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<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" dtd-version="3.0" article-type="research-article" xml:lang="en">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">hb9KMgCcvTPs6fpnkSjhWkm</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2014002100011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2014005040057</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20140057</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Multimodality Imaging of Heart Valve
               Disease</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rajani</surname>
            <given-names>Ronak</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Khattar</surname>
            <given-names>Rajdeep</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chiribiri</surname>
            <given-names>Amedeo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Victor</surname>
            <given-names>Kelly</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chambers</surname>
            <given-names>John</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">St. Thomas' Hospital</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Cardiology</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">London</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>United Kingdom</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Cardiology, St. Thomas' Hospital,
               London - United Kingdom</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Royal Brompton Hospital</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Department of Cardiology</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">London</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>United Kingdom</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Department of Cardiology, Royal Brompton Hospital,
               London - United Kingdom</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">St. Thomas' Hospital</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">The Rayne Institute</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Divisions of Imaging Sciences</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">London</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>United Kingdom</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Divisions of Imaging Sciences, The Rayne Institute,
               St. Thomas' Hospital, London - United Kingdom</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing address: Ronak Rajani</bold>, Department of Cardiology, Westminster
               Bridge Road, St Thomas&#8217; Hospital, London, SE1 7EH. United Kingdom. E-mail:
                  <email>Dr.R.Rajani@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>09</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>103</volume>
      <issue>03</issue>
      <fpage>251</fpage>
      <lpage>263</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2014</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
                  Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits unrestricted
                  non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
                  original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Unidentified heart valve disease is associated with a significant morbidity and
               mortality. It has therefore become important to accurately identify, assess and
               monitor patients with this condition in order that appropriate and timely
               intervention can occur. Although echocardiography has emerged as the predominant
               imaging modality for this purpose, recent advances in cardiac magnetic resonance and
               cardiac computed tomography indicate that they may have an important contribution to
               make. The current review describes the assessment of regurgitant and stenotic heart
               valves by multimodality imaging (echocardiography, cardiac computed tomography and
               cardiac magnetic resonance) and discusses their relative strengths and
               weaknesses.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Diagnostic Imaging</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Valve Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiac Imaging</kwd>
        <kwd>Techniques / trends</kwd>
        <kwd>Magnetic Resonance Imaging</kwd>
        <kwd>Tomography</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="55"/>
        <page-count count="13"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Heart valve disease causes significant morbidity and premature death but also carries a
            sizeable health economic burden. The population prevalence of moderate or severe valve
            disease is 2.5% in industrially developed countries<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>, but this rises to 13% at age &#8805; 75 years. Therefore, as our population
            ages, clinicians will increasingly need to identify and monitor valve disease. Judging
            the appropriateness and timing of interventions will become progressively harder in the
            face of cardiac and extracardiac comorbidities.</p>
      <p>Echocardiography is the cornerstone of assessing heart valve disease. It is affordable,
            accessible and backed by a strong evidence base (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table
               1</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. However, cardiac magnetic
            resonance imaging and cardiac computed tomography (CT) are increasingly useful. This
            review addresses the roles and limitations of each of these modalities for the
            assessment of patients with heart valve disease.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t01">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Severity grading of heart valve disease</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th>&#160;</th>
              <th>
                <bold>Mild</bold>
              </th>
              <th>
                <bold>Moderate</bold>
              </th>
              <th>
                <bold>Severe</bold>
              </th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr>
              <td colspan="4">Aortic stenosis</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Peak velocity (m/s)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 3</td>
              <td align="center">3-4</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 4</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Mean gradient (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 25 (&lt; 30 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn01t01">*</xref> )</td>
              <td align="center">25-40 (30-50 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn01t01">*</xref> )</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 40 (&gt; 50 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn01t01">*</xref> )</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Valve area (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 1.5</td>
              <td align="center">1-1.5</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Indexed valve area (cm<sup>2</sup>/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 0.85</td>
              <td align="center">0.60-0.85</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.60</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Velocity ratio</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 0.50</td>
              <td align="center">0.25-0.5</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.25</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td colspan="4">
                <bold>Aortic regurgitation</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Colour Doppler width (%)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 25</td>
              <td align="center">25-65</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 65%</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Regurgitant volume (mls/beat)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 30</td>
              <td align="center">30-59</td>
              <td align="center">&#8805; 60</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Vena contracta width</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 3</td>
              <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 6</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Regurgitant fraction (%)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 30</td>
              <td align="center">30-49</td>
              <td align="center">&#8805; 50</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Pressure half-time (msec)</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 500 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn01t01">*</xref></td>
              <td align="center">250-450</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 200 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn01t01">*</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td colspan="4">
                <bold>Mitral stenosis</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Valve area (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 1.5</td>
              <td align="center">1-1.5</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Mean gradient (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 5</td>
              <td align="center">5-10</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 10</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Pulmonary artery pressure (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 20</td>
              <td align="center">30-50</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 50</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td colspan="4">
                <bold>Mitral regurgitation</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Vena contracta width (mm)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 3</td>
              <td align="center">3-7</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 7</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Regurgitant volume (mls/beat)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 30</td>
              <td align="center">30-59</td>
              <td align="center">&#8805; 60 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn02t01">a</xref>
                        /&#8805;30 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn02t01">b</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Regurgitant fraction (%)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 30</td>
              <td align="center">30-49</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 50</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Regurgitant orifice area (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 0.2</td>
              <td align="center">0.2-0.39</td>
              <td align="center">&#8805; 0.4 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn02t01">a</xref>
                        /&#8805; 0.2 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn02t01">b</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td colspan="4">
                <bold>Tricuspid stenosis</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Valve area (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
              <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 1</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td colspan="4">
                <bold>Tricuspid regurgitation</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Vena contracta width (mm)</td>
              <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              <td align="center">7</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Flow reversal - hepatic veins</td>
              <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              <td align="center">Present</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td colspan="4">
                <bold>Pulmonary stenosis</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Peak gradient (mmHg)</td>
              <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              <td align="center">&gt; 60</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td colspan="4">
                <bold>Pulmonary regurgitation</bold>
              </td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td>Pressure half-time (msec)</td>
              <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              <td align="center">&lt; 100</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
        <table-wrap-foot>
          <fn>
            <p>Adapted from: Bonow and cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref> .</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="tfn01t01">
            <label>*</label>
            <p>European Association of Echocardiography recommendations <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> .</p>
          </fn>
          <fn id="tfn02t01">
            <p>Thresholds for primary<sup>a</sup> and secondary<sup>b</sup> mitral
                     regurgitation.</p>
          </fn>
        </table-wrap-foot>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The aortic valve</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Echocardiography</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Aortic stenosis</title>
          <p>Aortic stenosis (AS) is differentiated from 'sclerosis' by a reduction in valve
                  opening (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref>) with a peak transaortic
                  velocity &gt; 2.5 m/s. It is graded using a minimum dataset of the peak velocity,
                  mean pressure gradient and effective orifice area (EOA)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn01">a</xref>
                  <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f01" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Echocardiographic appearances of the aortic valve in short axis. Figure
                        1A shows the three-dimensional appearance of a tricuspid aortic valve on
                        transoesophageal echocardiography; Figure 1B shows the appearance of a
                        bicuspid aortic valve on transthoracic echocardiography; and Figures 1C and
                        1D shows the appearances of a quadricuspid aortic valve in systole and
                        diastole.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
          <p>Echocardiography provides information on left ventricular (LV) systolic and
                  diastolic anatomy and function. It also assesses the rest of the heart especially
                  the aorta, the mitral valve and the right heart. Exercise echocardiography may
                  reveal indications for surgery in patients with asymptomatic severe AS: symptoms
                  (Class I), a fall in blood pressure below baseline (Class IIa) or an increase in
                  mean gradient of &gt; 20 mmHg (Class IIb)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Discrepant measures of Aortic Stenosis severity</title>
          <p>It is relatively common to find that the velocity and gradient are discrepant with
                  the EOA. The first step should be to review the measurements (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Table 2</xref>) looking for errors. Transvalvular
                  gradients in the severe range and the EOA in the moderate range may be caused by
                  erroneously low placement of the pulsed sample volume and the diameter of the LV
                  outflow tract (LVOT) may be difficult to measure correctly. This situation can
                  also be a genuine effect of increased flow for example as a result of sepsis,
                  anaemia, or coexistent significant aortic regurgitation (AR).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t02">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Resolving discrepant measurements of aortic stenosis severity</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>&#160;</td>
                  <td>&#160;</td>
                  <td align="center">Assess valve opening</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>Severe area (&lt; 1.0 cm<sup>2</sup>)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>&#160;</td>
                  <td align="center">Assess waveform shape (triangular = moderate) </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>Moderate gradient (&lt; 30-40 mmHg)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>&#160;</td>
                  <td align="center">Index EOA to BSA ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref> )</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                  <td>&#160;</td>
                  <td>&#160;</td>
                  <td align="center">If EF &lt;40% or VTI &lt;15 consider stress
                              echocardiogram</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>&#160;</td>
                  <td>&#160;</td>
                  <td align="center">Check positioning of sub-aortic pulsed sample is away
                              from the valve</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>Severe gradient (V max &gt; 4m/s)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>&#160;</td>
                  <td align="center">Check measurement of LVOT diameter</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>Moderate area (&gt; 1.0 cm<sup>2</sup>)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>&#160;</td>
                  <td align="center">Flow may be increased because of concomitant aortic
                              regurgitation (assess valve opening and waveform shape)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn>
                <p>EOA: effective orifice area; BSA: body surface area; EF: ejection
                           fraction; VTI: velocity-time integral; LVOT: left ventricular outflow
                           tract.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>If the velocity and gradient are moderate but the EOA is severe, the situation has
                  a number of possible explanations. There is evidence that the cut-points for
                  orifice area may not be valid and effective areas between 0.8 and 1.0
                     cm<sup>2</sup> may sometimes be moderate rather than severe. The shape of the
                  waveform and appearance and mobility of the valve may help to differentiate
                  moderate from severe and it may also help to index EOA to body surface area (BSA).
