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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">wzH4SbjQ3yrRfvRSPvgMd8t</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2014001900011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00011</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20140101</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Lipoprotein (a): Structure, Pathophysiology and Clinical
               Implications</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Maranh&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Raul Cavalcante</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Strunz</surname>
            <given-names>Celia Cassaro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pileggi</surname>
            <given-names>Fulvio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv3">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country>Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da
                  Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP -
                  Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Mailing Address: Raul Cavalcante Maranh&#227;o,</bold> Avenida Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho
               Aguiar, 44, bloco 2, 1&#186; subsolo, sala 21 - Cerqueira C&#233;sar. Postal Code 05403-000,
               S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil. E-mail: <email>priscila.oliveira@incor.usp.br</email>,
                  <email>ramarans@usp.br</email>
           </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>103</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>76</fpage>
      <lpage>84</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>01</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
                  Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits unrestricted
                  non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
                  original work is properly cited.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>The chemical structure of lipoprotein (a) is similar to that of LDL, from which it
               differs due to the presence of apolipoprotein (a) bound to apo B100 via one disulfide
               bridge. Lipoprotein (a) is synthesized in the liver and its plasma concentration,
               which can be determined by use of monoclonal antibody-based methods, ranges from &lt;
               1 mg to &gt; 1,000 mg/dL. Lipoprotein (a) levels over 20-30 mg/dL are associated with
               a two-fold risk of developing coronary artery disease. Usually, black subjects have
               higher lipoprotein (a) levels that, differently from Caucasians and Orientals, are
               not related to coronary artery disease. However, the risk of black subjects must be
               considered. Sex and age have little influence on lipoprotein (a) levels. Lipoprotein
               (a) homology with plasminogen might lead to interference with the fibrinolytic
               cascade, accounting for an atherogenic mechanism of that lipoprotein. Nevertheless,
               direct deposition of lipoprotein (a) on arterial wall is also a possible mechanism,
               lipoprotein (a) being more prone to oxidation than LDL. Most prospective studies have
               confirmed lipoprotein (a) as a predisposing factor to atherosclerosis. Statin
               treatment does not lower lipoprotein (a) levels, differently from niacin and
               ezetimibe, which tend to reduce lipoprotein (a), although confirmation of ezetimibe
               effects is pending. The reduction in lipoprotein (a) concentrations has not been
               demonstrated to reduce the risk for coronary artery disease. Whenever higher
               lipoprotein (a) concentrations are found, and in the absence of more effective and
               well-tolerated drugs, a more strict and vigorous control of the other coronary artery
               disease risk factors should be sought.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Lipoprotein (a) / metabolism</kwd>
        <kwd>Lipoproteins, LDL / ultrastructure</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk Factors</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="1"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="80"/>
        <page-count count="9"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec>
      <title>Lipoprotein (a) and apolipoprotein (a) structures</title>
      <p>The particle of lipoprotein (a), Lp(a), first detected by Berg in 1963<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>, is a spherical macromolecular complex with a
            diameter of approximately 25 nm, and density ranging from 1.05 to 1.12 g/mL. The Lp(a)
            structure is similar to that of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), regarding size and lipid
            composition of the particles and the presence of apolipoprotein B100 (apo B100). The
            major structural difference between both is that, in addition to apo B, Lp(a) has a
            second protein, apolipoprotein (a) [apo(a)], bound to apo B100 via noncovalent
            interactions and one single disulfide bridge. The presence of apo(a) determines the
            differences in density and electrophoretic mobility between LDL and Lp(a), and the
            molecular weight of that glycoprotein varies widely from 400 to 700 kDa. For the purpose
            of comparison, the molecular weight of apo B100 is approximately 550 kDa, and those of
            apo A1 and apo Cs are approximately 7 and 29 kDa, respectively<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
      <p>A fundamental discovery was that apo(a) is markedly similar to plasminogen, one of the
