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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras.
                    Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">fDGp6d9fbznfTBPpVsBFFCP</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2014002000012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="previous-pid">S0066-782X2014005040088</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20140088</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Malaria and Vascular Endothelium</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alencar</surname>
            <given-names>Arist&#243;teles Comte de</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">1</xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lacerda</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Guimar&#227;es de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">2</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Katashi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">3</xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Marina Politi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03">3</xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Amazonas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Manaus</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">AM</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, AM -
                    Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o de Medicina Tropical Dr. Heitor Vieira
                    Dourado</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Manaus</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">AM</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o de Medicina Tropical Dr. Heitor Vieira
                    Dourado (FMT-HVD), Manaus, AM - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Unesp</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu (Unesp),
                    Botucatu, SP - Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Aristoteles Alencar,</bold> Rua Jose Clemente 618,
                    Centro. Postal Code 69010-070, Manaus, AM - Brazil. E-mail:
                        <email>aristoteles.caf@gmail.com</email>;
                        <email>aristoteles@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub">
        <day>09</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date pub-type="collection">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>103</volume>
      <issue>02</issue>
      <fpage>165</fpage>
      <lpage>169</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
                  Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits unrestricted
                  non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
                  original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Involvement of the cardiovascular system in patients with infectious and
                    parasitic diseases can result from both intrinsic mechanisms of the disease and
                    drug intervention. Malaria is an example, considering that the endothelial
                    injury by <italic>Plasmodium</italic>-infected erythrocytes can cause
                    circulatory disorders. This is a literature review aimed at discussing the
                    relationship between malaria and endothelial impairment, especially its effects
                    on the cardiovascular system. We discuss the implications of endothelial
                    aggression and the interdisciplinarity that should guide the malaria patient
                    care, whose acute infection can contribute to precipitate or aggravate a
                    preexisting heart disease.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Malaria</kwd>
        <kwd>Vascular Endothelial</kwd>
        <kwd>Communicable Disease Prognosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="39"/>
        <page-count count="5"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introduction</title>
      <p>Malaria is an acute febrile infectious disease, of vector transmission, caused by
                parasitic protozoans of the genus<italic> Plasmodium</italic>, whose following
                species infect humans: <italic>P. falciparum</italic>, <italic>P. vivax</italic>,
                    <italic>P. malariae</italic>, <italic>P. ovale</italic> and <italic>P.
                    knowlesi.</italic> The disease is characterized by high fever accompanied by
                shivering, sweating and headache, which occur in cycles from the second week of
                disease on, depending on the infecting parasite species<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. In 2010, 219 million cases of malaria and 660,000 deaths
                were registered worldwide, mainly among children living in Africa<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. Despite the overall reduction in the
                incidence of malaria, approximately 3.3 billion people were at risk for contracting
                the disease in 2011<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
      <p>Some infectious diseases can have cardiovascular repercussions, which influences the
                patient's prognosis. Because of the high prevalence of infectious diseases,
                cardiologists and infectious disease specialists should work together to better
                understand the prevention and treatment of complications of infectious diseases
                and/or the adverse events resulting from their treatment. It is worth considering an
                integrated approach to control infectious diseases, such as AIDS and malaria, in
                combination with chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes
                mellitus and cancer<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
      <p>Although malaria complications are usually associated with <italic>P.
                    falciparum</italic>, there are reports of severe disease caused by <italic>P.
                    vivax</italic>, which is the most frequently found protozoan in Brazil. Its
                clinical complications are very similar to those reported for <italic>P.
                    falciparum</italic>: severe anemia, acute renal failure, acute pulmonary edema,
                and algid malaria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. In a series of patients
                diagnosed with <italic>P. vivax</italic> malaria, who evolved to death and underwent
                autopsy, pulmonary complications were the most frequently found<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. Most patients who died had other comorbidities (chronic
                liver disease, cardiovascular disease and G6PD deficiency), which might have
                contributed to that outcome. Series of severe cases of <italic>P. vivax</italic>
                malaria have also been reported in other endemic areas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
      <p>This study was aimed at discussing the relationship between malaria and
                cardiovascular complications, mainly endothelial impairment, based on a literature
                review.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Interaction of Plasmodium with vascular endothelium</title>
        <p>In cardiovascular medicine, blood vessels were initially considered mere inert
                    conductors that carried blood from the heart to the organs and vice-versa. The
                    endothelium was understood as the innermost layer of vessels, separating the
                    inner space from the smooth muscle layer and other elements immediately below.
                    From 1980 on, several endothelial functions, such as the production of
                    vasoconstricting and vasodilating substances responsible for vascular tone, have
                    been discovered<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Those discoveries have
                    contributed to the understanding of endothelium as an endocrine organ,
                    metabolically active and directly related to vascular relaxation and
                    contraction, coagulation, thrombolysis and vascular growth, and also related to
                    affections, such as arterial hypertension and coronary artery disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>.</p>
        <p>The abnormal adherence (cytoadhesion) of <italic>Plasmodium</italic>-infected
                    erythrocytes to the endothelium, which occurs in malaria, is one factor that
                    determines the severity of that disease's progression. In addition to
                    thrombophilic factors and platelet abnormalities, those erythrocyte changes can
                    cause vascular thromboses, representing a new therapeutic target to be
                        considered<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
        <p>Malaria is a complex disease, which is difficult to control and involves an
                    interaction between a host, a vector and <italic>Plasmodium</italic>. The
                    molecular processes that coordinate cytoadherence or invasion of erythrocytes in
                    malaria are related to specific receptors. Erythrocyte antigens are
                    macromolecular structures located on the extracellular surface of the
                    erythrocyte membrane, and have a wide structural and functional diversity. They
                    can have several functions, such as transporters, adhesion molecule receptors,
                    enzymes, and complement control. The glycoprotein of the Duffy blood group
                    system, also known as Duffy antigen receptor for chemokine (DARC), has functions
                    of reception and adhesion in <italic>P. vivax</italic> malaria, the major
                    species causing malaria in Latin America, being expressed in several tissues in
                    addition to the erythroid cell line, especially in endothelial cells. Duffy
                    antigens function as <italic>P. vivax</italic> merozoite receptors in humans, as
                    well as cytokines in erythrocytes, binding to several acute and chronic
                    proinflammatory chemokines<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. They are
                    also involved in hemolytic transfusion reactions and in the hemolytic disease of
                    the newborn<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. In the Amazon state, the
                    genotypes FYA/FYB and FYA/FYA of the Duffy antigen were associated with an
                    increase in <italic>P. vivax</italic> infection<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>.</p>
        <p>Some properties of the pathogen should be considered. The <italic>P.