                  If the LVOT diameter is thought to be inaccurate, the use of the dimensionless
                  velocity ratio may also give a guide. However it is increasingly recognised that
                  this situation can be caused by low flow.</p>
          <p>Traditionally low flow AS was diagnosed by an EOA &lt; 1 cm<sup>2</sup>, mean
                  gradient &lt; 30 to 40 mmHg<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref> and LV
                  ejection fraction &lt; 40%. However a thick-walled LV with a small cavity can
                  eject a low stroke volume even with a normal ejection fraction. Low flow may then
                  be recognised with a subaortic velocity integral of &lt; 15 cm, indexed stroke
                  volume 35 mL/m<sup>2</sup> or a calculated flow of &lt; 200 mL/s. If the LV
                  ejection fraction is low or if the EOA is just within the severe range and the
                  gradient only low moderate, a dobutamine stress echocardiogram should be
                  considered. This confirms severe AS if the mean gradient exceeds 30 to 40 mmHg
                  during any stage of the dobutamine infusion, provided that the EOA remains &lt;
                  1.2 cm<sup>2</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. It also determines LV contractile reserve
                  shown by an increase in stroke volume, velocity integral or ejection fraction by
                  &gt; 20%.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>The effect of aortic physiology</title>
          <p>Hypertension or the resulting decreased aortic compliance adds to the resistance
                  at the aortic valve (AV) to increase the total LV outflow impedance. This may
                  result in severe LV systolic or diastolic dysfunction, even if the AS is
                     moderate<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Blood pressure measurements should ideally
                  be taken at the time of echocardiography to ensure valid comparison between serial
                     studies<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> using a number of indices of
                  aortic and AV combined impedance<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">14</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. However, these
                  are not in routine clinical use pending long-term outcome data.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Aortic Regurgitation</title>
          <p>The aetiology is shown on two-dimensional imaging and may be valvar or secondary
                  to aortic dilatation or both<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. Valve diseases
                  include calcific disease, bicuspid AV, infective endocarditis and rheumatic
                  disease. Colour Doppler provides a semi-quantitative assessment (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>). Severe regurgitation is shown by a
                  vena contracta width &gt; 6 mm or the height of the jet &#8805; 65% LVOT diameter<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. The pressure half-time of the continuous wave (CW) Doppler signal
                  is less reliable because it also depends on LV diastolic pressure, chamber
                  compliance and systemic vascular resistance<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>. Severe AR is also confirmed by the detection of pandiastolic flow
                  reversal in the proximal descending aorta with an end-diastolic velocity typically
                  &gt; 20 cm/s<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 2</xref>). The regurgitant volume (RVol) and fraction can be
                  calculated by either pulsed wave (PW) Doppler or by the proximal isovelocity
                  surface area method. A RVol of &#8805; 60 mls and a regurgitant fraction of &#8805; 50% are
                  taken to be indicative of severe AR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
          <fig id="f02" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Two-dimensional transthoracic appearances of severe aortic
                        regurgitation. Figure 2A shows the aortic regurgitant jet occupying 100% of
                        the left ventricular outflow tract diameter in the parasternal long axis
                        view and Figure 2B, 100% of the left ventricular outflow tract in the apical
                        three chamber view. Figure 2C shows pandiastolic flow reversal in the
                        proximal descending aorta on colour M-Mode.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Evaluation of the left ventricle</title>
          <p>With chronic AR, the left ventricle dilates and there is eccentric hypertrophy to
                  ameliorate the ensuing increase in wall stress. Subendocardial fibrosis develops
                  and as the LV ejection falls, LV failure will ultimately supervene, if surgery is
                  not performed. In asymptomatic severe AR, surgery is therefore indicated when the
                  LVEF &#8804; 50% (Class I indication) or with a left ventricular end diastolic dimension
                  (LVEDD) &gt; 70 mm, or left ventricular end systolic diameter (LVESD) &gt; 50 mm
                  (or BSA indexed LVESD &gt; 25 mm/m<sup>2</sup>) (Class IIa). Newer measures of
                  subclinical LV impairment (strain and tissue Doppler imaging) have been proposed
                  but are not in clinical use. There is no clear role for stress echocardiography in
                  AR although the evaluation of symptoms may be useful.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac Computed Tomography</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Aortic Stenosis</title>
          <p>Coincidental AV calcification on a routine non-contrast enhanced CT scan may alert
                  clinicians to the need for echocardiography (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure
                     3</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>23<sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. However, CT is not a first line
                  investigation because it cannot provide haemodynamic data and requires ionising
                  radiation and iodinated contrast agents. Imaging of the AV must be performed in
                  both systole and diastole to permit reconstructions at every 5% to 10% of the
                  cardiac cycle. From these, the geometric orifice area can be estimated by
                  planimetry (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figure 3</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. CT can also provide LV volume and function, and accurate
                  measurements of the ascending aorta. It can quantify calcium if a 'porcelain'
                  aorta is suspected on the echocardiogram or invasive coronary angiogram. CT is
                  essential for evaluating the aortic root before transcatheter AV implantation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>, and can detect pannus and evaluate prosthetic valve function<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>. CT may also be used for the assessment of
                  concomitant coronary disease before AV surgery especially in the presence of AV
                  vegetations (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t03">Table 3</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f03" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Cardiac computed tomography of a bicuspid aortic valve. Figure 3A shows
                        the morphology and distribution of aortic valve calcium in a patient with a
                        bicuspid aortic valve on a multiplanar reformatted image. Figure 3B shows
                        planimetry of the bicuspid aortic valve and Figure 3C the ascending aorta
                        anatomy.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
          <table-wrap id="t03">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Cardiac computerized tomography and the assessment of the aortic
                        valve</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>&#160;</th>
                  <th>
                    <bold>Cardiac computerized tomography</bold>
                  </th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="7">
                    <bold>Aortic stenosis</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Valve morphology</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Aortic valve calcification</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Accurate aortic annulus size</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Aortic dimensions</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Aortic valve planimetry</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">TAVI assessment</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Coronary assessment</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="4">
                    <bold>Aortic regurgitation</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Valve morphology</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Leaflet mal-coaptation</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Aortic dimensions</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Coronary assessment</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td rowspan="2">
                    <bold>Suspected endocarditis</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center">Aortic root abscesses</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Localised aneurysm formation</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn>
                <p>TAVI: transcatheter aortic heart valve.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Aortic Regurgitation</title>
          <p>The role of cardiac CT in the assessment AR is limited. If appropriate phase
                  reconstructions from the cardiac cycle are available from a cardiac CT scan
                  performed for other reasons (e.g. coronary imaging), then it is reasonable to use
                  multiplanar reformatted images to assess the configuration and morphology of the
                  AV and to look for areas of malcoaptation of the valve leaflets. Although
                  malcoaptation on cardiac CT has been shown to have a sensitivity of 95% and
                  specificity of 95% to 100% for the detection of moderate-severe AR, measurements
                  of the AR area by planimetry are less reliable when compared to transthoracic
                  echocardiography (TTE) as a gold standard<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Aortic Stenosis</title>
          <p>AS may be detected on cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) by the
                  identification of flow turbulence on bright blood sequences within the LVOT and
                  into the ascending aorta (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t04">Table 4</xref> and
                     <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figure 4</xref>). The valve can be imaged using
                  bright blood sequences. The geometric orifice area, measured by planimetry,
                  correlates well, but systematically underestimates compared with TEE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figures 5</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">6</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. The main reasons for this are the complex
                  three-dimensional shape of the stenotic orifice, the leaflet calcification and the
                  associated jet turbulence making an accurate visualization of the true stenotic
                  orifice difficult. CMR has the added benefit of being able to measure flow and
                  velocity across any tubular structure using velocity encodinged (VENC) contrast
                  sequences. With optimal plane selection at the aortic root, the peak transaortic
                  velocity can be obtained from which the peak instantaneous gradient can be
                  derived, using the simplified Bernoulli equation (4V<sup>2</sup>). This technique
                  requires careful mapping of the area of interest for each frame of the cardiac
                  cycle and an appropriate selection of maximum velocity to be programmed into the
                  pulse sequence to avoid aliasing. Peak gradients across the AV by VENC correlate
                  well, but slightly underestimate, the peak gradient obtained CW Doppler on
                     TTE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t04">
            <label>Table 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Cardiac computerized tomography and the assessment of the aortic
                        valve</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Electrocardiogram gating</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Breath hold acquisitions</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Balanced steady-state free precession imaging for cine sequencing in
                              multiple imaging planes (two, three and four chamber&#8217;s
                              views)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Velocity encoded cine phase contrast imaging in plane and through
                              plane for velocity and flow data</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Short axis stack for quantification of regurgitant volume and left
                              ventricular systolic volumes and function</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Late gadolinium enhancement for the detection of myocardial
                              fibrosis</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <fig id="f04" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging of a bicuspid aortic valve in
                        diastole (A) and systole (B). Turbulence through the aortic valve is seen as
                        white. Figure 4C shows the use of cardiovascular magnetic resonance at also
                        looking at the aortic root in the same patient in who an aortic coarctation
                        was detected (black arrow).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
          <fig id="f05" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figure 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging of aortic regurgitation using
                        steady-state free precession imaging. The aortic regurgitation is seen as a
                        black jet projecting into the left ventricular cavity in the coronal (5A)
                        and apical five-chamber views (5B). Figure 5C shows a flow/volume curve
                        derived from velocity encoding imaging to calculate the regurgitant
                        volume.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
          <fig id="f06" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figure 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Two-dimensional and three-dimensional echocardiographic assessment of
                        mitral regurgitation. Severe mitral regurgitation is seen on colour Doppler
                        imaging in the apical four-chamber view (6A) and on spectral Doppler imaging
                        (6B). Figures 6C and D show the use of three-dimensional transoesophageal
                        echocardiography to model the mitral valve anatomy in an individual with
                        severe function mitral regurgitation</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
          <p>Cardiac magnetic resonance is the gold standard method of measuring LV mass and
                  volume and can also assess systolic and diastolic LV function. It can
                  differentiate sub-valvular and supravalvular stenosis by inplane velocity mapping.
                  It can assess the whole aorta, which may be important in patients with a bicuspid
                  AV, in whom the echocardiographic window does not permit adequate imaging above
                  the root. New studies suggest that CMR detects myocardial fibrosis using late
                  Gadolinium enhancement, which may portend a worse clinical outcome<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Aortic Regurgitation</title>
        <p>This can be identified by the detection of diastolic backwards flow into the LVOT
               upon steady-state free precession (SSFP) cine imaging in the three-chamber/LVOT view
                  (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 5</xref>). An accurate quantification of
               RVol and fraction can then be obtained using inplane flow imaging which is able to
               measure both the forward flow and the regurgitant flow across the AV. From this, the
               regurgitant fraction can be derived [(RVol/forward flow) x 100]. This technique is
               dependent upon careful tracing around the area of interest of each frame of the
               cardiac cycle and the selection of the correct plane at which to measure the forward
               and regurgitant flows (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figure 5</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>. CMR's excellent reproducibility for AR flow
               and LV volumes is useful for serial examinations when determining the timing of
                  surgery<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The mitral valve</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Echocardiography</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Mitral Regurgitation</title>
          <p>Mitral Regurgitation (MR) may be primary (organic) or secondary (functional).