            proteins of the fibrinolytic system. Apo(a) comprises a domain of inactive protease or
            serine-protease, whose amino acid sequence coincides with that of plasminogen in 94%. In
            addition, there are 2 other domains constituted by tridimensional heavy-chain
            structures, highly glycosylated, known as kringles<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
      <p>The serine-protease domain of apo(a) shows replacement of the serine amino acid by
            arginine in the activation site equivalent to that of plasminogen. That hinders the
            conversion of Lp(a) into active protease by tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA),
            urokinase or streptokinase, such as with plasminogen<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
      <p>Of the kringle domains of apo(a), one is similar to the kringle V (KV) of plasminogen,
            with only 9% replacement of amino acids. The other, kringle IV (KIV), which is present
            only once in the plasminogen structure, has 10 different types in apo(a) (KIV types 1 to
            10). Only KIV type 2 occurs repeatedly in the apo(a) sequence, coinciding with about 84%
            of the amino acid sequence of KIV in plasminogen. Thus, KV is a single copy, while KIV
            repeats 10 to 40 times in the apo(a) structure. The number of KIV repetitions is
            genetically determined, ranging from 12 to 51 times, resulting in 34 different apo(a)
               isoforms<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
      <p>Using electrophoresis and immunoblotting, the following 6 different alleles for Lp(a)
            were identified: Lp(a)F; Lp(a)B; Lp(a)S1; Lp(a)S2; Lp(a)S3; and Lp(a)S4. The letters F,
            S and B relate to apo(a) mobility as compared to that of apo B100, standing for "fast"
            (fast mobility), "slow" (slow mobility), and mobility similar to that of apo B100,
            respectively. The isoform is determinant to Lp(a) plasma concentration, because it
            represents a limiting factor in Lp(a) synthesis. Smaller proteins are secreted more
            efficiently than those of higher molecular weight. Isoforms with fewer KIV type 2
            repetitions, that is, smaller sequences of apo(a), tend to determine higher Lp(a)
            concentrations and to increase atherothrombogenic activity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Thus, there is a strong inverse correlation between the molecular
            weight of apo(a) isoforms and the plasma concentration of Lp(a).</p>
      <p>The existence of a seventh allele, called 'null' [Lp(a)0], which would lead to absence
            of the lipoprotein in plasma, has not been confirmed; by using more sensitive methods to
            detect Lp(a), none totally negative individuals have been observed. In addition, no
            subject with more than 2 alleles for apo(a) exists<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
      <p>The presence of apo B100 in Lp(a) makes that lipoprotein co-precipitate with LDL in the
            assays currently used to separate lipoproteins by using the chemical precipitation
            method. This interferes with LDL values calculated with the Friedewald formula<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Thus, if the Lp(a) concentration in a patient is
            high, LDL-cholesterol calculation with that formula is not accurate without corrections
            that consider the Lp(a) concentration.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Methodology to determine Lp(a)</title>
      <p>The most common method to quantify Lp(a) consists in determining the apo(a)
            concentration by using monoclonal anti-apo(a) antibodies. The first commercial kits
            measured Lp(a) by use of radioimmunoassay or radial immunodiffusion<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. Currently, enzyme immunoassay (ELISA) and methods based on
            nephelometry or turbidimetry are more often used<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. The wide variation in apo(a) molecular weight makes the ratio between mass
            and molar concentration vary between individuals. When the method to determine Lp(a)
            involves antibodies that react with the apo(a) kringle region, which has high individual
            variability, differences in reaction not related to molar concentration might occur,
            explaining the differences in normal Lp(a) plasma levels in different population
            samples. In that context, there are difficulties in standardizing the methodology to
            determine Lp(a) to allow a more accurate comparison between different studies. So far,
            new methods to determine Lp(a) are being developed.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Lp(a) synthesis and metabolism</title>
      <p>Despite the structural similarities between Lp(a) and LDL, Lp(a) synthesis and
            metabolism, which have not been completely clarified, are totally independent from LDL
            synthesis and metabolism. <italic>In vitro</italic> studies have shown that apo(a)
            synthesis takes place in hepatocytes, and its association with apo B100 should occur on
            cell surface<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Thus, the liver has been described
            as the major site of Lp(a) synthesis. There is no coordination between the synthesis
            pathways of apo(a) and of apo B100, as there is no coordination between the synthesis of
            Lp(a) and of plasminogen, its structural analogue.</p>
      <p>Similarly to LDL, Lp(a) does not derive from the catabolism of another lipoprotein<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. In individuals with elevated triglyceridemia,