                        falciparum</italic> erythrocyte membrane protein-1 (PfEMP-1) is involved in
                    the cytoadhesion process. Although the invasion of erythrocytes causes the
                    common symptoms of malaria, erythrocyte cytoadhesion is also implicated in the
                    disease's severity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. After erythrocyte
                    invasion, the parasite modifies the host cell, changing its morphology and
                    characteristics to cause adherence. The PfEMP-1 is a key molecule in the
                    definition of the cytoadhesion properties of infected erythrocytes, which get
                    close to non-infected erythrocytes to form rosettes, thus allowing binding to
                    several endothelial receptors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. That
                    property has also been recently shown in <italic>P. vivax</italic>-infected
                    erythrocytes, under static and flow conditions, in cells expressing endothelial
                    receptors known as <italic>P. falciparum </italic>cytoadhesion mediators<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. That can change the old concept that
                        <italic>P. vivax</italic> infection is benign and has no close relationship
                    between infected erythrocytes and vascular endothelium.</p>
        <p>There is scientific evidence relating endothelial dysfunction with the origin and
                    aggravation of systemic diseases. The normal endothelium has anti-inflammatory,
                    antithrombotic and vasodilating properties that allow maintaining blood flow,
                    preventing thrombosis and leukocyte diapedesis. The reduction in the
                    bioavailability of nitric oxide, a key molecule usually produced by the healthy
                    endothelium, can cause endothelial dysfunction, represented by a change in the
                    endothelium-dependent vasodilation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
        <p>Endothelial dysfunction can be also mediated by proinflammatory cytokines, whose
                    circulating levels increase during both infections and sterile inflammations.
                    Other factors, such as blood stasis, dehydration and increased coagulability can
                    also contribute to that dysfunction<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>.</p>
        <p>Those functions characterize the endothelium as a biological sensor capable of
                    detecting mechanical, physical or chemical stimuli, and of biological responses,
                    making it a multifunctional tissue with an important role in human
                        homeostasis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>.</p>
        <p>The pathogenesis of severe malaria involves several processes, such as the rapid
                    increase in the number of infected erythrocytes, destruction of those infected
                    erythrocytes, inflammatory process, and microvascular obstruction by products
                    released by cellular injury, leading to a reduction in tissue perfusion<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>.</p>
        <p>Two endothelial receptors participate in <italic>P. falciparum</italic>
                    infection, intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) and chondroitin sulfate A
                    (CSA), which are also involved in the cytoadhesion of <italic>P.
                    vivax</italic>-infected erythrocytes. Cytoadhesion is ten-fold smaller in
                        <italic>P. vivax</italic>-infected erythrocytes than in <italic>P.
                        falciparum-</italic>infected erythrocytes; however, after adhesion, the
                    affinity of <italic>P. vivax</italic>-infected erythrocytes with CSA is as
                    strong as that of <italic>P. falciparum</italic>-infected erythrocytes. The
                    investigation of the role played by cytoadherence in spleen, lungs and placenta
                    in chronic infection might reveal important molecular bases of the pathology of
                        <italic>P. vivax</italic> malaria. If cytoadhesion in tissues, such as
                    kidneys and bone marrow, is proved, observations about severe forms of disease
                    and the cytoadhesion mechanism might be confirmed<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.</p>
        <p>In <italic>P. vivax</italic> infection, other types of proteins are expressed on
                    the surface of infected erythrocytes. That is a variant gene superfamily, called
                    "VIR family". Those proteins of the VIR family can mediate the cytoadhesion
                    process. The subcellular localization and function of subtelomeric multigene
                    families of the VIR genes in <italic>P. vivax</italic> remain unknown. Bernabeu
                    et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>, using transgenic lines of
                        <italic>P. falciparum</italic> expressing VIR proteins, have shown that the
                    VIR14 protein, which belongs to the C subfamily of a VIR multigene superfamily,
                    is a ligand of the ICAM-1endothelial receptor. The findings support the opinion
                    that VIR proteins can have different subcellular localizations and functions. It
                    is still a matter of investigation if <italic>P. vivax</italic> sequestration
                    can occur <italic>in vivo</italic> and be involved in the disease's
                        pathogenesis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Clinical implications</title>
        <p>Malaria infection affects several organs and systems, which favors the
                    development of the severe form of disease and appearance of complications. The
                    lethality of malaria results from complications, such as central nervous system
                    impairment, anemia and renal failure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>.</p>
        <p>The <italic>P. vivax</italic> malaria, the most frequent in Brazil, is considered
                    a benign disease, with few fatal cases. However, it causes a debilitating
                    febrile syndrome. In more severe forms, it can present as cerebral malaria,
                    severe anemia, severe thrombocytopenia, acute renal failure, and acute
                    respiratory failure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. The elevation in
                    D-dimers and in fibrin degradation products (FDP) found in malaria confirms the
                    rare complication of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) and
                    fibrinolysis. Even after complete clinical recovery, those markers can remain
                    elevated, due to the residual cell damage caused by the parasite infection.
