reversibilidade com o tratamento baseado em anti-inflamat&#243;rios. Um estudo-piloto com 29 pacientes demonstrou que aqueles que apresentavam n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos mais elevados de PCR e VHS em geral evolu&#237;am para a reversibilidade do quadro com a terapia anti-inflamat&#243;ria. No entanto, esses dados ainda precisam ser confirmados em coortes com maior n&#250;mero amostral<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>.</p>
                <p>A PCR tamb&#233;m foi sugerida no diagn&#243;stico diferencial das pericardites constritivas e cardiomiopatias restritivas, sendo proposto um valor de corte de 0,57mg/dL, com n&#237;veis mais elevados na doen&#231;a peric&#225;rdica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
                <p>Anticorpos anticora&#231;&#227;o (AHA) e anticorpos antidisco intercalar (AIDA) podem ser usados na observa&#231;&#227;o de risco para pericardite recorrente, tendo sido observados em at&#233; 70% dos pacientes com aquela condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica. T&#237;tulos &#8805; 1/80 de AHA sugerem maior risco de recorr&#234;ncias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>.</p>
              </sec>
            </sec>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Financiamento</title>
          <p>Suporte financeiro pela Abbot Diagn&#243;sticos do Brasil para realiza&#231;&#227;o do encontro dos especialistas. No entanto, n&#227;o houve qualquer participa&#231;&#227;o dessa empresa na escrita do material cient&#237;fico e publica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Lista completa de autores</title>
          <p>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita, RJ; Marcelo Westerlund Montera, RJ; Jo&#227;o David de Souza Neto, CE; Sabrina Bernardez-Pereira, SP; Aguinaldo F. Freitas Jr., GO; Andr&#233; Volschan, RJ; Andreia Biolo, RS; Antonio Carlos Bacelar Nunes Filho, SP; Antonio Carlos Palandri Chagas, SP; Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge, RJ; Dirceu Rodrigues Almeida, SP; Edmundo Arteaga, SP; Edval Gomes dos Santos Junior, BA; Fabio Fernandes, SP; F&#233;lix Jos&#233; Alvares Ramires, SP; Fernando Bacal, SP; Flavio Tarasoutshi, SP; Gilson Soares Feitosa, BA; Humberto Villacorta Junior, RJ; Jo&#227;o Fernando Monteiro Ferreira, SP; Jos&#233; Mauro Vieira Junior, RJ; Lidia Ana Zytynski Moura, PR; Lucas Jos&#233; Tachoti Pires, SP; Luis Claudio Lemos Correia, BA; Luis Eduardo Paim Rohde, RS; Marcelo Rivas, SP; Maria da Consola&#231;&#227;o V. Moreira, MG; Sergio Emanuel Kaiser, RJ; Silvia Moreira Ayub Ferreira, SP; Silvia Marinho Martins, PE; Tania Lema da Rocha Martinez, SP.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela ABBOT Diagn&#243;sticos do Brasil.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