            Lp(a) is reduced, probably due to an increase in the plasma lipoprotein clearance<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. However, when VLDL lipolysis was stimulated by
            heparin inoculation during catheterization in patients with normal lipid levels, there
            was a reduction in triglyceride levels, with no change in Lp(a) concentration. This
            confirms that Lp(a) levels are not related to the lipoprotein lipase activity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
      <p>The way Lp(a) cellular uptake occurs has not been well established. Several studies have
            shown that Lp(a) binds to specific LDL receptors, although with less affinity. Two
            possible explanations for that difference in affinity are: (1) some Lp(a) domains near
            the domain of LDL-receptor binding would be covered by apo(a); or (2) apo(a) would not
            bind to apo B100 in the receptor binding site, causing changes in the apo B100 binding
            region. However, it is worth noting that, when apo(a) is dissociated from Lp(a) by
            cleavage of disulfide bridges, the binding capacity of the lipoprotein increases,
            becoming equivalent to that of LDL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>.</p>
      <p>There is evidence that the LDL receptor might not be so important in Lp(a) plasma
            removal. Large clinical studies have reported that statins have no effect on Lp(a)
            concentrations. Because statins induce superexpression of LDL receptors, greater Lp(a)
            plasma removal and consequent lower Lp(a) plasma levels would be expected if the
            receptor was essential for that process. Other receptors, such as asialoglycoprotein
            receptors, megalin receptors, and macrophage scavenger receptors, can also be involved
            in Lp(a) uptake<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. The capacity of macrophages to
            uptake Lp(a) is important, because the excessive uptake of lipoproteins by macrophages,
            with their subsequent transformation into foam cells, is the major mechanism of
            atherogenesis.</p>
      <p>Other studies have shown elevated Lp(a) plasma levels in patients with heterozygous
            familial hypercholesterolemia, known to have deficiency of LDL receptors. Considering
            that such increase is a direct consequence of a defect in the receptor that interacts
            with the apo B100 of Lp(a), the genetic defect in apo B100 would be expected to cause
            that same situation, similarly to that with LDL. However, that condition could not be
            confirmed, because the Lp(a) plasma levels were not affected by apo B100 mutation. In
            addition, only a small fraction of Lp(a) binds to hepatoma cells via LDL receptor, and
            the major part of lipoproteins associates with those cells via another cellular
               mechanism<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Thus, although the LDL receptor
            acts upon Lp(a) removal, its role in that process is limited.</p>
      <p>The experiences carried out so far have not evidenced a physiological function for Lp(a)
            in lipid transportation or metabolism regulation. Up to now, Lp(a) remains conceptually
            only a "pathogenic lipoprotein". In individuals with residual Lp(a) concentrations,
            neither organic deficiencies nor predisposition to any disease have been reported<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Apo(a) genetic and ethnic aspects</title>
      <p>In men, the gene encoding the apo(a) protein, the <italic>LPA</italic>, was cloned and
            sequenced for the first time in 1987, showing homology with up to 70% of the human
            plasminogen gene. The <italic>LPA</italic> gene is located in the same cluster of the
            plasminogen gene, in the long arm of chromosome 6, in the 6q2.6-2.7 region<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. The <italic>LPA</italic> gene is characterized by
            10 different variants present in the KIV domain and by multiple repetitions, ranging
            from 2 to 43, in the KIV type 2 domain<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
      <p>Because of that impressive genetic variability of apo(a) and the involvement of other
            genes related to Lp(a) synthesis and metabolism, that lipoprotein plasma levels can vary
            more than 1,000 times between individuals of the same population<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. The <italic>LPA</italic> gene might be responsible for 91% of
            the variation in Lp(a) concentration. Of that variation, 69% are due to the number of
            KIV type 2 repetitions, and 22% to other factors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>.</p>
      <p>The allele frequency varies even more according to ethnicity, indicating that the racial
            factor has an important influence on Lp(a) levels. Such levels have a non-Gaussian
            distribution in white and Oriental individuals, being similar in those 2 populations. In
            the Sub-Saharan population and Afro-Americans, that distribution is Gaussian, and Lp(a)
            levels are more elevated, reaching means up to 2 to 3 times those of the Caucasian or
            Oriental population<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
      <p>In a study with several ethnic groups, Lp(a) polymorphism has influenced in 17% to 77%
            of the variation in Lp(a) concentrations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>.