                    Knowing this is important to avoid unnecessary diagnostic investigations and
                    prolonged hospitalizations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>.</p>
        <p>Further studies are required to assess the predictors of severe <italic>P.
                        vivax</italic> malaria, cellular factors or host characteristics that can
                    contribute to frequent complications<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>.</p>
        <p>Regarding heart impairment during the acute phase of disease, there is little
                    information on the pathophysiology and clinical and laboratory findings of the
                    myocardial lesion. In 1996, Bethel et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> suggested that, in cases of severe <italic>P. falciparum</italic>
                    infection, the heart is one of the most intensely infected organs, although
                    abnormalities in cardiovascular function have been rarely described.</p>
        <p>Even considering the clinical and laboratory limitations at the time, in 1954 an
                    uncommon case of <italic>P. vivax</italic> malaria was reported in association
                    with cardiomegaly, anemia, hepatomegaly and renal impairment<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>. Immunohistochemistry performed in five
                    fatal malaria cases has detected the abundant presence of <italic>P.
                        falciparum</italic> antigens, mainly in cerebral blood vessels, heart and
                    pulmonary tissue<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. Mohsen et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> have reported a case of myocarditis
                    associated with acute <italic>P. falciparum</italic> malaria; they have also
                    reported that classical studies on autopsies have revealed that, in the presence
                    of parasitemia, there is sequestration of infected erythrocytes in the
                    myocardial microvasculature and capillary blockade, which can cause myocardial
                    ischemia.</p>
        <p>Those data suggest that, during acute infection, myocardial lesion directly
                    mediated by proteins released by the parasite can occur. Lacerda et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>, reporting two cases of shock syndrome
                    due to <italic>P. falciparum</italic> malaria, also known as algid malaria, have
                    suggested that a reduction in cardiac inotropism with acute pulmonary edema can
                    be a complication of the disease. The depression in myocardial function might be
                    due to several factors, such as the release of inflammatory cytokines or
                    presence of cardiodepressive components on the surface of parasite antigens,
                    severe anemia, ischemia, and, myotoxicity induced by drugs used in the
                        treatment<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>.</p>
        <p>Kim et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> have emphasized the
                    importance of chest pain on the clinical exam of patients with <italic>P.
                        vivax</italic> malaria. Reporting a case of myocarditis associated with
                        <italic>P. vivax</italic>, those authors have described the clinical
                    findings of a 27-year-old female patient complaining of substernal chest pain,
                    suspected of having left ventricular anterior wall hypokinesia, with normal
                    coronary arteries. The patient had elevated serum levels of CK-MB and
                    troponin-I, and the possibility of chloroquine toxicity was ruled out<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>.</p>
        <p>In 2012, Bhat et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> reported a case of
                        <italic>P. vivax</italic> malaria in a 40-year-old male with no risk factors
                    for coronary artery disease, who had typical precordial pain, thrombocytopenia,
                    ST-segment elevation on electrocardiogram and increased serum levels of
                    troponin-T and CK-MB. The echocardiogram showed left ventricular lateral wall
                    hypokinesia. The patient was diagnosed with acute coronary syndrome as a
                    complication of malaria or its treatment<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. Ahmad et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> have
                    reported a case of acute pulmonary edema due to acute myocarditis in a
                    17-year-old female with <italic>P. vivax</italic> infection.</p>
        <p>Most studies on malaria have focused on the <italic>P. falciparum</italic>
                    species, because of its high mortality. However, the high morbidity and
                    financial cost resulting from <italic>P. vivax</italic> malaria require a more
                    comprehensive understanding of that disease and the search for control
                        strategies<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
        <p>Patients with <italic>vivax</italic> or <italic>falciparum</italic> malaria have
                    reduced gas exchange in pulmonary capillaries of similar intensities. However,
                    after treating the infection, progressive alveolocapillary dysfunction was
                    observed in patients with <italic>P. vivax</italic>, suggesting severe
                    inflammatory response, probably due to the greater pulmonary vascular
                    sequestration observed in the infection by that plasmodium species<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
        <p>Janka et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>, assessing children with
                    severe <italic>P. falciparum</italic> malaria, have reported an increase in the
                    pulmonary arterial pressure caused by endothelial dysfunction, resulting in
                    increased right ventricular wall stress.</p>
        <p>Such data emphasize that cardiologists should see malaria infection not only as
                    an infectious disease, but also as a disease that may cause endothelial
                    dysfunction, myocardial ischemia, myocardial contractility depression and
                    pulmonary arterial hypertension, and that can aggravate the clinical conditions
                    of previously healthy patients or those with an underlying heart disease.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclusion</title>
      <p>Cardiologists usually have to manage patients with infectious diseases who are
                referred for the assessment of possible complications of those diseases or
                aggravation of a preexisting heart condition, as well as for the assessment of
                several therapies used in their treatment. Usually, cardiologists and infectious
                disease specialists do not interact to simultaneously manage the patient, which is
                quite often necessary, and can eventually change the disease outcome.</p>
      <p>In face of current evidence, the clinical approach of patients with malaria, be it
                either <italic>P. falciparum</italic> or <italic>P. vivax</italic>, should be
                modified. This is particularly true regarding <italic>P. vivax</italic> infections,
                wrongly considered to be benign and that can have late disease relapses, a fact that
                can cause repeated exposure of the endothelium to inflammatory factors. The
                pathophysiology of the cardiovascular complications of malaria due to that parasite
                has not been well defined.</p>
      <p>The probable endothelial lesions in severe malaria with cardiovascular impairment
                require the simultaneous management of cardiology and infectology specialists. That
                is a new way to see an ancestral disease that continues to be an important public
                health problem, with no real perspective of eradication.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="con">
        <p>
          <bold>Author contributions</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Conception and design of the research: Alencar Filho AC, Lacerda MVG; Acquisition
                    of data and Analysis and interpretation of the data: Alencar Filho AC; Writing
                    of the manuscript: Alencar Filho AC, Okoshi MP; Critical revision of the
                    manuscript for intellectual content: Lacerda MVG, Okoshi K, Okoshi MP.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study was funded by CNPq.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by Arist&#243;teles Comte de
                    Alencar Filho, from Universidade Federal do Amazonas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ref-list>
      <title>References</title>
      <ref id="B01">
        <label>1</label>
        <mixed-citation>1. Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de. Doen&#231;as infecciosas e parasit&#225;rias: guia de
                    bolso. Bras&#237;lia (DF); 2006.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="book">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <collab>Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de</collab>
          </person-group>
          <source xml:lang="pt">Doen&#231;as infecciosas e parasit&#225;rias: guia de bolso</source>
          <publisher-loc>Bras&#237;lia (DF)</publisher-loc>
          <year>2006</year>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B02">
        <label>2</label>
        <mixed-citation>2. World Health Organization (WHO). Malaria: fact sheet N&#186;94.