                  Primary causes include mitral valve prolapse ('degenerative' disease),
                  endocarditis and rheumatic disease. Secondary causes include any causes of LV
                  dysfunction most commonly ischaemic heart disease, hypertension and dilated
                  cardiomyopathy. These can all be detected by echocardiography. Colour Doppler
                  detects MR and quantifies its severity (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure
                     6</xref>) from the vena contracta width or effective regurgitant orifice area
                  (EROA), volume (RVol) and regurgitant fraction using the PISA method (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. Severe MR is likely if the vena contract width is &gt; 7 mm and is
                  supported by a peak transmitral velocity &gt; 1.5 m/s and a mitral VTI: aortic VTI
                  ratio &gt; 1.4<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>. Three-dimensional TTE or
                  transoesophageal echocardiography may provide additional anatomical and
                  quantitative information in patients with complex mitral valve lesions (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figure 6</xref>). Exercise echocardiography may be
                  useful in patients with discordant symptoms to provide information on changes in
                  MR, LV systolic function and pulmonary artery pressure. An exercise-induced
                  increase in pulmonary artery systolic pressure to &gt; 60 mmHg is a criterion for
                  surgery if repair is feasible. In functional MR caused by ischaemic disease, an
                  exercise-induced increase in EROA &#8805; 13 mm<sup>2</sup> is associated with a much
                  worse prognosis in those with ischaemic MR.</p>
          <p>In asymptomatic patients with severe primary MR surgery is indicated when: the
                  LVEF &#8804; 60% (Class I)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>, or LVESD &#8805; 45 mm (Class I)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>, or even &#8805; 40 mm (Class I)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref> provided the valve is repairable. For
                  patients with secondary MR undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting mitral
                  repair usually with a small annuloplasty ring is recommended if there is moderate
                  or severe regurgitation. However, if surgery is being considered for
                  breathlessness as a result of the MR rather than for ischaemic heart disease, the
                  recommended indications are<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>: (1) if the
                  LVEF is &lt; 30% and there is both evidence of significant viability and the
                  possibility of revascularisation or (2) if there is no viability provided the LVEF
                  is &gt; 30%, full medical treatment including cardiac resynchronization therapy
                  has been ineffective and there is no significant comorbidity.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Mitral stenosis</title>
          <p>Rheumatic heart disease results in a typical appearance on two-dimensional
                  echocardiography. The leaflet tips are thickened and commissural fusion results in
                  diastolic bowing of the leaflets in a hockey-stick shaped deformity. The chordae
                  tendinae are also thickened and become matted together. Planimetry of the mitral
                  valve orifice area should be performed using the parasternal short axis on a
                  zoomed mid-diastolic frame<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.
                  Three-dimensional transthoracic or transoesophageal echocardiography may be useful
                  to select the correct plane for planimetry. A CW Doppler recording across the
                  mitral valve enables the measurement of the mean transmitral gradient and the
                  pressure half-time. The pulmonary artery systolic pressure is estimated using the
                  tricuspid regurgitation (TR) peak velocity (4 x TR V max) added to an estimated of
                  right atrial mean pressure provided by the size and response of the IVC to a
                  sniff. From the pressure half-time, an estimation of valve area can be made<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn02">b</xref>
                  <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>.</p>
          <p>The grade of mitral stenosis (MS) can then be estimated (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref>).</p>
          <p>Valve EOA can be estimated using the continuity equation or proximal isovelocity
                  surface area method. Exercise echocardiography is indicated in patients with
                  severe symptoms despite apparently only moderate MS. Exercise-induced increases in
                  mean gradient to &#8805; 15 mmHg or pulmonary artery systolic pressures to &#8805; 60 mmHg are
                  indications for intervention provided that balloon mitral valvuloplasty is
                     feasible<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. This is possible in the
                  absence of bicommissural or severe single commissural calcification, severe
                  chordal involvement, calcification and immobility of the valve, more than mild MR,
                  left atrial thrombus and the requirement for intervention for severe involvement
                  of other valves or the coronary arteries<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac Computed Tomography</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Mitral Regurgitation</title>
          <p>The EROA can be measured by planimetry and this has been shown to correlate well
                  with TEE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. Additional information
                  available from cardiac CT includes mitral annulus size, mitral valve leaflet
                  length and calcification, chordae tendinae thickening, left atrial size and the
                  detection of pulmonary oedema. Although cardiac CT with cine imaging can reliably
                  detect and localise segmental leaflet prolapse, this is not routinely
                  performed.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Mitral stenosis</title>
          <p>Cardiac CT is particularly suited to the detection of mitral valve leaflet,
                  commissural and annulus calcification. For an evaluation of the valve components,
                  a reconstruction at 65% of the R-R interval for the open mitral valve and a
                  reconstruction at 5% of the R-R interval are recommended for the closed mitral
                  valve. The geometric orifice area is measured by direct planimetry and has been
                  shown to correlate well with TEE (R = 0.88; p &lt; 0.001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>. Additional information obtainable is left atrial size,
                  left atrial appendage thrombus, right ventricular (RV) hypertrophy and
                  radiographic evidence of pulmonary oedema and pulmonary hypertension.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Mitral Regurgitation</title>
          <p>MR is initially seen as a net loss of signal across the mitral valve representing
                  flow turbulence on SSFP and gradient echo sequences. For a complete anatomical
                  assessment of the mitral valve bright blood cine sequences should be acquired in
                  the two, three and four chamber planes, along with a full LV short-axis stack.
                  Following this, a basal slice from the short axis stack should be selected where
                  the mitral valve is seen. Oblique slices may then be taken perpendicular to the
                  line of coaptation working down from the A1-P1 juncture inferiorly down to the
                  A3-P3 juncture every 5 mm with no inter-slice gap<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>. This system permits the accurate localisation of regurgitant jets
                  and helps to localise dysfunctional mitral valve leaflet scallops. The RVol can be
                  estimated using the LV stroke volume and forward flow within the aorta at the
                  level of the sinus of valsalva using VENC contrast mapping. The regurgitant
                  fraction is then calculated as the [(RVol/LV stoke volume) x 100]<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Mitral stenosis</title>
          <p>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is not used routinely for the assessment of
                  mitral stenosis. Mitral inflow turbulence may be seen on SSFP in-plane imaging and
                  the mitral valve area may be measured using carefully placed through-plane SSFP
                  imaging. Although this technique has been shown to correlate well with echo
                  derived areas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref> it is often limited by the presence of
                  atrial fibrillation and problems with electrocardiogram gating.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The tricuspid valve</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Echocardiography</title>
        <p>Causes of primary (organic) tricuspid valve disease include rheumatic disease,
               endocarditis, prolapse and carcinoid. Secondary (functional) TR is caused by
               abnormalities of the RV either as a result of infarction, volume or pressure
               overload. Colour Doppler imaging is the mainstay for quantification with severe TR
               shown by a vena contracta width &#8805; 7 mm. Although a vena contracta width &lt; 6 mm is
               suggestive of less than moderate regurgitation, there are no well validated cut-offs
               for differentiating mild from moderate TR<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>.
               Additional markers of severe TR are a pulsed Doppler peak E velocity &#8805; 1 m/s, a dense
               CW signal with a fast upstroke (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figure 7</xref>) and
               prominent flow reversal in the hepatic veins<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>. In severe compensated TR, the RV may be normal in size but hyperdynamic.
               With time, the RV dilates progressively and may become hypodynamic as shown by a
               tricuspid annulus excursion &lt; 15 mm or a systolic maximum tissue Doppler velocity
               at the base of the RV free wall of &lt; 11 cm/s<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>.</p>
        <fig id="f07" fig-type="other">
          <label>Figure 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Two-dimensional transthoracic echocardiographic appearances of severe
                     tricuspid regurgitation. In the parasternal tricuspid inflow view, there is
                     mal-coaptation of the anterior and posterior tricuspid valve leaflets (7A) that
                     gives rise to a severe jet of regurgitation seen on colour Doppler imaging 7B.
                     Figure 7C shows the continuous wave Doppler appearance of severe tricuspid
                     regurgitation (dagger shape).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf07.jpg"/></fig>
        <p>In severe tricuspid stenosis (TS), the leaflets will be restricted although there may
               be relatively little thickening compared with left-sided rheumatic disease. Severe
               stenosis is shown by a mean gradient &#8805; 5 mmHg and pressure half time &#8805; 190 ms on CW
               Doppler and a valve area &#8804; 1 cm<sup>2</sup> by the continuity equation. Other
               surrogate measures of significant TS include a dilated right atrium and inferior vena
               cava reflecting elevated right atrial pressures.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac Computed Tomography</title>
        <p>Cardiac CT is of limited use in tricuspid valve disease. It can show secondary
               effects such as right atrial and ventricular dilatation and reflux of contrast into
               the hepatic veins. Occasionally cardiac CT can identify primary lung causes for TR
               induced by pulmonary hypertension such as pulmonary fibrosis or pulmonary embolic
               disease.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</title>
        <p>Significant tricuspid valve disease can be identified by turbulent flow across the
               tricuspid valve with in-plane SSFP imaging. As with MR, TR can be quantified by
               measuring RVol and regurgitant fraction from the forward stroke volume in the main
               pulmonary artery and the measured RV stroke volume on SSFP imaging.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>The pulmonary valve</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Echocardiography</title>
        <p>Two-dimensional imaging may provide clues as to the aetiology of pulmonary valve
               dysfunction e.g. congenital, endocarditis, carcinoid syndrome. Coexistent congenital
               anomalies e.g. atrial septal defect (ASD) should be sought since isolated congenital
               pulmonary valve disease is uncommon. Severe pulmonary valve regurgitation (PR) is
               shown by a wide jet on colour Doppler (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figure
               8</xref>) originating in the distal main pulmonary artery or branches, a pressure
               half-time &lt; 100 ms on CW (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figure 8</xref>) and a
               dilated hyperdynamic RV. For pulmonary stenosis (PS), the primary means for detecting
               stenosis is the visualisation of calcified leaflets or reduced leaflet excursion on
               two-dimensional imaging. A peak trans-pulmonary gradient on CW Doppler of &gt; 60
               mmHg is taken to usually represent severe PS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
        <fig id="f08" fig-type="other">
          <label>Figure 8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Bidimensional transthoracic echocardiographic appearances of severe
                     pulmonary regurgitation. In diastole, the colour Doppler jet is seen to occupy
                     the entirety of the right ventricular outflow tract (8A). On continuous wave
                     Doppler imaging, the pressure half-time is &lt; 100 ms in keeping with severe
                     regurgitation (8B).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf08.jpg"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac Computed Tomography</title>
        <p>Cardiac CT may be useful in defining complex congenital heart anatomy and for
               detecting secondary effects of pulmonary valve disease. Dilatation of the pulmonary
               valve annulus, pulmonary artery dilatation and RV dilatation may be seen with PR, and
               dilatation of the main pulmonary artery and left and right pulmonary arteries, RV
               hypertrophy, right atrial enlargement and bowing of the interatrial septum to the
               left with PS.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</title>
        <p>Cardiac MR is considered to be the gold standard for the assessment of PR. With
               visualisation of PR using cine SSFP imaging and the ability to accurately measure
               RVol and regurgitant fractions with flow imaging, it has now become the technique of
               choice for the serial evaluation of patients with congenital heart disease, in which
               progressive RV dilatation and RV dysfunction is important for the timing of pulmonary
               valve intervention. In patients with PS, turbulent flow can be seen across the
               pulmonary valve with SSFP cine imaging. Although planimetry of the pulmonary valve is
               of limited use, CMR is able to provide accurate peak velocity data across the
               pulmonary valve.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusions</title>
      <p>Echocardiography is the mainstay for the assessment of patients with valve disease.