            Regarding the variation in Lp(a) levels, 80% resulted from the number of kringles
            (KIV/KV ratio)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. In more than 7,000 individuals,
            divided into non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, and Mexican Americans, 19
            polymorphisms were analyzed. Of the 19 polymorphisms, 15 were associated with Lp(a)
            levels in at least one of the subpopulations, 6 in at least 2 subpopulations, and none
            in all 3 subpopulations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>. Those data are
            consistent with data from other studies that have shown little or no effect of other
            factors, such as gender and age, on Lp(a) concentrations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. The genetic factor is the major responsible for that variation.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Lp(a) pathophysiology</title>
      <p>Plasma concentrations of Lp(a) have a hereditary character, with large interindividual
            variation, being not altered by environmental factors, and tending to remain constant
            throughout life. In the general population, Lp(a) concentrations can range from &lt; 1
            mg/dL to &gt; 1,000 mg/dL.</p>
      <p>Increases in Lp(a) levels can be transient in the presence of inflammatory processes or
            tissue damages, such as those occurring with other acute phase proteins (haptoglobin,
            alpha-1-antitripsin, and C-reactive protein)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>.
            This can follow an episode of acute myocardial infarction, in which Lp(a) levels
            increase considerably in the first 24 hours, returning to baseline values in
            approximately 30 days<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
      <p>Lp(a) levels are increased in chronic inflammatory disease, such as rheumatoid
               arthritis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>, systemic lupus erythematosus<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>, and under some conditions, such as after heart
               transplantation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>, chronic renal failure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>, and pulmonary arterial hypertension<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>. On the other hand, liver diseases and abusive
            use of steroid hormones decrease Lp(a) levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>.</p>
      <p>The relationship between Lp(a) and <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic> has not been well
            established. Regarding type 1 <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic>, some studies have
            reported higher Lp(a) levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>, which have not
            been confirmed by other studies<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. Conflicting
            results have also been reported for type 2 <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic>. In a
            sub-study carried out from the San Antonio Heart Study, diabetic men and women showed no
            difference in Lp(a) concentrations when compared with non-diabetic individuals<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>. On the other hand, a prospective study carried
            out with 26,746 North-American women has shown a higher incidence of type 2
               <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic> among those with lower Lp(a) levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>.</p>
      <p>Several mechanisms of Lp(a) participation in atherogenesis have been proposed. One of
            them consists in the direct deposition of that lipoprotein on arterial wall, similarly
            to that which happens with LDL and oxidized LDL. The fact that Lp(a) is more likely to
            undergo oxidation than LDL itself might facilitate uptake by macrophages via scavenger
               receptors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. That is the most universal
            mechanism of atherogenesis, in which macrophages 'indulge themselves' in the cholesterol
            from LDL, and eventually from Lp(a), transforming themselves into foam cells, precursors
            of atherosclerosis. Another pro-atherogenic mechanism of Lp(a) would relate to the
            inverse correlation between that lipoprotein levels and vascular reactivity, in which
            case the increase in Lp(a) plasma levels would induce endothelial dysfunction<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>.</p>
      <p>The influence of Lp(a) levels on carotid intima-media thickness is still controversial.
