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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">y5mBRZw3bjydKTCfsLz8fbG</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2014002400002</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00002</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20140194</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Effectiveness of Biomarkers in Cardiology</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Correia</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Cl&#225;udio Lemos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica, Salvador, BA - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Luis Cl&#225;udio Lemos Correia</bold>, Av. Princesa Leopoldina, 19/402. Postal Code 40.150-080, Salvador, BA - Brazil. E-mail:   <email>lccorreia@cardiol.br</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>103</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>449</fpage>
      <lpage>450</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Biological Markers</kwd>
        <kwd>Effectiveness</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases/genetic</kwd>
        <kwd>Disease Prevention</kwd>
        <kwd>Evidence-Based Practice</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="10"/>
        <page-count count="2"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Besides providing diagnostic or prognostic accuracy, a biomarker must be effective to ensure its adequate use in routine clinical implementation. Effectiveness can be defined as an individual's potential to benefit from using the biomarker. This benefit includes the prevention of undesirable clinical outcomes and improvement in an individual's quality of life.  </p>
    <p>Assessment of a biomarker&#8217;s effectiveness should include two sequential criteria. First, the biomarker should add prognostic value in relation to basic clinical and laboratory data. Second, the information provided by the biomarker should promote changes in medical conduct in a way that ultimately benefits the patient. Beginning with the analysis of prognostic value, a new biomarker must have a prognostic value independent of conventional risk markers. However, this criterion of statistical significance is not enough to guarantee clinical significance. Once the statistical significance is confirmed by multivariate analysis, it is necessary to proceed and evaluate whether the biomarker increases our ability to identify individuals who will present the undesirable outcome. This is done by incremental analysis of the C-statistic and net reclassification analysis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. For example, although high sensitivity C-reactive protein has an independent association with cardiovascular risk, it only slightly increases the discriminatory capacity in Framingham score<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. The coronary calcium score, on the other hand, can increase the C-statistic of Framingham score, in addition to correctly reclassifying a proportion of patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. This incremental value is an essential condition for a biomarker to be effective, because only then can its result correctly modify clinical decisions.  </p>
    <p>However, the added value is not enough for defining effectiveness; the result of the biomarker must also promote actions that benefit the patient. To facilitate this discussion, we will use the stress test as an example, which should be considered inappropriate for studying coronary heart disease in asymptomatic individuals<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Incomprehension by some people as to why this test is classified inappropriate in this situation derives from the incorrect belief that prognostic value itself justifies implementing a test. However, this argument is limited to the first stage of assessing the effectiveness of a biomarker, as described previously. Diagnosing coronary heart disease using biomarkers in asymptomatic patients may be the best diagnostic tool for not modifying the clinical conduct to benefit the patient because strategies to control risk factors are well targeted on the basis of overall risk assessment of the individual and because the possible diagnosis of obstructive coronary disease in asymptomatic patients should not induce invasive strategies aimed at revascularization, as the benefit of this type of treatment lies in controlling symptoms without reducing the risk of heart attack or death<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref><sup>.</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. Instituting a treatment to control symptoms is not required in an asymptomatic patient. In addition, some of these patients suffer from injury and unwanted outcomes arising from unnecessary procedures<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. This type of reasoning can be complemented by randomized clinical trials that compare patients outcomes between randomized groups for using a test <italic>versus</italic> control. This is the case of the DIAD study, in which randomized asymptomatic individuals with diabetes underwent or did not undergo myocardial scintigraphy, suggesting that the clinical evaluation of patients was equal, without reduction of cardiovascular events in the scintigraphy group<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. For this reason, the American Board of Internal Medicine&#8217;s campaign <italic>Choosing Wisely</italic>, with support from the American College of Cardiology, recommends not using imaging scans for annual survey of coronary disease in asymptomatic patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. For the same reason, the use of PSA for screening prostate cancer was proscribed by the US Prevention Task Force<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. These are examples of recommendations for the use of diagnostic tests, keeping in mind the concept of effectiveness.  </p>
    <p>In addition, someone could offer the example of an asymptomatic patient whose (inappropriate) assessment of ischemia led to the diagnosis of a serious illness in the left coronary trunk. If the number of patients benefiting were greater than the number of patients suffering damage (which is not shown), then the cost-effectiveness analysis enters into play. How many patients must take the examination for one to benefit from the use of this biomarker? And at what cost? This can be understood as the revenue (yield) of the examination, often described by the number of individuals that must be tested for one to benefit (NNTestar).  </p>
    <p>In the article &#8220;Biomarkers in Cardiology,&#8221; we introduce the potential for new tests under the critical eye of the concept of effectiveness.  </p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Efetividade de Biomarcadores em Cardiologia</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Correia</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Cl&#225;udio Lemos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica, Salvador, BA - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Luis Cl&#225;udio Lemos Correia</bold>, Av. Princesa Leopoldina, 19/402. CEP 40.150-080, Salvador, BA - Brasil. E-mail:   <email>lccorreia@cardiol.br</email></corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Marcadores Biol&#243;gicos</kwd>