            Where image quality is poor, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and cardiac computed
            tomography can both image all valves and provide geometric orifice areas. The ascending
            aorta is often suboptimally imaged on echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance
            imaging or cardiac computed tomography are commonly needed to fill this deficiency. Both
            cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and cardiac computed tomography are useful for the
            assessment of complex anatomy in patients with congenital heart disease. Computed
            tomography may be used for evaluating coronary disease often before valve surgery.
            However, it is not indicated for routine valve disease assessment owing to its inability
            to provide haemodynamic information and its inherent need for iodinated contrast agents
            and ionising radiation. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is valuable for its ability
            to provide haemodynamic data and also accurate reproducible measurements of ventricular
            volumes, mass and function. It is considered to be the technique of choice for the
            assessment of pulmonary valve disease and for detecting myocardial scar.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Glossary</title>
      <p><bold>VENC -</bold> Velocity Encoding - a specialized technique for encoding
            flow-velocities on cardiac magnetic resonance imaging.</p>
      <p><bold>SSFP -</bold> Steady-State Free Precession - a gradient echo magnetic resonance
            imaging pulse sequence in which a steady, residual transverse magnetization is
            maintained between successive cycles.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="con">
        <p>
          <bold>Author contributions</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Conception and design of the research: Rajani R, Khattar R, Chiribiri A, Victor K,
               Chambers J; Acquisition of data: Victor K, Chambers J; Analysis and interpretation of
               the data: Victor K, Chambers J; Writing of the manuscript: Rajani R; Khattar R,
               Chiribiri A; Victor K; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content:
               Rajani R, Khattar R, Chiribiri A, Victor K, Chambers J; Supervision/ as the major
               investigator: Rajani R, Victor K, Chambers J.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn id="fn01" fn-type="other">
        <label>a</label>
        <p>
          <mml:math id="eq01">
            <mml:semantics>
              <mml:mstyle mathcolor="#000000" mathsize="12.0pt" mathvariant="normal">
                <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">EOA</mml:mi>
                <mml:mo mathvariant="normal">=</mml:mo>
                <mml:mfrac>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">CSA</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi mathsize="50.0%" mathvariant="normal">LVOT</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                    <mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">VTI</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi mathsize="50.0%" mathvariant="normal">LVOT</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                  </mml:mrow>
                  <mml:msub>
                    <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">VTI</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mi mathsize="50.0%" mathvariant="normal">AV</mml:mi>
                  </mml:msub>
                </mml:mfrac>
                <mml:mspace width="0.33em"/>
              </mml:mstyle>
            </mml:semantics>
          </mml:math>
        </p>
        <p>Where: AV: aortic valve; CSA: cross sectional area; EOA: effective orifice area;
               LVOT: left ventricular outflow tract; VTI: velocity-time integral.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn id="fn02" fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <mml:math id="eq02">
            <mml:semantics>
              <mml:mstyle mathcolor="#000000" mathsize="12.0pt" mathvariant="normal">
                <mml:mfrac>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mi mathvariant="italic">MVA</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mo mathvariant="italic">=</mml:mo>
                    <mml:mn mathvariant="italic">220</mml:mn>
                  </mml:mrow>
                  <mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mi mathvariant="italic">PHalf</mml:mi>
                    <mml:mo mathvariant="italic">&#8722;</mml:mo>
                    <mml:mi mathvariant="italic">time</mml:mi>
                  </mml:mrow>
                </mml:mfrac>
              </mml:mstyle>
            </mml:semantics>
          </mml:math>
        </p>
        <p>Where: MVA: mitral valve area; PHalf-time: pressure half-time.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="pt">T&#233;cnicas de Imagem Multimodal para Valvopatia
               Multimodality</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rajani</surname>
            <given-names>Ronak</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Khattar</surname>
            <given-names>Rajdeep</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff05">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chiribiri</surname>
            <given-names>Amedeo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff06">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Victor</surname>
            <given-names>Kelly</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">1</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chambers</surname>
            <given-names>John</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04">1</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff04">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">St. Thomas' Hospital</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Londres</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Reino Unido</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cardiologia, St. Thomas' Hospital,
               Londres - Reino Unido</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff05">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Royal Brompton Hospital</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Londres</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Reino Unido</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cardiologia, Royal Brompton
               Hospital, Londres - Reino Unido</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff06">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">St. Thomas' Hospital</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">The Rayne Institute</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Divis&#245;es de Ci&#234;ncias da Imagem</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Londres</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Reino Unido</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Divis&#245;es de Ci&#234;ncias da Imagem, The Rayne
               Institute, St. Thomas' Hospital, Londres - Reino Unido</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Ronak Rajani</bold>, Department of Cardiology, Westminster
               Bridge Road, St Thomas' Hospital, London, SE1 7EH. United Kingdom. E-mail:
                  <email>jboydchambers@aol.com</email>.</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract xml:lang="pt">
        <p>Doen&#231;as valvares card&#237;acas n&#227;o identificadas s&#227;o associadas com significativas taxas
               de morbidade e mortalidade. Dessa forma, &#233; importante que os pacientes com essa
               condi&#231;&#227;o sejam corretamente identificados, investigados e monitorizados para que a
               apropriada interven&#231;&#227;o seja feita a tempo. Contudo, a modalidade ecocardiogr&#225;fica
               surgiu predominantemente com esta finalidade, recentes avan&#231;os em resson&#226;ncia
               magn&#233;tica c&#225;rdica e tomografia computadorizada card&#237;aca indicam que provavelmente
               ambos tenham importante contribui&#231;&#227;o. A atual revis&#227;o descreve a avalia&#231;&#227;o das
               v&#225;lvulas card&#237;acas regurgitantes e estenosadas atrav&#233;s de multimodalidade (diversos
               tipos) de imagens (ecocardiografia, tomografia computorizada card&#237;aca e resson&#226;ncia
               magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca), promovendo a discuss&#227;o de seus pontos positivos e negativos.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Diagn&#243;stico por Imagem</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a das Valvas Card&#237;acas</kwd>
        <kwd>T&#233;cnicas de Imagem Card&#237;aca / tend&#234;ncias</kwd>
        <kwd>Imagem por Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>Tomografia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A valvopatia card&#237;aca &#233; causa de significativa morbidade e morte prematura,
               representando, assim, um importante problema de sa&#250;de. A preval&#234;ncia de valvopatia
               card&#237;aca moderada ou severa na popula&#231;&#227;o &#233; de 2,5% nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos e
                  industrializados<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>, mas esse n&#250;mero chega a
               13% no grupo et&#225;rio &#8805; 75 anos. Portanto, &#224; medida que a popula&#231;&#227;o envelhece, cada vez
               mais os cl&#237;nicos ter&#227;o que identificar e monitorar a valvopatia card&#237;aca. Avaliar a
               adequa&#231;&#227;o e o momento das interven&#231;&#245;es &#233; cada vez mais dif&#237;cil devido &#224;s comorbidades
               card&#237;acas e extracard&#237;acas.</p>
        <p>A ecocardiografia &#233; a principal ferramenta para avaliar a valvopatia card&#237;aca.
               Trata-se de recurso acess&#237;vel, fortemente baseado em evid&#234;ncia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t05">Tabela 1</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. Entretanto, a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) e a tomografia
               computadorizada (TC) card&#237;aca tornam-se cada vez mais &#250;teis. Esta revis&#227;o aborda os
               pap&#233;is e limita&#231;&#245;es de cada uma dessas t&#233;cnicas de imagem para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de
               pacientes com valvopatia card&#237;aca.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t05">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Intensidade da valvopatia card&#237;aca</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th>&#160;</th>
                <th>
                  <bold>Leve</bold>
                </th>
                <th>
                  <bold>Moderada</bold>
                </th>
                <th>
                  <bold>Grave</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="4">Estenose a&#243;rtica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Velocidade de pico (m/s)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 3</td>
                <td align="center">3-4</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 4</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Gradiente m&#233;dio (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 25 (&lt; 30 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn01t05">*</xref> )</td>
                <td align="center">25-40 (30-50 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn01t05">*</xref> )</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 40 (&gt; 50 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn01t05">*</xref> )</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#193;rea valvar (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 1,5</td>
                <td align="center">1-1,5</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#193;rea valvar indexada (cm<sup>2</sup>/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 0,85</td>
                <td align="center">0,60-0,85</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,60</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Taxa de velocidade</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 0,50</td>
                <td align="center">0,25-0,5</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,25</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="4">
                  <bold>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Largura Doppler colorido (%)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 25</td>
                <td align="center">25-65</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 65%</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Volume regurgitante (ml/batimento)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 30</td>
                <td align="center">30-59</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 60</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Largura de <italic>vena contracta</italic></td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 3</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 6</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante (%)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 30</td>
                <td align="center">30-49</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 50</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tempo de meia press&#227;o (ms)</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 500 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn01t05">*</xref></td>
                <td align="center">250-450</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 200 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn01t05">*</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="4">
                  <bold>Estenose mitral</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#193;rea valvar (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 1,5</td>
                <td align="center">1-1,5</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Gradiente m&#233;dio (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 5</td>
                <td align="center">5-10</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 10</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Press&#227;o arterial pulmonar (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 20</td>
                <td align="center">30-50</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 50</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="4">
                  <bold>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Largura de <italic>vena contracta</italic> (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 3</td>
                <td align="center">3-7</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 7</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Volume regurgitante (ml/batimento)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 30</td>
                <td align="center">30-59</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 60 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn02t05">a</xref>
                           /&#8805;30 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn02t05">b</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante (%)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 30</td>
                <td align="center">30-49</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 50</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#193;rea do orificio regurgitante (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,2</td>
                <td align="center">0,2-0,39</td>
                <td align="center">&#8805; 0,4 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn02t05">a</xref> /&#8805; 0,2 <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="tfn02t05">b</xref></td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="4">
                  <bold>Estenose tric&#250;spide</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>&#193;rea valvar (cm<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 1</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="4">
                  <bold>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Largura de <italic>vena contracta</italic> (mm)</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">7</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Fluxo reverso - veias hep&#225;ticas</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">Presente</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="4">
                  <bold>Estenose pulmonar</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Gradiente de pico (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&gt; 60</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td colspan="4">
                  <bold>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o pulmonar</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tempo de meia press&#227;o (ms)</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 100</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn>
              <p>Adaptado de: Bonow e cols. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref> .</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="tfn01t05">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es da Associa&#231;&#227;o Europeia de Ecocardiografia <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> .</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="tfn02t05">
              <p>Limites para regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral prim&#225;ria<sup>a</sup> e
                           secund&#225;ria<sup>b</sup>.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A valva a&#243;rtica</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Ecocardiografia</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Estenose a&#243;rtica</title>
            <p>Diferencia-se estenose a&#243;rtica (EA) de 'esclerose' pela redu&#231;&#227;o na abertura da
                     valva (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">Figura 1</xref>) com uma velocidade
                     transa&#243;rtica de pico &gt; 2,5 m/s. &#201; graduada usando-se um conjunto m&#237;nimo de
                     dados de velocidade de pico, gradiente m&#233;dio de press&#227;o e &#225;rea da valva a&#243;rtica
                     efetiva (AVAE)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn03">a</xref>
                     <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t05">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
            <fig id="f09" fig-type="other">
              <label>Figura 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Ecocardiografia: valva a&#243;rtica no eixo curto. Figura 1A mostra a
                           apar&#234;ncia tridimensional da valva a&#243;rtica com tr&#234;s c&#250;spides no
                           ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico; Figura 1B mostra apar&#234;ncia da valva
                           a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide no ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico; e Figuras 1C e 1D
                           mostram apar&#234;ncia da valva a&#243;rtica quadric&#250;spide em s&#237;stole e
                           di&#225;stole.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf01-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            <p>A ecocardiografia fornece informa&#231;&#227;o sobre a anatomia e a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e
                     diast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE). Tamb&#233;m avalia o restante do cora&#231;&#227;o, em
                     especial a aorta, a valva mitral e o cora&#231;&#227;o direito. Com a ecocardiografia de
                     esfor&#231;o, pode-se indicar cirurgia para pacientes com EA grave assintom&#225;tica:
                     sintomas (Classe I), queda na press&#227;o arterial abaixo do basal (Classe IIa) ou
                     aumento do gradiente m&#233;dio &gt; 20 mmHg (Classe IIb)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>
                  </p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Medidas discrepantes de gravidade da estenose a&#243;rtica</title>
            <p>Ao se classificar EA, o encontro de discrep&#226;ncia entre a AVAE e a velocidade e
                     o gradiente &#233; relativamente comum. O primeiro passo deve ser a revis&#227;o das
                     medidas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t06">Tabela 2</xref>) &#224; procura de erros.