            While Kotani and Sakane<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> have found an inverse
            association in the Japanese population, no relationship between that thickness and Lp(a)
            levels has been found in Spaniards by Calmarza et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>.</p>
      <p>Other authors have found a positive association of Lp(a) gene polymorphisms and that
            lipoprotein levels with the incidence of ischemic cerebral vascular accident of large
            vessels, peripheral arterial disease, and abdominal aorta aneurysm. Association with the
            number of obstructed coronary arteries was observed, but not with carotid intima-media
            thickness. In addition, patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) and those
            polymorphisms are more susceptible to atherosclerotic manifestations outside the
            coronary tree<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
      <p>Associations between Lp(a) and inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor
            alpha (TNF-&#945;), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-&#946;), interleukine 6 (IL-6), and
            monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1), have been reported<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>. Thus, the
            participation of Lp(a) in atherogenesis could be multifaceted. In addition to a
            reduction in fibrinolysis, it would involve platelet aggregation, induction of the
            expression of adhesion molecules, vascular remodeling via changes in the proliferative
            and migratory capacity of endothelial cells and resident smooth muscle cells, oxidative
            modification and formation of foam cells.</p>
      <p>It is worth noting that the apo(a) gene has multiple elements of IL-6 response, and
               <italic>in vitro</italic> studies have demonstrated that the expression of that gene
            is increased by IL-6, leading to the accumulation of Lp(a) particles<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>. The Lipid Analytic Cologne (LIANCO) Study has
            found an association between the IL-6 polymorphism 74G/C and elevated Lp(a) levels (&#8805; 60
               mg/dL)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>.</p>
      <p>Along with the discovery of homology between apo(a) and plasminogen, a mechanism linking
            thrombogenesis and atherogenesis with plasma lipoproteins via Lp(a) has caused great
            excitement in the scientific field. The hypothesis is as follows: Lp(a) would interfere
            with the fibrinolytic system, suggesting that Lp(a) competes with plasminogen for
            binding sites of endothelial cells, inhibiting fibrinolysis and promoting intravascular
               thrombosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. In that scenario, Lp(a) would be
            a link between atherogenesis and thrombogenesis, explaining the redoubled interest in
            that possible mechanism.</p>
      <p>An interesting question has been raised by Edelberg et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>, who have reported that Lp(a) interferes <italic>in vitro</italic> with
            the thrombolytic action of t-PA. However, Santos Filho et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> have tested the hypothesis in patients undergoing post-acute
            myocardial infarction thrombolysis with rt-PA, and have observed no difference in the
            restenosis frequency of those with high Lp(a) levels.</p>
      <p>In patients with cardiovascular disease, the possibility of accumulating Lp(a) in the
            postprandial period, due to competition between Lp(a) and remnants of chylomicrons
            generated by absorption of fat from the diet, has been studied. However, that
            possibility has been ruled out by the evidence that Lp(a) levels have not changed in
            those patients after a fatty meal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Lp(a) as a risk factor for atherosclerosis</title>
      <p>Cross-sectional studies performed so far have widely confirmed the association between
            Lp(a) levels and the risk for developing CAD, regardless of other risk factors. Kostner
            et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> have estimated that risk as being 2.3
            times higher in patients with Lp(a) levels over 50 mg/dL, while Riches and Porter<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> have calculated that risk as twice greater for
            Lp(a) levels over 20 mg/dL. The relationship between Lp(a) and CAD and cerebral
            infarction has been confirmed by Murai et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> in
            the Japanese population and by Rhoads et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> in
            Japanese descendants in Hawaii. The latter study has reported that, in individuals under
            the age of 60 years with Lp(a) levels over 30 mg/dL, the risk was 2.5 times greater and
            decreased as age increased, dropping to 1.6 in the age group from 60 to 69 years, and to
            1.2 in the age group over 70 years. In the Brazilian population of S&#227;o Paulo, Maranh&#227;o
            et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> have reported a risk of developing CAD
            2.3 times greater when Lp(a) levels were over 25 mg/dL.</p>
      <p>Several prospective studies have been published, and, contrary to the cross-sectional
            studies, they have not been so assertive in identifying Lp(a) as an independent risk
            factor. Their results are conflicting, ranging from strong positive associations to