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        </addr-line>
        <country>Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o de Medicina Tropical Dr. Heitor Vieira
                    Dourado (FMT-HVD), Manaus, AM - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff06">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Unesp</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country>Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu (Unesp),
                    Botucatu, SP - Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Aristoteles Alencar,</bold> Rua Jos&#233; Clemente 618,
                    Centro. CEP 69010-070, Manaus, AM - Brasil. E-mail:
                        <email>aristoteles.caf@gmail.com</email>;
                        <email>aristoteles@cardiol.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract xml:lang="pt">
        <p>O acometimento do sistema cardiovascular em pacientes com doen&#231;as infecciosas e
                    parasit&#225;rias pode ocorrer tanto por mecanismos intr&#237;nsecos &#224; doen&#231;a como em
                    decorr&#234;ncia de interven&#231;&#227;o medicamentosa. A mal&#225;ria &#233; uma dessas doen&#231;as, tendo
                    em vista que a agress&#227;o endotelial generalizada que se observa na infec&#231;&#227;o por
                    Plasmodium pode causar dist&#250;rbios circulat&#243;rios. O objetivo deste artigo &#233;
                    discutir a rela&#231;&#227;o entre mal&#225;ria e o comprometimento endotelial, em especial
                    suas consequ&#234;ncias sobre o sistema cardiovascular, a partir de uma revis&#227;o da
                    literatura. Discutem-se as repercuss&#245;es da agress&#227;o endotelial, bem como a
                    interdisciplinaridade que deve nortear a aten&#231;&#227;o ao paciente mal&#225;rico cuja
                    infec&#231;&#227;o aguda pode contribuir para precipitar ou agravar doen&#231;a card&#237;aca
                    preexistente.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Mal&#225;ria</kwd>
        <kwd>Endot&#233;lio Vascular</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Transmiss&#237;veis</kwd>
        <kwd>Progn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A mal&#225;ria &#233; uma doen&#231;a infecciosa febril aguda, de transmiss&#227;o vetorial, causada
                    por protozo&#225;rios do g&#234;nero <italic>Plasmodium</italic>, dos quais as esp&#233;cies
                    que acometem o homem s&#227;o <italic>P. falciparum</italic>, <italic>P.
                        vivax</italic>, <italic>P. malariae</italic>, <italic>P. ovale</italic> e
                        <italic>P. knowlesi.</italic> A doen&#231;a &#233; caracterizada por febre alta
                    acompanhada de calafrios, suores e cefaleia, que ocorrem em padr&#245;es c&#237;clicos a
                    partir da segunda semana de doen&#231;a, a depender da esp&#233;cie do parasito
                        infectante<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. Em 2010, foram
                    registrados no mundo 219 milh&#245;es de casos de mal&#225;ria e 660 mil de mortes, a
                    maioria entre crian&#231;as que vivem na &#193;frica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. Apesar de redu&#231;&#227;o global na incid&#234;ncia de mal&#225;ria, cerca de 3,3
                    bilh&#245;es de pessoas estiveram sob o risco de contrair a doen&#231;a no ano 2011<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
        <p>Algumas doen&#231;as infecciosas podem apresentar repercuss&#245;es cardiovasculares e
                    influenciar o progn&#243;stico do paciente, de forma mais ou menos agressivas. Em
                    raz&#227;o da alta preval&#234;ncia das doen&#231;as infecciosas, torna-se necess&#225;ria a atua&#231;&#227;o
                    conjunta de infectologistas e cardiologistas, para melhor conhecimento sobre
                    preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento de complica&#231;&#245;es decorrentes de doen&#231;as infecciosas e/ou
                    dos eventos adversos de seu tratamento. Deve existir abordagem integrada para o
                    controle de doen&#231;as infecciosas como Aids e mal&#225;ria em combina&#231;&#227;o com doen&#231;as
                    cr&#244;nicas, como doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, diabete melito e c&#226;ncer<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
        <p>Apesar de as complica&#231;&#245;es na mal&#225;ria serem associadas geralmente com <italic>P.