                     O encontro de gradientes transvalvares na faixa grave e de AVAE na faixa
                     moderada pode dever-se &#224; localiza&#231;&#227;o equivocadamente baixa do volume amostral
                     pulsado, dificultando a medida correta do di&#226;metro da via de sa&#237;da do VE
                     (VSVE). Tal situa&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m pode resultar de genu&#237;no aumento do fluxo, como
                     observado em sepse, anemia ou significativa regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica (RA)
                     coexistente.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t06">
              <label>Tabela 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Solu&#231;&#227;o para a discrep&#226;ncia das medidas de gravidade da estenose
                           a&#243;rtica</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td align="center">Avaliar a abertura valvar</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>&#193;rea grave (&lt; 1,0 cm<sup>2</sup>)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td align="center">Avaliar o formato da onda (triangular =
                                 moderada)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>Gradiente moderado (&lt; 30-40 mmHg)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td align="center">Indexar AVAE para ASC (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Tabela 1</xref>)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="border-bottom-width:thin;border-bottom-style:solid">
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td align="center">Se FE &lt;40% ou IVT &lt;15, considerar
                                 ecocardiograma de estresse</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td align="center">Checar se a posi&#231;&#227;o da amostra pulsada suba&#243;rtica
                                 est&#225; longe da valva</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>Gradiente grave (Vm&#225;x &gt; 4m/s)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td align="center">Checar medida do di&#226;metro da VSVE</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>&#193;rea moderada (&gt; 1,0 cm<sup>2</sup>)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td align="center">Fluxo pode estar aumentado devido a concomitante
                                 regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica (avaliar</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td>&#160;</td>
                    <td align="center">abertura valvar e formato da onda)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn>
                  <p>AVAE: &#225;rea da valva a&#243;rtica efetiva;ASC: area de superficie corporal;
                              FE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o; IVT: integral velocidade-tempo; VSVE: via de
                              sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Se a velocidade e o gradiente s&#227;o moderados, mas a AVAE &#233; grave, h&#225; v&#225;rias
                     poss&#237;veis explica&#231;&#245;es para a situa&#231;&#227;o. H&#225; evid&#234;ncia de que os pontos de corte
                     para a &#225;rea do orif&#237;cio podem n&#227;o ser v&#225;lidos, sendo que &#225;reas efetivas entre
                     0,8 e 1,0 cm<sup>2</sup> podem &#224;s vezes indicar EA moderada mais do que grave.
                     O formato da onda e a apar&#234;ncia e mobilidade da valva podem ajudar a
                     diferenciar EA moderada de EA grave, e ainda ajudar a indexar AVAE para area de
                     superficie corporal (ASC). Quando se considera impreciso o di&#226;metro da VSVE, o
                     uso de taxa de velocidade adimensional tamb&#233;m pode ser &#250;til. Entretanto,
                     acredita-se que, cada vez mais, tal situa&#231;&#227;o possa ser causada por baixo
                     fluxo.</p>
            <p>Tradicionalmente, a EA de baixo fluxo foi diagnosticada como uma AVAE &lt; 1
                        cm<sup>2</sup>, gradiente m&#233;dio &lt; 30 a 40 mmHg<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>, e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de VE (FEVE) &lt; 40%. No entanto, um
                     VE de parede grossa e pequena cavidade pode apresentar um baixo volume de
                     eje&#231;&#227;o at&#233; mesmo com uma FEVE normal. O baixo fluxo pode ent&#227;o ser reconhecido
                     por uma integral de velocidade suba&#243;rtica &lt; 15 cm, volume de eje&#231;&#227;o indexado
                     de 35 ml/m<sup>2</sup> ou um fluxo calculado &lt; 200 ml/s. Se a FEVE &#233; baixa
                     ou se a AVAE est&#225; na faixa 'grave' e o gradiente &#233; apenas 'baixo-moderado',
                     deve-se considerar a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um ecocardiograma de estresse com
                     dobutamina. Confirma-se a EA grave se o gradiente m&#233;dio excede 30 a 40 mmHg
                     durante qualquer est&#225;gio da infus&#227;o de dobutamina, desde que a AVAE permane&#231;a
                     &lt; 1,2 cm<sup>2</sup>
                     <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Tamb&#233;m determina a reserva contr&#225;til do VE, evidenciada
                     por um aumento no volume de eje&#231;&#227;o, integral da velocidade ou FEVE &gt;
                     20%.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>O efeito da fisiologia a&#243;rtica</title>
            <p>Hipertens&#227;o ou a consequente redu&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica soma-se &#224;
                     resist&#234;ncia da valva a&#243;rtica (VA) para aumentar a imped&#226;ncia total da sa&#237;da do
                     VE. Isso pode resultar em grave disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ou diast&#243;lica do VE, mesmo
                     quando a EA &#233; moderada<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. As medidas
                     de press&#227;o arterial devem ser tomadas idealmente no momento da ecocardiografia
                     para garantir uma compara&#231;&#227;o v&#225;lida entre os estudos seriados<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>, usando v&#225;rios &#237;ndices de imped&#226;ncia
                     a&#243;rtica e de VA combinados<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. No entanto,
                     esses n&#227;o s&#227;o usados na cl&#237;nica rotineiramente devido &#224; falta de dados sobre
                     desfecho de longo termo.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica</title>
            <p>A etiologia da RA &#233; mostrada nas t&#233;cnicas de imagem bidimensional, podendo ser
                     valvar ou secund&#225;ria &#224; dilata&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica ou ambas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>. As
                     valvopatias compreendem calcifica&#231;&#227;o, VA bic&#250;spide, endocardite infecciosa e
                     doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica. O Doppler colorido fornece avalia&#231;&#227;o semiquantitativa (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 2</xref>). A RA grave aparece como uma
                     largura de <italic>vena contracta</italic> &gt; 6 mm ou altura do jato &#8805; 65% do
                     di&#226;metro da VSVE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. O tempo de meia press&#227;o do sinal do
                     Doppler de onda cont&#237;nua &#233; menos confi&#225;vel porque tamb&#233;m depende da press&#227;o
                     diast&#243;lica do VE, complac&#234;ncia de c&#226;mara e resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>. A RA grave tamb&#233;m &#233; confirmada pela
                     detec&#231;&#227;o de fluxo pandiast&#243;lico reverso na aorta descendente proximal com uma
                     velocidade diast&#243;lica final tipicamente &gt; 20 cm/s<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 2</xref>). O
                     volume regurgitante (VolR) e a fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante podem ser calculados por
                     Doppler de onda pulsada ou pelo m&#233;todo de area de superficie de isovelocidade
                     proximal. Um VolR &#8805; 60 ml e uma fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante &#8805; 50% s&#227;o considerados
                     indicativos de RA grave<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
            <fig id="f10" fig-type="other">
              <label>Figura 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Apar&#234;ncia transtor&#225;cica bidimensional de regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica grave.
                           Figura 2A mostra jato a&#243;rtico regurgitante ocupando 100% do di&#226;metro da
                           via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo no corte paraesternal de eixo longo e
                           a Figura 2B mostra 100% da via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo no corte
                           apical de tr&#234;s c&#226;maras. Figura 2C mostra fluxo reverso pandiast&#243;lico na
                           aorta descendente proximal em Modo M colorido.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf02-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</title>
            <p>A RA cr&#244;nica determina dilata&#231;&#227;o do VE, havendo hipertrofia exc&#234;ntrica para
                     melhorar o consequente aumento de estresse na parede. H&#225; desenvolvimento de
                     fibrose subendoc&#225;rdica e, &#224; medida que a eje&#231;&#227;o do VE cai, ocorre insufici&#234;ncia
                     de VE se a cirurgia n&#227;o &#233; realizada. Na RA grave assintom&#225;tica, h&#225; indica&#231;&#227;o de
                     cirurgia quando a FEVE &#8804; 50% (indica&#231;&#227;o Classe I) ou com um di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico
                     final de VE (DDFVE) &gt; 70 mm, ou di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico final de VE (DSFVE) &gt;
                     50 mm (ou DSFVE indexado a ASC &gt; 25 mm/m<sup>2</sup>) (Classe IIa). Medidas
                     mais novas de comprometimento subcl&#237;nico de VE (deforma&#231;&#227;o e Doppler tecidual)
                     foram propostas, mas n&#227;o s&#227;o aplicadas &#224; pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. N&#227;o se conhece o
                     papel da ecocardiografia de estresse na RA, embora a avalia&#231;&#227;o de sintomas
                     possa ser &#250;til.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tomografia computadorizada card&#237;aca</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Estenose a&#243;rtica</title>
            <p>O achado de calcifica&#231;&#227;o em VA em uma TC sem realce de rotina pode alertar para
                     a necessidade de ecocardiografia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura
                        3</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. No entanto, a TC n&#227;o faz parte da
                     investiga&#231;&#227;o de primeira linha, pois n&#227;o pode fornecer dados hemodin&#226;micos e
                     requer radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante e contraste iodado. O exame de imagem da VA deve ser
                     realizado tanto na s&#237;stole quanto na di&#225;stole para permitir reconstru&#231;&#245;es a
                     cada 5%-10% do ciclo card&#237;aco. A partir delas, a &#225;rea geom&#233;trica do orif&#237;cio
                     pode ser estimada por planimetria (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura
                        3</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. A TC tamb&#233;m pode
                     fornecer dados sobre o volume e a fun&#231;&#227;o do VE, al&#233;m de medidas precisas da
                     aorta ascendente. Pode quantificar o c&#225;lcio quando se suspeita de uma aorta em
                     'porcelana' na ecocardiografia ou angiocoronariografia invasiva. A TC &#233;
                     essencial para examinar a raiz da aorta antes da implanta&#231;&#227;o da VA
                        transcateter<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>, e pode detectar <italic>pannus</italic>
                     e analisar a fun&#231;&#227;o da pr&#243;tese valvar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>.