        <kwd>Efet ividade</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares/gen&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Preven&#231;&#227;o de Doen&#231;as</kwd>
        <kwd>Pr&#225;tica Cl&#237;nica Baseada em Evid&#234;ncias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>Al&#233;m de acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica ou progn&#243;stica, &#233; necess&#225;rio que um biomarcador seja efetivo para garantir a utilidade de sua implementa&#231;&#227;o na rotina cl&#237;nica. Efetividade pode ser entendida como o potencial do indiv&#237;duo se beneficiar com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do biomarcador. Este benef&#237;cio diz respeito &#224; preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos cl&#237;nicos indesejados ou &#224; melhora na qualidade de vida do indiv&#237;duo.</p>
      <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da efetividade de um biomarcador deve passar por dois crit&#233;rios sequenciais. Primeiro, o biomarcador deve ter valor progn&#243;stico incremental em rela&#231;&#227;o a dados cl&#237;nicos e laboratoriais b&#225;sicos. Segundo, a informa&#231;&#227;o oferecida pelo biomarcador deve promover mudan&#231;a de conduta m&#233;dica que, em &#250;ltima inst&#226;ncia, beneficie o paciente. Come&#231;ando pela an&#225;lise do valor progn&#243;stico, um novo biomarcador deve possuir valor preditor independentemente de marcadores de risco cl&#225;ssicos. No entanto, esse crit&#233;rio de signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica n&#227;o &#233; suficiente para garantir signific&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica. Uma vez confirmada a signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica em an&#225;lise multivariada, deve-se prosseguir e avaliar se o biomarcador incrementa nossa capacidade de discriminar indiv&#237;duos que apresentar&#227;o o desfecho indesejado. Isso se faz pela an&#225;lise incremental da estat&#237;stica C e an&#225;lise de reclassifica&#231;&#227;o l&#237;quida<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. Por exemplo, embora a prote&#237;na C reativa de alta sensibilidade tenha associa&#231;&#227;o independente com risco cardiovascular, esta pouco incrementa a capacidade discriminat&#243;ria do escore de Framingham<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. J&#225; o escore de c&#225;lcio coron&#225;rio &#233; capaz de incrementar a estat&#237;stica C de Framingham, al&#233;m de reclassificar corretamente parte dos pacientes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. Esse valor incremental &#233; condi&#231;&#227;o essencial para que um biomarcador seja efetivo, pois s&#243; assim seu resultado pode modificar corretamente a decis&#227;o cl&#237;nica.</p>
      <p>Entretanto, o valor incremental ainda n&#227;o &#233; a &#250;ltima inst&#226;ncia na defini&#231;&#227;o de efetividade, porque &#233; necess&#225;rio que o resultado do biomarcador promova a&#231;&#245;es que tragam benef&#237;cio ao paciente. Para facilitar essa discuss&#227;o, usaremos o exemplo do teste ergom&#233;trico, o qual deve ser considerado inapropriado para pesquisa de doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria em indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. A incompreens&#227;o de alguns do porqu&#234; da classifica&#231;&#227;o de inapropriado para o teste ergom&#233;trico nessa circunst&#226;ncia deriva da incorreta cren&#231;a de que o valor progn&#243;stico <italic>per si</italic> justifica a implementa&#231;&#227;o de um teste. No entanto, esse argumento se restringe &#224; primeira etapa da avalia&#231;&#227;o da efetividade de um biomarcador, descrita anteriormente. O diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria no assintom&#225;tico talvez seja o melhor exemplo de uma informa&#231;&#227;o que n&#227;o modifica a conduta cl&#237;nica a ponto de beneficiar o paciente. Primeiro, porque estrat&#233;gias de controle de fatores de risco j&#225; s&#227;o bem direcionadas com base na avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco global do indiv&#237;duo. Segundo, o eventual diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria obstrutiva no assintom&#225;tico n&#227;o deve induzir a estrat&#233;gias invasivas, visando &#224; revasculariza&#231;&#227;o, pois o benef&#237;cio desse tipo de tratamento reside no controle de sintomas, sem redu&#231;&#227;o de risco de infarto ou morte<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. N&#227;o h&#225; sentido em instituir um tratamento para controle de sintomas em paciente assintom&#225;tico. Al&#233;m disso, alguns desses pacientes sofrem preju&#237;zo, desfechos indesejados decorrentes de procedimentos desnecess&#225;rios<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Esse tipo de racioc&#237;nio pode ser complementado por ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados, que comparam o desfecho de pacientes entre grupos randomizados para a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um teste   <italic>versus</italic> a n&#227;o utiliza&#231;&#227;o. &#201; o exemplo do estudo DIAD, que randomizou diab&#233;ticos assintom&#225;ticos para realiza&#231;&#227;o ou n&#227;o de cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica, sugerindo que a evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica dos pacientes foi igual, sem redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares no grupo cintilografia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Por esse motivo, a campanha <italic>Choosing Wisely</italic>, do American Board of Internal Medicine, com apoio do American College of Cardiology, recomenda que n&#227;o se utilizem exames de imagem para pesquisa anual de doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Pelo mesmo motivo, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de PSA como triagem de c&#226;ncer de pr&#243;stata foi proscrito pelo US Prevention Taks Force<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. Esses s&#227;o exemplos de recomenda&#231;&#245;es do uso de testes diagn&#243;sticos tendo o conceito de efetividade em mente.  </p>
      <p>Mesmo assim, algu&#233;m poderia trazer um exemplo de paciente assintom&#225;tico cuja avalia&#231;&#227;o (inapropriada) de isquemia levou ao diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a grave no tronco de coron&#225;ria esquerda. Se o n&#250;mero de pacientes a se beneficiar fosse maior que o n&#250;mero de pacientes que sofrem preju&#237;zo (isso n&#227;o est&#225; demonstrado), nesse momento entraria a an&#225;lise de custo-efetividade. Quantos pacientes devem realizar o exame para que um se beneficie do uso desse biomarcador? E a que custo? Isso pode ser entendido como rendimento (<italic>yield</italic>) do exame, muitas vezes descrito pelo n&#250;mero necess&#225;rio a testar de indiv&#237;duos para que um se beneficie (NNTestar).</p>
      <p>No artigo &#8220;Biomarcadores em cardiologia&#8221;, apresentamos o potencial de novos testes sob a &#243;tica cr&#237;tica do conceito de efetividade.</p>
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