                        falciparum</italic>, existem relatos de doen&#231;a grave causada por <italic>P.
                        vivax</italic>, que &#233; mais frequente no Brasil. As complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas
                    foram muito semelhantes &#224;s descritas para <italic>P. falciparum</italic>, como
                    anemia grave, insufici&#234;ncia renal aguda, edema pulmonar agudo e mal&#225;ria
                        &#225;lgida<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Numa s&#233;rie de casos com
                    diagn&#243;stico parasitol&#243;gico de mal&#225;ria por <italic>P. vivax</italic>, que
                    evolu&#237;ram para &#243;bito, e foram submetidos &#224; aut&#243;psia, as complica&#231;&#245;es pulmonares
                    foram as mais frequentes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. A maioria dos
                    pacientes que morreram apresentava outras comorbidades que possivelmente
                    contribu&#237;ram para o desfecho, como doen&#231;as hep&#225;ticas cr&#244;nicas, doen&#231;as
                    cardiovasculares e defici&#234;ncia de G6PD. S&#233;ries de casos graves por <italic>P.
                        vivax</italic> tamb&#233;m foram relatados em outras &#225;reas end&#234;micas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
        <p>Este trabalho tem por objetivo chamar a aten&#231;&#227;o para a rela&#231;&#227;o entre mal&#225;ria e
                    complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, principalmente o comprometimento endotelial, a
                    partir de uma revis&#227;o da literatura.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Intera&#231;&#227;o de Plasmodium com o endot&#233;lio vascular</title>
          <p>Inicialmente, na medicina cardiovascular, os vasos sangu&#237;neos eram
                        considerados somente condutores inertes que levavam sangue do cora&#231;&#227;o aos
                        &#243;rg&#227;os e vice-versa. O endot&#233;lio era compreendido como uma camada de
                        revestimento da superf&#237;cie interna dos vasos, separando seu espa&#231;o interior
                        da camada muscular lisa e de outros elementos existentes imediatamente
                        abaixo. A partir de 1980, foram descobertas diversas fun&#231;&#245;es exercidas pelo
                        endot&#233;lio vascular, tais como a produ&#231;&#227;o de subst&#226;ncias vasoconstritoras e
                        vasodilatadoras respons&#225;veis pelo t&#244;nus vascular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Essas descobertas levaram ao entendimento de que o
                        endot&#233;lio &#233; um &#243;rg&#227;o end&#243;crino, metabolicamente ativo, e diretamente
                        relacionado com o relaxamento e contra&#231;&#227;o vascular, coagula&#231;&#227;o, tromb&#243;lise e
                        crescimento vascular, e com afec&#231;&#245;es como hipertens&#227;o arterial e doen&#231;a
                        arterial coronariana, entre outras<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>.</p>
          <p>A ader&#234;ncia anormal (citoades&#227;o) dos gl&#243;bulos vermelhos infectados pelo
                        plasm&#243;dio ao endot&#233;lio, presente na mal&#225;ria, &#233; um dos fatores determinantes
                        para a gravidade da evolu&#231;&#227;o dessa doen&#231;a. Al&#233;m de fatores trombof&#237;licos e
                        anormalidades plaquet&#225;rias, essas altera&#231;&#245;es das hem&#225;cias podem ser causa de
                        tromboses vasculares, representando novo alvo terap&#234;utico a ser
                            considerado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
          <p>A mal&#225;ria &#233; uma doen&#231;a complexa, de dif&#237;cil controle, que envolve a intera&#231;&#227;o
                        entre o hospedeiro, vetor e o <italic>Plasmodium</italic>. Os processos
                        moleculares que coordenam a citoader&#234;ncia ou invas&#227;o das hem&#225;cias na mal&#225;ria
                        est&#227;o relacionados com receptores espec&#237;ficos. Os ant&#237;genos eritrocit&#225;rios
                        s&#227;o estruturas macromoleculares localizadas na superf&#237;cie extracelular da
                        membrana eritrocit&#225;ria, que apresentam ampla diversidade estrutural e
                        funcional. Podem exercer diversas fun&#231;&#245;es como transportadores, receptores
                        de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o, enzim&#225;ticas, e controladores do complemento. A
                        glicoprote&#237;na do sistema de grupo sangu&#237;neo Duffy, tamb&#233;m chamado de Darc
                        (Duffy Antigen Receptor for Chemokines), apresenta fun&#231;&#245;es de recep&#231;&#227;o e
                        ades&#227;o na mal&#225;ria por <italic>Plasmodium vivax</italic>, a principal esp&#233;cie
                        causadora de mal&#225;ria na Am&#233;rica Latina, sendo expresso em v&#225;rios tecidos
                        al&#233;m da linhagem eritroide, em especial nas c&#233;lulas endoteliais. Os
                        ant&#237;genos Duffy t&#234;m fun&#231;&#227;o de receptor de merozo&#237;tas de <italic>P.