                     Al&#233;m disso, a TC pode ser usada para avaliar a presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria
                     concomitante antes da cirurgia de VA, especialmente na presen&#231;a de vegeta&#231;&#245;es
                     na VA (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t07">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
            <fig id="f11" fig-type="other">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Tomografia computadorizada card&#237;aca de valva a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide.
                           Figura 3A mostra morfologia e distribui&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio na valva a&#243;rtica em
                           paciente com valva a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide em imagem multiplanar reformatada.
                           Figura 3B mostra planimetria de valva a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide e Figura 3C, a
                           anatomia de aorta ascendente.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf03-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            <table-wrap id="t07">
              <label>Tabela 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Tomografia computadorizada card&#237;aca e avalia&#231;&#227;o da valva
                           a&#243;rtica</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>&#160;</th>
                    <th>
                      <bold>Tomografia computadorizada card&#237;aca</bold>
                    </th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="7">
                      <bold>Estenose a&#243;rtica</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Morfologia valvar</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Calcifica&#231;&#227;o valvar a&#243;rtica</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Tamanho preciso do anel a&#243;rtico</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Dimens&#245;es a&#243;rticas</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Planimetria valvar a&#243;rtica</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Avalia&#231;&#227;o de TAVI</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Avalia&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="4">
                      <bold>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Morfologia valvar</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">M&#225; coapta&#231;&#227;o de folhetos</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Dimens&#245;es a&#243;rticas</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Avalia&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td rowspan="2">
                      <bold>Suspeita de endocardite</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center">Abscessos da raiz da aorta</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Forma&#231;&#227;o de aneurisma localizado</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn>
                  <p>TAVI: implanta&#231;&#227;o transcateter de valva a&#243;rtica.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica</title>
            <p>A TC card&#237;aca desempenha papel limitado na avalia&#231;&#227;o da RA. Quando apropriadas
                     reconstru&#231;&#245;es de fase do ciclo card&#237;aco est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis a partir de uma TC
                     card&#237;aca realizada por outros motivos (por exemplo, exame das coron&#225;rias), &#233;
                     razo&#225;vel utilizar imagens multiplanares reformatadas para avaliar a
                     configura&#231;&#227;o e a morfologia da VA e procurar &#225;reas de coapta&#231;&#227;o deficiente dos
                     folhetos valvares. Embora tenha-se demonstrado que a coapta&#231;&#227;o deficiente em TC
                     card&#237;aca tenha sensibilidade de 95% e especificidade de 95%-100% para detec&#231;&#227;o
                     de RA moderada-grave, medidas da &#225;rea de RA por planimetria s&#227;o menos
                     confi&#225;veis quando comparadas &#224;quelas obtidas por ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico
                     (ETT) como padr&#227;o-ouro<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Estenose a&#243;rtica</title>
            <p>A EA pode ser detectada na RMC atrav&#233;s da identifica&#231;&#227;o de turbul&#234;ncia de fluxo
                     em seq&#252;&#234;ncias de sangue brilhante na VSVE e aorta ascendente (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t08">Tabela 4</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 4</xref>). A imagem da valva pode ser obtida atrav&#233;s de seq&#252;&#234;ncias
                     de sangue brilhante. A &#225;rea geom&#233;trica do orif&#237;cio, medida por planimetria,
                     apresenta boa correla&#231;&#227;o, ainda que seja sistematicamente subestimada em
                     compara&#231;&#227;o com aquela obtida no ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico (ETE) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figuras 5</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">6</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. As principais raz&#245;es para isso s&#227;o o
                     complexo formato tridimensional do orif&#237;cio esten&#243;tico, a calcifica&#231;&#227;o do
                     folheto e a turbul&#234;ncia do jato associado, o que dificulta a visualiza&#231;&#227;o
                     precisa do verdadeiro orif&#237;cio esten&#243;tico. A RMC apresenta o benef&#237;cio
                     adicional de poder medir o fluxo e a velocidade atrav&#233;s de qualquer estrutura
                     tubular usando sequ&#234;ncias com contraste e codifica&#231;&#227;o de velocidade (VENC,
                     sigla em ingl&#234;s). Com uma sele&#231;&#227;o de plano &#243;tima na raiz a&#243;rtica, pode-se obter
                     a velocidade transa&#243;rtica de pico, a partir da qual o gradiente instant&#226;neo de
                     pico pode ser derivado, usando-se a equa&#231;&#227;o de Bernoulli simplificada
                        (4V<sup>2</sup>). Essa t&#233;cnica requer cuidadoso mapeamento da &#225;rea de
                     interesse para cada imagem do ciclo card&#237;aco e uma sele&#231;&#227;o apropriada da
                     velocidade m&#225;xima a ser programada na sequ&#234;ncia de pulso para evitar artefatos
                     de <italic>"aliasing"</italic>. Os gradientes de pico atrav&#233;s da VA obtidos com
                     VENC apresentam boa correla&#231;&#227;o, mas s&#227;o levemente subestimados, em compara&#231;&#227;o
                     &#224;queles obtidos atrav&#233;s de Doppler de onda cont&#237;nua no ETT<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref><sup>-</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t08">
              <label>Tabela 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Princ&#237;pios de t&#233;cnica de imagem para valvopatia usando resson&#226;ncia
                           magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sincroniza&#231;&#227;o com eletrocardiograma</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Aquisi&#231;&#245;es durante pausa respirat&#243;ria</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>SSFP balanceada para cine-sequenciamento em m&#250;ltiplos planos
                                 (duas, tr&#234;s e quatro c&#226;maras)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cine-VENC com contraste de fase no plano e atrav&#233;s do plano para
                                 velocidade e fluxo</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Planos de eixo curto para quantifica&#231;&#227;o de volume regurgitante e
                                 volume sist&#243;lico e fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Realce tardio com gadolinio para detec&#231;&#227;o de fibrose
                                 mioc&#225;rdica</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn>
                  <p>SSFP: Precess&#227;o livre no estado estacion&#225;rio; VENC: codifica&#231;&#227;o de
                              imagem</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <fig id="f12" fig-type="other">
              <label>Figura 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca de valva a&#243;rtica bic&#250;spide em di&#225;stole
                           (A) e s&#237;stole (B). Turbul&#234;ncia atrav&#233;s de valva a&#243;rtica &#233; vista em
                           branco. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 4C</xref> mostra o uso de
                           resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica cardiovascular para visualiza&#231;&#227;o de raiz da aorta
                           no mesmo paciente em que se detectou coarcta&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica (seta
                           preta).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf04-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            <fig id="f13" fig-type="other">
              <label>Figura 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca de regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica usando
                           precess&#227;o livre no estado estacion&#225;rio. V&#234;-se a regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica como
                           um jato preto que se projeta na cavidade ventricular esquerda nos cortes
                           coronal (5A) e apical de cinco c&#226;maras (5B). Figura 5C mostra uma curva
                           fluxo/volume derivada da codifica&#231;&#227;o de velocidade para calcular o volume
                           regurgitante.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf05-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            <fig id="f14" fig-type="other">
              <label>Figura 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica bidimensional e tridimensional de
                           regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral. V&#234;-se regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral grave em Doppler colorido
                           no corte apical de quarto c&#226;maras (6A) e em Doppler espectral (6B).