            complete lack of association between Lp(a) and cardiovascular diseases. However, most
            prospective studies have supported the hypothesis that Lp(a) is really an independent
            risk factor for cardiovascular disease.</p>
      <p>In one of the first studies, carried out in Boston, United States of America, with
            almost 15,000 men (age range, 40 to 84 years), no prevalence of high Lp(a) levels was
            identified in those who would subsequently develop acute myocardial infarction<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>. In the prospective study conducted in Quebec,
            Canada, for 5 years, with 2,000 men (age range, 47 to 76 years), Lp(a) has not appeared
            as an independent risk factor for cardiac events, although high Lp(a) levels have
            apparently exacerbated the potency as risk factors of both hypercholesterolemia and low
            HDL-cholesterol concentration<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
      <p>Lp(a) has been identified as an independent risk factor in a population of 6,000 Koreans
            with CAD, in which patients with high Lp(a) levels had worse disease course<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>. A meta-analysis encompassing 27 prospective
            studies and involving approximately 5,500 individuals has shown a clear independent
            association between Lp(a) and CAD, although 9 of those studies included individuals with
            preexisting disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>.</p>
      <p>In addition to CAD, Lp(a) can be a risk factor for atherosclerosis in other arterial
            beds, such as in ischemic cerebral disease, in which the risk appears with a Lp(a)
            cutoff point of 30 mg/dL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>.</p>
      <p>In a North-American prospective study with approximately 14,000 participants, Caucasian
            women and Afrodescendant men and women with high Lp(a) have shown a higher incidence of
            ischemic cerebral disease over a 13-year follow-up. Caucasian men, however, have not
            shown an increased risk associated with high Lp(a) levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>.</p>
      <p>Smolders et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>, reviewing 31 cross-sectional
            and prospective studies involving approximately 50,000 individuals, have suggested that
            high Lp(a) levels can be associated with the risk for ischemic cerebral vascular
            accident. A cohort study involving 2,365 individuals with CAD, 284 with ischemic
            cerebral vascular accident and 596 with peripheral arterial disease has shown an
            association of increased Lp(a) levels with future events of arterial diseases, but not
            with ischemic cerebral disease. It is worth noting that such association was independent
            of LDL-cholesterol levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>.</p>
      <p>Atherogenesis is a common causal factor of abdominal aortic aneurysm, while thoracic
            aortic aneurysm results from aortic dissection and is not associated with
            atherosclerosis. Lp(a) levels seem more elevated in abdominal aneurysm than in thoracic
            aneurysm, which is in accordance with the concept of the association between lipoprotein
            and atherogenesis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>.</p>
      <p>An important aspect relates to extremely high Lp(a) levels, whether they can represent a
            more significant risk factor. A Danish prospective study involving more than 9,000
            individuals over a 10-year follow-up has shown that extremely high Lp(a) levels (&#8805; 120
            mg/dL) increased 3 to 4 times the risk for CAD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>.</p>
      <p>In a meta-analysis of 40 prospective studies with 58,000 participants, a 2-fold increase
            in the risk for developing CAD and cerebral vascular accident has been found in
            individuals with smaller apo(a) isoforms, regardless of the Lp(a) concentration and the
            classical risk factors<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>.</p>
      <p>Another important aspect is the relationship that Lp(a) might have with sex. Although
            most studies have shown no difference between sexes in Lp(a) concentrations, more
            elevated lipoprotein levels seem to be more significant risk factors in the female sex
            than in the male sex<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>. The last Atherosclerosis
            Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study, assessing Lp(a) as a risk factor, has found a
            difference between sexes in that lipoprotein plasma concentration, which was higher in
            women, both Caucasian and black<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>. Knoflach et
               al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>, assessing risk factors for
            atherosclerosis in young women, have shown that Lp(a) levels related to the carotid
            intima-media thickness, while the classical risk factors had no influence on that
            parameter. In postmenopausal women, elevated Lp(a) and triglyceride levels were
            predictive of the presence of CAD<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>.</p>
      <p>In black individuals, the mean Lp(a) concentrations are markedly high, 2 to 3 times
            greater than in Caucasian and Oriental individuals<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. In older studies, with a more limited statistical power, Lp(a) levels
            have been assumed as non-predictive of cardiovascular disease in black individuals.