                            vivax</italic> em humanos assim como de citocinas nos eritr&#243;citos,
                        ligando-se a v&#225;rias quimiocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias agudas e cr&#244;nicas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>. Est&#227;o tamb&#233;m envolvidos em rea&#231;&#245;es
                        hemol&#237;ticas transfusionais e na doen&#231;a hemol&#237;tica do rec&#233;m-nascido<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. No estado do Amazonas, os gen&#243;tipos
                        FYA/FYB e FYA/FYA do ant&#237;geno Duffy mostraram-se associados ao aumento da
                        infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>P. vivax</italic>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>.</p>
          <p>Algumas propriedades do pat&#243;geno devem ser consideradas. A prote&#237;na da
                        membrana eritrocit&#225;ria-1 do <italic>P. falciparum</italic> (PfEMP-1)
                        encontra-se envolvida no processo de citoades&#227;o. Embora a invas&#227;o dos
                        eritr&#243;citos ocasione os sintomas comuns da mal&#225;ria, a citoader&#234;ncia
                        eritrocit&#225;ria encontra-se implicada tamb&#233;m na gravidade da doen&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>. Ap&#243;s a invas&#227;o da hem&#225;cia, o
                        parasito modifica a c&#233;lula hospedeira, mudando sua morfologia e modificando
                        suas caracter&#237;sticas para causar a ader&#234;ncia. A PfEMP-1 &#233; uma mol&#233;cula-chave
                        na defini&#231;&#227;o das propriedades citoadesivas do eritr&#243;cito infectado, que se
                        aproxima dos eritr&#243;citos n&#227;o infectados para formar as rosetas e, assim,
                        permitir a liga&#231;&#227;o aos diversos receptores endoteliais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Essa propriedade foi demonstrada recentemente
                        tamb&#233;m em hem&#225;cias infectadas por <italic>P. vivax</italic>, em condi&#231;&#245;es
                        est&#225;ticas e de fluxo, em c&#233;lulas que expressaram receptores endoteliais
                        conhecidos por mediar a citoades&#227;o do <italic>P. falciparum</italic>
						<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>. Isso pode mudar o antigo conceito
                        de que a infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>P. vivax</italic> &#233; benigna e n&#227;o envolve uma
                        &#237;ntima rela&#231;&#227;o das hem&#225;cias parasitadas com o endot&#233;lio vascular.</p>
          <p>Existem evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas relacionando a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial com a
                        origem ou agravamento de doen&#231;as sist&#234;micas. O endot&#233;lio normal possui
                        propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias, antitromb&#243;ticas e vasodilatadoras, que
                        permitem a manuten&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo prevenindo a trombose e a diapedese
                        de leuc&#243;citos. A redu&#231;&#227;o da biodisponibilidade do &#243;xido n&#237;trico,
                        mol&#233;cula-chave produzida normalmente pelo endot&#233;lio saud&#225;vel, pode levar a
                        disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, que &#233; representada pela altera&#231;&#227;o da vasodilata&#231;&#227;o
                        dependente do endot&#233;lio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
          <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial pode ser mediada tamb&#233;m por citocinas
                        pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, cujos n&#237;veis circulantes aumentam tanto durante infec&#231;&#245;es
                        quanto em inflama&#231;&#245;es est&#233;reis. Outros fatores como estase sangu&#237;nea,
                        desidrata&#231;&#227;o e aumento da coagulabilidade tamb&#233;m podem contribuir para essa
                            disfun&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>.</p>
          <p>Essas fun&#231;&#245;es do endot&#233;lio caracterizam-no como sensor biol&#243;gico capaz de
                        detectar est&#237;mulos mec&#226;nicos, f&#237;sicos ou qu&#237;micos, e apresentar respostas
                        biol&#243;gicas, o que o caracteriza como tecido multifuncional com importante
                        papel na homeostasia do ser humano<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>.</p>
          <p>A patog&#234;nese da mal&#225;ria grave envolve diversos processos como r&#225;pido aumento
                        do n&#250;mero de hem&#225;cias infectadas, destrui&#231;&#227;o dessas hem&#225;cias infectadas,
                        processo inflamat&#243;rio e obstru&#231;&#227;o microvascular por produtos liberados pela
                        les&#227;o celular, que leva &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o tecidual<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>.</p>
          <p>Na infec&#231;&#227;o pelo <italic>P. falciparum</italic> dois receptores endoteliais
                        s&#227;o utilizados nesse processo: a mol&#233;cula de ades&#227;o intercelular 1 (ICAM-1)
                        e o sulfato de condroitina A (SCA), que tamb&#233;m est&#227;o envolvidos na
                        citoades&#227;o por parasitos do <italic>P. vivax</italic>. A citoader&#234;ncia &#233; dez
                        vezes menor com eritr&#243;citos infectados por <italic>P. vivax</italic> do que
                        por <italic>P. falciparum</italic>; no entanto, depois de aderidas, a
                        afinidade das hem&#225;cias parasitadas por <italic>P. vivax</italic> ao SCA &#233;
                        t&#227;o forte quanto as parasitadas por <italic>P. falciparum</italic>. A
                        investiga&#231;&#227;o do papel da citoader&#234;ncia no ba&#231;o, nos pulm&#245;es e na placenta no
                        estabelecimento de infec&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica poder&#225; revelar bases moleculares
                        importantes na patologia da mal&#225;ria por <italic>P. vivax</italic>. Se
                        comprovada a citoades&#227;o em tecidos, como rins e medula &#243;ssea, poder&#227;o ser
                        confirmadas observa&#231;&#245;es existentes entre formas graves da doen&#231;a e o
                        mecanismo de citoades&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.</p>
          <p>Na infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>P. vivax</italic>, outros tipos de prote&#237;nas se
                        expressam na superf&#237;cie de hem&#225;cias infectadas. Trata-se de uma superfam&#237;lia
                        g&#234;nica variante, denominada "VIR". Essas prote&#237;nas da fam&#237;lia VIR podem
                        mediar esse processo de citoades&#227;o. A localiza&#231;&#227;o subcelular e a fun&#231;&#227;o das
                        fam&#237;lias subtelom&#233;ricas multig&#234;nicas dos genes VIR no <italic>P.