                           Figuras 6C e 6D mostram o uso de ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica
                           tridimensional para modelar a anatomia da valva mitral em indiv&#237;duo com
                           regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral grave. AO: Aorta; A: Anterior; AL: Anterolateral; PM:
                           Posteromedial; P: Posterior.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf06-pt.jpg"/></fig>
            <p>A RMC &#233; o m&#233;todo padr&#227;o-ouro para medir massa e volume de VE, podendo tamb&#233;m
                     avaliar fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica de VE. Pode tamb&#233;m diferenciar estenose
                     subvalvar e supravalvar atrav&#233;s do mapeamento de velocidade no plano. Permite
                     avaliar toda a aorta, o que pode ser importante em pacientes com VA bic&#250;spide,
                     nos quais a janela ecocardiogr&#225;fica n&#227;o permite adequada obten&#231;&#227;o de imagens
                     acima da raiz. Novos estudos sugerem que a RMC detecte fibrose mioc&#225;rdica
                     usando realce tardio com gadol&#237;nio, que pode indicar um pior desfecho
                        cl&#237;nico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica</title>
            <p>Pode ser identificada pela detec&#231;&#227;o de fluxo diast&#243;lico retr&#243;grado para a VSVE
                     com o m&#233;todo de Precess&#227;o Livre no Estado Estacion&#225;rio (SSFP, sigla em ingl&#234;s)
                     no corte de VSVE de tr&#234;s c&#226;maras (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura
                        5</xref>). Uma quantifica&#231;&#227;o precisa do VolR e da fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante pode
                     ser obtida usando-se imagem do fluxo no plano capaz de medir tanto o fluxo
                     anter&#243;grado quanto o regurgitante atrav&#233;s da VA. A partir da&#237;, a fra&#231;&#227;o
                     regurgitante pode ser derivada [(VolR/fluxo anter&#243;grado) x 100]. Essa t&#233;cnica
                     depende de tra&#231;ado cuidadoso em torno da &#225;rea de interesse de cada imagem do
                     ciclo card&#237;aco e sele&#231;&#227;o do plano correto onde medir os fluxos anter&#243;grado e
                     regurgitante (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 5</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>. A excelente reprodutibilidade da RMC
                     para volumes de fluxo de RA e de VE &#233; &#250;til para exames seriados quando da
                     determina&#231;&#227;o do momento da cirurgia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A valva mitral</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Ecocardiografia</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral</title>
            <p>A regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral (RM) pode ser prim&#225;ria (org&#226;nica) ou secund&#225;ria
                     (funcional). As causas da RM prim&#225;ria incluem prolapso da valva mitral (doen&#231;a
                     'degenerativa'), endocardite e doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica. As causas da RM secund&#225;ria
                     incluem as causas de disfun&#231;&#227;o de VE, mais comumente doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica,
                     hipertens&#227;o e miocardiopatia dilatada. Todas essas podem ser detectadas por
                     ecocardiografia. O Doppler colorido detecta RM e quantifica sua gravidade
                        (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura 6</xref>) a partir da largura de
                        <italic>vena contracta</italic> ou &#225;rea do orif&#237;cio regurgitante (AOR)
                     efetiva, VolR e fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante usando o m&#233;todo PISA (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t05">Tabela 1</xref>)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. H&#225; probabilidade de RM grave quando a largura de <italic>vena
                        contracta</italic> &#233; &gt; 7 mm, a velocidade transmitral de pico &#233; &gt; 1,5
                     m/s e a rela&#231;&#227;o IVT mitral: IVT a&#243;rtica &#233; &gt; 1,4 (onde IVT = integral
                        velocidade-tempo)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>. O ETT
                     tridimensional ou o ETE pode fornecer informa&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica e quantitativa
                     adicional em pacientes com les&#245;es complexas de valva mitral (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura 6</xref>). A ecocardiografia de esfor&#231;o pode
                     ser &#250;til em pacientes com sintomas discordantes para fornecer informa&#231;&#227;o sobre
                     mudan&#231;as na RM, fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE e press&#227;o arterial pulmonar. Um aumento
                     na press&#227;o arterial pulmonar sist&#243;lica induzido pelo exerc&#237;cio para &gt; 60
                     mmHg &#233; um crit&#233;rio para indica&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia quando a corre&#231;&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel. Na
                     RM funcional causada por doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica, um aumento em AOR induzido pelo
                     exerc&#237;cio &#8805; 13 mm<sup>2</sup> associa-se a um progn&#243;stico bem pior.</p>
            <p>Em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com grave RM prim&#225;ria, a cirurgia est&#225; indicada
                     quando: FEVE &#8804; 60% (Classe I)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>, ou DSFVE &#8805; 45
                     mm (Classe I)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>, ou at&#233; &#8805; 40 mm (Classe
                        I)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>, uma vez que a valva seja
                     pass&#237;vel de repara&#231;&#227;o. Para pacientes com RM secund&#225;ria submetidos a
                     revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria cir&#250;rgica, em geral recomenda-se a corre&#231;&#227;o mitral
                     com um pequeno anel de anuloplastia na presen&#231;a de regurgita&#231;&#227;o moderada ou
                     grave. Entretanto, recomenda-se cirurgia quando h&#225; falta de ar como resultado
                     de RM e n&#227;o de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica nas seguintes situa&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>: (1) se a FEVE &#233; &lt; 30% e h&#225; evid&#234;ncia
                     de significativa viabilidade e possibilidade de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o; ou (2) quando
                     n&#227;o h&#225; viabilidade, a FEVE &gt; 30%, e o tratamento m&#233;dico completo, incluindo
                     terapia de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, mostrou-se ineficiente, na aus&#234;ncia de
                     significativa comorbidade.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Estenose mitral</title>
            <p>A doen&#231;a card&#237;aca reum&#225;tica tem um aspecto t&#237;pico na ecocardiografia
                     bidimensional. As pontas dos folhetos mostram-se espessadas e a fus&#227;o
                     comissural determina encurvamento dos folhetos em formato de 'taco de h&#243;quei'.
                     As cordas tend&#237;neas mostram-se tamb&#233;m espessadas e tornam-se emaranhadas. A
                     planimetria da &#225;rea valvar mitral deve ser realizada usando-se o eixo curto
                     paraesternal em um <italic>frame</italic> m&#233;dio-diast&#243;lico aumentado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. O ETT ou ETE tridimensional pode ser
                     &#250;til para selecionar o plano correto para planimetria. O registro do Doppler de
                     onda cont&#237;nua atrav&#233;s da valva mitral possibilita medir o gradiente transmitral
                     m&#233;dio e o tempo de meia press&#227;o. Estima-se a press&#227;o arterial pulmonar
                     sist&#243;lica usando-se a velocidade pico de regurgita&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide (RT) (4 x Vm&#225;x
                     RT) somada a uma estimativa da m&#233;dia de press&#227;o atrial direita fornecida pela
                     magnitude e resposta do retorno venoso da veia cava inferior a uma inspira&#231;&#227;o
                     for&#231;ada. Pode-se estimar a &#225;rea valvar a partir do tempo de meia press&#227;o<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn04">b</xref>
                     <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>.</p>
            <p>Pode-se, ent&#227;o estimar o grau de estenose mitral (EM) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t05">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
            <p>A &#225;rea valvar efetiva pode ser estimada usando-se a equa&#231;&#227;o de continuidade ou
                     o m&#233;todo area de superficie de isovelocidade proximal. A ecocardiografia de
                     esfor&#231;o acha-se indicada para pacientes com graves sintomas a despeito da
                     apenas aparente moderada EM. Aumentos induzidos pelo exerc&#237;cio no gradiente
                     m&#233;dio para &#8805; 15 mmHg ou na press&#227;o arterial pulmonar sist&#243;lica para &#8805; 60 mmHg
                     s&#227;o indica&#231;&#245;es de interven&#231;&#227;o, se a valvoplastia mitral por bal&#227;o &#233; vi&#225;vel<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. Isso &#233; poss&#237;vel na aus&#234;ncia de
                     calcifica&#231;&#227;o comissural &#250;nica grave ou bicomissural, grave envolvimento de
                     cordas tend&#237;neas, calcifica&#231;&#227;o e imobilidade da valva, grau de RM maior do que
                     leve, trombo em &#225;trio esquerdo e necessidade de interven&#231;&#227;o para envolvimento
                     grave de outras valvas ou art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tomografia Computadorizada Card&#237;aca</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral</title>
            <p>A AOR efetiva pode ser medida por planimetria, que apresenta boa correla&#231;&#227;o com
                     o ETE<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. Informa&#231;&#227;o adicional obtida a
                     partir da TC card&#237;aca inclui tamanho do anel mitral, comprimento e calcifica&#231;&#227;o
                     do folheto da valva mitral, espessamento de cordas tend&#237;neas, dimens&#227;o do &#225;trio
                     esquerdo e detec&#231;&#227;o de edema pulmonar. Embora a cine TC card&#237;aca possa detectar
                     e localizar de modo confi&#225;vel prolapso segmentar de folheto, ela n&#227;o &#233;
                     realizada de rotina.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Estenose mitral</title>
            <p>A TC card&#237;aca presta-se particularmente para a detec&#231;&#227;o de calcifica&#231;&#227;o de
                     folheto, de comissura e de anel da valva mitral. Para uma avalia&#231;&#227;o dos
                     componentes valvares, recomenda-se uma reconstru&#231;&#227;o a 65% do intervalo R-R para
                     a valva mitral aberta e uma reconstru&#231;&#227;o a 5% do intervalo R-R para a valva
                     mitral fechada. A &#225;rea geom&#233;trica do orif&#237;cio &#233; medida por planimetria direta e
                     mostrou boa correla&#231;&#227;o com o ETE (R = 0,88; p &lt; 0,001)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>. Outras informa&#231;&#245;es que podem ser obtidas incluem:
                     tamanho do &#225;trio esquerdo, trombo em ap&#234;ndice atrial esquerdo, hipertrofia de
                     ventr&#237;culo direito (VD) e evid&#234;ncia radiogr&#225;fica de edema pulmonar e
                     hipertens&#227;o pulmonar.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral</title>
            <p>A RM &#233; vista inicialmente como uma perda de sinal na valva mitral,
                     representando turbul&#234;ncia de fluxo no SSFP e sequ&#234;ncias gradiente-eco. Para uma
                     avalia&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica completa da valva mitral, seq&#252;&#234;ncias de sangue brilhante
                     devem ser adquiridas nos planos de duas, tr&#234;s e quatro c&#226;maras, junto com uma
                     tomada de eixo curto de todo o VE. Em seguida, um corte basal a partir da
                     tomada de eixo curto deve ser selecionado, onde a valva mitral &#233; vista. Cortes
                     obl&#237;quos podem ser ent&#227;o obtidos perpendicularmente &#224; linha de coapta&#231;&#227;o, da
                     jun&#231;&#227;o A1-P1 inferiormente para a jun&#231;&#227;o A3-P3, a cada 5 mm sem intervalo
                        intercorte<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>. Esse sistema permite a
                     precisa localiza&#231;&#227;o dos jatos regurgitantes e auxilia a localizar boceladuras
                     ("scallops") dos folheto da valva mitral disfuncional. O VolR pode ser estimado
                     usando-se o volume de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE e o fluxo anter&#243;grado dentro da aorta ao
                     n&#237;vel do seio de Valsalva usando VENC mapeamento com contraste. Calcula-se
                     ent&#227;o a fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante [(VolR/volume de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE) x 100]<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Estenose mitral</title>
            <p>A RMC n&#227;o &#233; usada rotineiramente para avaliar estenose mitral. A turbul&#234;ncia do
                     fluxo que entra na valva mitral pode ser vista em no plano SSFP e a &#225;rea da
                     valva mitral pode ser medida usando-se SSFP cuidadosamente colocada atrav&#233;s do
                     plano. Embora tenha-se demonstrado que tal t&#233;cnica correlaciona-se bem com
                     &#225;reas derivadas de eco<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>, &#233; com
                     frequ&#234;ncia limitada pela presen&#231;a de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e problemas de
                     sincroniza&#231;&#227;o com o eletrocardiograma.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A valva tric&#250;spide</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Ecocardiografia</title>
          <p>As causas de valvopatia tric&#250;spide prim&#225;ria (org&#226;nica) incluem doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica,
                  endocardite, prolapso e carcinoide. A regurgita&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide (RT) secund&#225;ria
                  (funcional) &#233; causada por anomalias do VD, como resultado de infarto ou sobrecarga
                  de volume ou press&#227;o. O Doppler colorido &#233; a principal t&#233;cnica para quantifica&#231;&#227;o
                  de RT grave apresentada como largura de <italic>vena contracta</italic> &#8805; 7 mm.
                  Embora a largura de <italic>vena contracta</italic> &lt; 6 mm sugira RT de
                  intensidade inferior a moderada, n&#227;o existem pontos de corte bem validados para
                  diferenciar RT leve de RT moderada<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>.