            However, a recent study with almost 3,500 Afro-Americans has reported a higher incidence
            of cardiovascular diseases and events when comparing between the highest and lowest
            Lp(a) concentrations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>.</p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Table 1</xref> lists several cross-sectional and
            prospective studies assessing Lp(a) levels as a risk factor for atherosclerotic vascular
            diseases.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t01">
        <label>Table 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Studies assessing lipoprotein (a), Lp(a), as a risk factor for atherosclerotic
                  vascular disease: coronary artery disease (CAD), acute myocardial infarction
                  (AMI), and ischemic cerebral vascular accident (ICVA)</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th align="left">Study type / duration</th>
              <th>Population</th>
              <th>Lp(a) cutoff point (mg/dL)</th>
              <th>Independent risk or association</th>
              <th>Atherosclerotic manifestation</th>
              <th>Reference</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Cross-sectional</td>
              <td>183 men</td>
              <td>&gt; 50</td>
              <td>2.3 times higher</td>
              <td>AMI</td>
              <td>Kostner et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Cross-sectional</td>
              <td>426 Japanese: 268 men and 158 women</td>
              <td>&gt; 17</td>
              <td>Positive</td>
              <td>CAD and ICVA</td>
              <td>Murai et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center" style="border-bottom:hidden">
              <td rowspan="3" align="left">Cross-sectional</td>
              <td rowspan="3">711 Japanese men in Hawaii</td>
              <td rowspan="3">&gt; 30</td>
              <td>2.5&#160;times: &lt; 60 years</td>
              <td rowspan="3">AMI</td>
              <td rowspan="3">Rhoads et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center" style="border-bottom:hidden">
              <td>1.6&#160;time: 60-69 years</td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td>1.2 time: &gt; 70 years of age</td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Cross-sectional</td>
              <td>162 Brazilians: 112 men and 50 women</td>
              <td>&#8805; 25</td>
              <td>2.3 times higher</td>
              <td>CAD</td>
              <td>Maranh&#227;o et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospective (5 years)</td>
              <td>15,000 North-American men</td>
              <td>30</td>
              <td>Negative</td>
              <td>AMI</td>
              <td>Stampfer et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospective (5 years)</td>
              <td>2,000 Canadian men</td>
              <td>30</td>
              <td>Negative</td>
              <td>CAD</td>
              <td>Cantin et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Meta-analysis (10 years)</td>
              <td>27 prospective studies, 5,500 individuals of both sexes</td>
              <td>20-100</td>
              <td>Positive</td>
              <td>CAD</td>
              <td>Danesh et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Retrospective (1997-1999)</td>
              <td>182 Brazilian postmenopausal women</td>
              <td>&#160;</td>
              <td>2 to 3 times higher</td>
              <td>Obstructive CAD</td>
              <td>Sposito et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospective</td>
              <td>346 men and 184 women of European descent</td>
              <td>&#160;</td>
              <td>2 times higher</td>
              <td>CAD Lp(a) 2 times higher in women</td>
              <td>Frohlich et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospective (13.5 years)</td>
              <td>14,000 Caucasians and Afrodescendants of both sexes</td>
              <td>30</td>
              <td>Positive</td>
              <td>ICVA, except for Caucasian men</td>
              <td>Ohira et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Meta-analysis (1966-2006)</td>
              <td>31 cross-sectional and prospective studies, 50,000 individuals of both
                        sexes</td>
              <td>&#8805; 30</td>
              <td>Positive</td>
              <td>ICVA</td>
              <td>Smolders et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Meta-analysis (1966-2008)</td>
              <td>2,000 individuals of both sexes</td>
              <td>&#160;</td>
              <td>Positive</td>
              <td>Abdominal aortic aneurysm</td>
              <td>Takagi et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Cross-sectional</td>
              <td>205 young women (18 to 22 years of age)</td>
              <td>&#8805; 30</td>
              <td>Positive</td>
              <td>Carotid intima-media thickness</td>
              <td>Knoflach et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospective</td>