                            vivax</italic> ainda permanecem desconhecidas. Bernabeu e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>, utilizando linhas transg&#234;nicas de
                            <italic>P. falciparum</italic> expressando prote&#237;nas VIR, demonstraram
                        que a prote&#237;na VIR14, que pertence &#224; subfam&#237;lia C de uma superfam&#237;lia
                        multig&#234;nica VIR, foi ligante do receptor endotelial ICAM-1. Os achados
                        refor&#231;am a opini&#227;o de que as prote&#237;nas VIR podem ter diferentes localiza&#231;&#245;es
                        e fun&#231;&#245;es subcelulares. Ainda permanece sob investiga&#231;&#227;o se o sequestro por
                            <italic>P. vivax</italic> pode ocorrer <italic>in vivo</italic> e que
                        esteja envolvido na patog&#234;nese da doen&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas</title>
          <p>A infec&#231;&#227;o mal&#225;rica acomete v&#225;rios &#243;rg&#227;os e sistemas, o que favorece o
                        desenvolvimento da forma grave da doen&#231;a e o surgimento de complica&#231;&#245;es. A
                        letalidade de pacientes com mal&#225;ria &#233; decorrente de complica&#231;&#245;es como
                        comprometimento do sistema nervoso central, anemia e insufici&#234;ncia
                            renal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>.</p>
          <p>A mal&#225;ria por <italic>P. vivax</italic>, que &#233; mais frequente em nosso meio,
                        &#233; considerada uma doen&#231;a benigna, com poucos casos fatais. No entanto, causa
                        s&#237;ndrome febril debilitante. Em formas mais graves pode apresentar-se sob a
                        forma de mal&#225;ria cerebral, anemia grave, plaquetopenia grave, insufici&#234;ncia
                        renal aguda e insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria aguda<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>. A eleva&#231;&#227;o dos d&#237;meros-D e dos Produtos da
                        Degrada&#231;&#227;o de Fibrina (PDF) encontrados em casos de mal&#225;ria confirma a rara
                        complica&#231;&#227;o de Coagula&#231;&#227;o Intravascular Disseminada (CID) e fibrin&#243;lise.
                        Mesmo ap&#243;s completa recupera&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, esses marcadores podem permanecer
                        elevados, devido ao dano residual nas c&#233;lulas causado pela infec&#231;&#227;o
                        parasit&#225;ria. O conhecimento desse fato &#233; importante para que se evitem
                        investiga&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas desnecess&#225;rias, assim como interna&#231;&#245;es
                        hospitalares prolongadas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>.</p>
          <p>Estudos adicionais s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para buscar os preditores das formas
                        graves de mal&#225;ria por <italic>P. vivax</italic>, fatores celulares ou
                        caracter&#237;sticas do hospedeiro que possam contribuir para o aparecimento de
                        complica&#231;&#245;es frequentemente observadas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>.</p>
          <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao acometimento do cora&#231;&#227;o durante a fase aguda da doen&#231;a, h&#225;
                        poucas informa&#231;&#245;es a respeito da fisiopatologia e quadro cl&#237;nico e
                        laboratorial da les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. Bethel e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>, em 1996, sugeriram que, nos casos de infec&#231;&#227;o grave
                        por <italic>P. falciparum</italic>, o cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; um dos &#243;rg&#227;os mais
                        intensamente infectados, ainda que anormalidades da fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular
                        sejam raramente descritas na literatura.</p>
          <p>Mesmo considerando as limita&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e laboratoriais existentes &#224; &#233;poca,
                        em 1954, houve relato de um caso incomum de mal&#225;ria por <italic>P.
                            vivax</italic>, associado com cardiomegalia, anemia, hepatomegalia e
                        comprometimento renal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>. Exames de
                        imuno-histoqu&#237;mica realizados em cinco casos fatais de mal&#225;ria detectaram
                        presen&#231;a abundante de ant&#237;genos do <italic>P. falciparum</italic>,
                        principalmente nos vasos sangu&#237;neos cerebrais, cora&#231;&#227;o e tecido
                            pulmonar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>. Mohsen e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> relatam um caso de miocardite
                        associada com mal&#225;ria aguda por <italic>P. falciparum</italic>, relatando
                        que em estudos cl&#225;ssicos realizados em aut&#243;psias revelaram que, na vig&#234;ncia
                        de parasitemia, ocorre sequestro de hem&#225;cias parasitadas na microvasculatura
                        do mioc&#225;rdio e bloqueio capilar podendo causar isquemia mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
          <p>Esses dados sugerem que, durante a infec&#231;&#227;o aguda, pode ocorrer les&#227;o
                        mioc&#225;rdica diretamente mediada por prote&#237;nas liberadas pelo parasita.