                  Marcadores adicionais de RT grave s&#227;o: pico de velocidade de onda E no Doppler
                  puls&#225;til &#8805; 1 m/s; um sinal denso de Doppler de onda cont&#237;nua com r&#225;pido "upstroke"
                     (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 7</xref>); e importante revers&#227;o de
                  fluxo nas veias hep&#225;ticas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>. Na RT grave
                  compensada, o VD pode ser normal em tamanho, mas hiperdin&#226;mico. Com o tempo, o VD
                  se dilata progressivamente, podendo tornar-se hipodin&#226;mico, como evidenciado por
                  uma excurs&#227;o do anel tric&#250;spide &lt; 15 mm ou uma velocidade sist&#243;lica m&#225;xima no
                  Doppler tecidual na base da parede livre do VD &lt; 11 cm/s<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>.</p>
          <fig id="f15" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figura 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica bidimensional de regurgita&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide
                        grave. No corte paraesternal do fluxo tric&#250;spide, h&#225; m&#225; coapta&#231;&#227;o dos
                        folhetos anterior e posterior da valva tric&#250;spide (7A) que origina um jato
                        de regurgita&#231;&#227;o grave visto no Doppler colorido. Figura 7C mostra
                        regurgita&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide grave em Doppler de onda cont&#237;nua (forma de
                        adaga).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf07-pt.jpg"/></fig>
          <p>Na estenose tric&#250;spide (ET) grave, os folhetos est&#227;o restritos embora possa haver
                  relativamente pouco espessamento comparado &#224;quele da doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica do lado
                  esquerdo. A estenose grave &#233; evidenciada por um gradiente m&#233;dio &#8805; 5 mmHg e tempo
                  de meia press&#227;o &#8805; 190 ms no Doppler de onda cont&#237;nua e &#225;rea valvar &#8804; 1
                     cm<sup>2</sup> pela equa&#231;&#227;o de continuidade. Outras medidas indicativas de ET
                  significativa incluem dilata&#231;&#227;o de &#225;trio direito e de veia cava inferior, que
                  refletem elevadas press&#245;es de &#225;trio direito.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tomografia Computadorizada Card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A TC card&#237;aca tem uso limitado na valvopatia tric&#250;spide. Pode evidenciar efeitos
                  secund&#225;rios, tais como dilata&#231;&#227;o atrial e ventricular direita e refluxo de
                  contraste para as veias hep&#225;ticas. Ocasionalmente, a TC card&#237;aca pode identificar
                  causas pulmonares prim&#225;rias para RT induzida por hipertens&#227;o pulmonar, como
                  fibrose pulmonar ou doen&#231;a pulmonar emb&#243;lica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>Pode-se identificar significativa valvopatia tric&#250;spide pelo fluxo turbulento
                  atrav&#233;s da valva tric&#250;spide com no plano SSFP. Como com a RM, a RT pode ser
                  quantificada atrav&#233;s da medida do VolR e da fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante a partir do volume
                  de eje&#231;&#227;o no tronco da pulmonar e medida de volume de eje&#231;&#227;o no VD por SSFP.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>A valva pulmonar</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Ecocardiografia</title>
          <p>A imagem bidimensional pode fornecer dicas como a etiologia da disfun&#231;&#227;o da valva
                  pulmonar (cong&#234;nita, endocardite, s&#237;ndrome carcinoide). Devem-se procurar
                  anomalias cong&#234;nitas coexistentes, como a comunica&#231;&#227;o interatrial, uma vez que
                  valvopatia pulmonar cong&#234;nita isolada n&#227;o &#233; comum. Grave regurgita&#231;&#227;o da valva
                  pulmonar (RP) &#233; evidenciada por um jato largo originado no tronco da pulmonar ou
                  de seus ramos, no Doppler colorido (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura
                  8</xref>), um tempo de meia pressao &lt; 100 ms no Doppler de onda cont&#237;nua (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 8</xref>) e um VD dilatado e hiperdin&#226;mico.
                  Para a estenose pulmonar (EP), o principal meio de detec&#231;&#227;o &#233; a visualiza&#231;&#227;o de
                  calcifica&#231;&#227;o dos folhetos ou de redu&#231;&#227;o da excurs&#227;o dos mesmos em t&#233;cnica de
                  imagem bidimensional. Considera-se que, no Doppler de onda cont&#237;nua, um gradiente
                  transpulmonar de pico &gt; 60 mmHg represente, em geral, EP grave<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
          <fig id="f16" fig-type="other">
            <label>Figura 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica bidimensional de regurgita&#231;&#227;o pulmonar
                        grave. O Doppler colorido mostra que, na di&#225;stole, o jato ocupa toda a via
                        de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo direito (8A). No Doppler de onda cont&#237;nua, o tempo de
                        meia pressao &#233; &lt; 100 ms, estando de acordo com regurgita&#231;&#227;o grave
                        (8B).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-103-03-0251-40057-gf08-pt.jpg"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tomografia Computadorizada Card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>A TC card&#237;aca pode ser &#250;til para definir a complexa anatomia de cardiopatias
                  cong&#234;nitas e para detectar efeitos secund&#225;rios da valvopatia pulmonar. Na RP, os
                  seguintes itens podem ser encontrados: dilata&#231;&#227;o do anel da valva pulmonar;
                  dilata&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria pulmonar; e dilata&#231;&#227;o de VD. Na EP, os seguintes itens podem
                  ser encontrados: dilata&#231;&#227;o do tronco da pulmonar e das art&#233;rias pulmonares direita
                  e esquerda; hipertrofia de VD; aumento do &#225;trio direito; e abaulamento do septo
                  interatrial para a esquerda.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca</title>
          <p>Considera-se a RMC como sendo o padr&#227;o-ouro para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da RP. Atrav&#233;s da
                  visualiza&#231;&#227;o de RP por meio de cine SSFP e da habilidade de medir com precis&#227;o o
                  VolR e a fra&#231;&#227;o regurgitante com imagens de fluxo, tornou-se a t&#233;cnica de escolha
                  para a avalia&#231;&#227;o seriada de pacientes com cardiopatia cong&#234;nita, onde a
                  progressiva dilata&#231;&#227;o do VD e sua disfun&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o importantes para identificar o
                  momento ideal para interven&#231;&#227;o na valva pulmonar. Em pacientes com EP, pode-se
                  identificar fluxo turbulento atrav&#233;s da valva pulmonar com cine SSFP. Embora a
                  planimetria da valva pulmonar tenha uso limitado, a RMC &#233; capaz de fornecer dados
                  precisos de velocidade de pico atrav&#233;s da valva pulmonar.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
        <p>A ecocardiografia &#233; a principal ferramenta para avaliar a valvopatia card&#237;aca. Quando
               a qualidade da imagem &#233; pobre, a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca e a tomografia
               computadorizada card&#237;aca podem fornecer imagens de todas as valvas e suas &#225;reas
               geom&#233;tricas de orif&#237;cio. Com frequ&#234;ncia, a imagem da aorta ascendente &#233; sub-&#243;tima na
               ecocardiografia, sendo, em geral, necess&#225;rio realizar resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca
               ou tomografia computadorizada card&#237;aca para suprir tal defici&#234;ncia. Tanto a
               resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca quanto a tomografia computadorizada card&#237;aca s&#227;o &#250;teis
               para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da anatomia complexa em pacientes com cardiopatia cong&#234;nita. A
               tomografia computadorizada pode ser usada para avaliar a doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria antes da
               realiza&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia valvar. Entretanto, n&#227;o &#233; indicada para avalia&#231;&#227;o de rotina de
               valvopatia, devido &#224; sua incapacidade para fornecer dados hemodin&#226;micos e &#224; sua
               inerente necessidade de contraste iodado e radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante. A resson&#226;ncia
               magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca &#233; valiosa por sua habilidade de fornecer dados hemodin&#226;micos e
               tamb&#233;m medidas precisas e reprodut&#237;veis de volume, massa e fun&#231;&#227;o ventriculares. &#201;
               considerada a t&#233;cnica de escolha para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de valvopatia pulmonar e para a
               detec&#231;&#227;o de cicatriz mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Gloss&#225;rio</title>
        <p><bold>VENC -</bold> Codifica&#231;&#227;o de velocidade (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>velocity
                  encoding</italic>) - trata-se de t&#233;cnica especializada para codificar velocidades
               de fluxo na resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca.</p>
        <p><bold>SSFP -</bold> Precess&#227;o Livre no Estado Estacion&#225;rio (do ingl&#234;s,
                  <italic>Steady-State Free Precession</italic>) - t&#233;cnica de resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica
               que usa sequ&#234;ncia de pulsos gradiente-eco, em que se mant&#233;m uma magnetiza&#231;&#227;o residual
               transversa e estacion&#225;ria entre os sucessivos ciclos.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Rajani R, Khattar R, Chiribiri A, Victor K,
                  Chambers J; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Victor K, Chambers J; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos
                  dados: Victor K, Chambers J; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Rajani R; Khattar R, Chiribiri
                  A; Victor K; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual
                  importante: Rajani R, Khattar R, Chiribiri A, Victor K, Chambers J; Supervisor/
                  como o maior investigador: Rajani R, Victor K, Chambers J.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo com disserta&#231;&#245;es e teses de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o</p>
        </fn>
        <fn id="fn03" fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <mml:math id="eq03">
              <mml:semantics>
                <mml:mstyle mathcolor="#000000" mathsize="12.0pt" mathvariant="normal">
                  <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">AVAE</mml:mi>
                  <mml:mo mathvariant="normal">=</mml:mo>
                  <mml:mfrac>
                    <mml:mrow>
                      <mml:msub>
                        <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">AT</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mi mathsize="50.0%" mathvariant="normal">VSVE</mml:mi>
                      </mml:msub>
                      <mml:mo>&#215;</mml:mo>
                      <mml:msub>
                        <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">IVT</mml:mi>
                        <mml:mi mathsize="50.0%" mathvariant="normal">VSVE</mml:mi>
                      </mml:msub>
                    </mml:mrow>
                    <mml:msub>
                      <mml:mi mathvariant="normal">IVT</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mi mathsize="50.0%" mathvariant="normal">VA</mml:mi>
                    </mml:msub>
                  </mml:mfrac>
                </mml:mstyle>
              </mml:semantics>
            </mml:math>
          </p>
          <p>Onde: VA: valva a&#243;rtica; AT: &#225;rea transversal; AVAE: &#225;rea da valva a&#243;rtica
                  efetiva; VSVE: via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; IVT: integral
                  velocidade-tempo.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn id="fn04" fn-type="other">
          <label>b</label>
          <p>
            <mml:math id="eq04">
              <mml:semantics>
                <mml:mstyle mathcolor="#000000" mathsize="12.0pt" mathvariant="normal">
                  <mml:mfrac>
                    <mml:mrow>
                      <mml:mi mathvariant="italic">AVM</mml:mi>
                      <mml:mo mathvariant="italic">=</mml:mo>
                      <mml:mn mathvariant="italic">220</mml:mn>
                    </mml:mrow>
                    <mml:mi mathvariant="italic">MTP</mml:mi>
                  </mml:mfrac>
                </mml:mstyle>
              </mml:semantics>
            </mml:math>
          </p>
          <p>Onde: AVM: &#225;rea da valva mitral; TMP: tempo de meia press&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