                        Lacerda e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>, em relato de dois
                        casos de s&#237;ndrome do choque pela mal&#225;ria falciparum, tamb&#233;m conhecida como
                        mal&#225;ria &#225;lgida, sugeriram que diminui&#231;&#227;o do inotropismo card&#237;aco com edema
                        agudo de pulm&#227;o pode ser complica&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a. A depress&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o
                        mioc&#225;rdica pode ser decorrente de v&#225;rios fatores como libera&#231;&#227;o de citocinas
                        inflamat&#243;rias ou de componentes cardiodepressores existentes na superf&#237;cie
                        dos ant&#237;genos do parasita, anemia grave, isquemia e, ainda, miotoxicidade
                        induzida por f&#225;rmacos utilizados no tratamento<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>.</p>
          <p>Kim e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> enfatizaram a
                        import&#226;ncia da dor precordial ao exame cl&#237;nico em pacientes que apresentem
                        mal&#225;ria por <italic>P. vivax</italic>. Em relato de caso de miocardite
                        associada com <italic>P. vivax</italic>, descreveram o quadro cl&#237;nico de uma
                        paciente de 27 anos, do sexo feminino, que apresentou dor tor&#225;cica
                        subesternal, com suspeita de hipocinesia de parede anterior de ventr&#237;culo
                        esquerdo, com art&#233;rias coronarianas normais. A paciente apresentou eleva&#231;&#227;o
                        s&#233;rica de CK-MB e troponina-I, tendo sido afastada a possibilidade de
                        toxicidade por cloroquina<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>.</p>
          <p>Bhat e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>, em 2012, relataram um
                        caso de mal&#225;ria por <italic>P. vivax</italic>, em homem de 40 anos, sem
                        fatores de risco para doen&#231;a coronariana, que apresentou dor precordial
                        t&#237;pica, plaquetopenia, eleva&#231;&#227;o de segmento ST ao eletrocardiograma e
                        aumento nos valores s&#233;ricos de troponina-T e CK-MB. O ecocardiograma mostrou
                        hipocinesia em parede lateral de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. O paciente foi
                        diagnosticado como s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda como complica&#231;&#227;o da mal&#225;ria ou
                        de seu tratamento<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>. Ahmad e
                            cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> relataram um caso de
                        edema agudo de pulm&#227;o devido &#224; miocardite aguda em uma adolescente de 17
                        anos, com infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>P. vivax</italic>.</p>
          <p>A maioria das pesquisas sobre mal&#225;ria tem focado na esp&#233;cie <italic>P.
                            falciparum</italic>, devido &#224; sua elevada mortalidade. No entanto, a
                        grande morbidade e custo financeiro decorrente da mal&#225;ria causada pelo
                            <italic>P. vivax</italic> imp&#245;em a necessidade de mais entendimento da
                        doen&#231;a causada por essa esp&#233;cie parasit&#225;ria, e de busca de estrat&#233;gias para
                        seu controle<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
          <p>Pacientes com mal&#225;ria vivax ou falciparum apresentaram redu&#231;&#227;o da troca
                        gasosa em capilares pulmonares de intensidade semelhante. No entanto, ap&#243;s
                        tratamento da infec&#231;&#227;o, houve disfun&#231;&#227;o alveolocapilar progressiva nos
                        doentes com <italic>P. vivax</italic>, sugerindo grave resposta
                        inflamat&#243;ria, provavelmente por maior sequestro na microvasculatura pulmonar
                        dessa esp&#233;cie de plasm&#243;dio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>.</p>
          <p>Janka e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> observaram, em
                        crian&#231;as portadoras de mal&#225;ria por <italic>P. falciparum</italic> grave,
                        aumento da press&#227;o arterial pulmonar causada por disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial,
                        resultando em aumento do estresse parietal do ventr&#237;culo direito.</p>
          <p>Os dados apresentados nos trazem o alerta de que a mal&#225;ria dever&#225; ser vista
                        pelo cardiologista n&#227;o somente como doen&#231;a infecciosa, mas como doen&#231;a que
                        pode causar disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, depress&#227;o da
                        contratilidade mioc&#225;rdica e hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar, podendo agravar
                        as condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas de pacientes previamente h&#237;gidos ou com cardiopatia de
                        base.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>Na maioria das vezes, o especialista em cardiologia atende pacientes portadores
                    de doen&#231;a infecciosa que s&#227;o encaminhados para avalia&#231;&#227;o de poss&#237;veis
                    complica&#231;&#245;es da pr&#243;pria doen&#231;a infecciosa ou agravamento de cardiopatia
                    preexistente, assim como das diversas terapias que foram utilizadas no seu
                    tratamento. De modo geral, n&#227;o existe intera&#231;&#227;o entre cardiologistas e
                    infectologistas que permita o acompanhamento simult&#226;neo do paciente, o que
                    muitas vezes &#233; necess&#225;rio, podendo, eventualmente, alterar o desfecho da
                    doen&#231;a.</p>
        <p>Considerando-se as evid&#234;ncias atuais, a abordagem cl&#237;nica dos pacientes
                    portadores de mal&#225;ria, seja por <italic>P. falciparum</italic> ou <italic>P.
                        vivax</italic>, deve ser modificada. Principalmente em se tratando de
                    infec&#231;&#245;es por <italic>P. vivax</italic>, considerada erroneamente como benigna,
                    e que pode apresentar recidivas tardias da doen&#231;a, fato que pode causar
                    exposi&#231;&#245;es repetidas do endot&#233;lio a fatores inflamat&#243;rios. A fisiopatologia das
                    complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares da mal&#225;ria por esse tipo de parasito n&#227;o est&#225; bem
                    definida.</p>
        <p>As prov&#225;veis les&#245;es endoteliais em casos mais graves de mal&#225;ria, com
                    comprometimento cardiovascular, necessitam de acompanhamento simult&#226;neo do
                    especialista em cardiologia e do infectologista. Trata-se de um novo modo de
                    encarar uma doen&#231;a ancestral que continua como um importante problema de sa&#250;de
                    p&#250;blica, sem perspectivas reais de erradica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Alencar Filho AC, Lacerda MVG; Obten&#231;&#227;o de
                        dados e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados: Alencar Filho AC; Reda&#231;&#227;o do
                        manuscrito: Alencar Filho AC, Okoshi MP; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito
                        quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Lacerda MVG, Okoshi K, Okoshi
                        MP.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pelo CNPq.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p><bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold> Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de
                        Arist&#243;teles Comte de Alencar Filho pela Universidade Federal do
                        Amazonas.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