              <td>730 Caucasian, black and Hispanic individuals of both sexes</td>
              <td>&#8805; 30</td>
              <td>Positive</td>
              <td>ICVA Higher incidence in men and black individuals</td>
              <td>Boden-Albala et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Meta-analysis</td>
              <td>58,000 individuals of both sexes</td>
              <td>smaller apo(a) isoforms</td>
              <td>2 times higher</td>
              <td>CAD and ICVA Individuals with smaller apo(a) isoforms had higher risk</td>
              <td>Erqou et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospective</td>
              <td>6,000 Koreans of both sexes</td>
              <td>&#8805; 20.1</td>
              <td>1.8 time higher</td>
              <td>CAD Worse disease course</td>
              <td>Kwon et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospective</td>
              <td>2,000 Europeans of the United Kingdom of both sexes</td>
              <td>&#8805; 25</td>
              <td>Positive</td>
              <td>Future events of arterial diseases (coronary and peripheral), but not
                        ICVA</td>
              <td>Gurdasani et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center" style="border-bottom:hidden">
              <td rowspan="3" align="left">Prospective (20 years)</td>
              <td rowspan="3">3,467 Afro-Americans and 9,851 Caucasians of both sexes</td>
              <td valign="middle">&#8804; 10 and &gt; 10</td>
              <td rowspan="3">Positive</td>
              <td rowspan="3">Higher number of cardiovascular events in women, higher
                        incidence when comparing between the highest and lowest Lp(a)
                        concentrations</td>
              <td rowspan="3">Virani et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center" style="border-bottom:hidden">
              <td valign="middle">&#8804; 20 and &gt; 20</td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td valign="middle">&#8804; 30 and &gt; 30</td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospective (10 years)</td>
              <td>9,000 Danish individuals of both sexes</td>
              <td>&#8805; 120</td>
              <td>3-4 times higher</td>
              <td>CAD</td>
              <td>Kamstrup et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Effects of drugs on Lp(a) concentration</title>
      <p>Traditional lipid-lowering therapies, such as statins or fibrates, do not consistently
            result in a reduction in Lp(a) concentrations. The use of atorvastatin at the dose of 20
            mg/day for 24 weeks has resulted in both lack of effect on Lp(a) levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref> and a decrease in that lipoprotein levels in
            hypercholesterolemic individuals with no disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>. In a double-blind study with placebo, using doses of 10 or 40 mg/day for
            12 weeks, the Lp(a) concentration has significantly decreased<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>. Of lovastatin, simvastatin and gemfibrozil, the latter has shown
            greater efficacy in reducing Lp(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>.</p>
      <p>Ezetimibe reduces Lp(a) levels in as much as 29%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>. However, ezetimibe is most often used in association with simvastatin,
            which has no additive effect to that of ezetimibe in regard to Lp(a).</p>
      <p>Another compound widely used in the treatment of dyslipidemia, niacin, effectively
            reduces Lp(a) levels when administered at high doses. Patients receiving 2 g/day and 4
            g/day of niacin have shown a 25% and 38% reduction in Lp(a) levels, respectively. At
            lower doses (1 g/day), niacin has not shown that effectiveness<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>. Etofibrate, a hybrid drug that combines niacin and clofibrate,
            at the dose of 1 g/day reduces Lp(a) levels by 26% in type IIb dyslipidemic
               patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>. Patients with type IIa and IIb
            hyperlipidemia, undergoing treatment with neomycin, have reduced their Lp(a) levels by
            24%, while the neomycin-niacin association has resulted in a 45% reduction. That effect
            is obtained with high doses of both drugs<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>.</p>
      <p>Extended-release (ER) niacin has reduced Lp(a) levels in diabetic patients with
            dyslipidemia. Both ER niacin and conventional niacin at high doses are good drugs to
            treat dyslipidemia, because, in addition to reducing LDL-cholesterol levels, they
            increase HDL-cholesterol levels and decrease Lp(a) levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>. However, high doses of that drug can be associated with some adverse
            effects, such as migraine, flushing, diarrhea, vomiting, tachycardia, and liver
            toxicity. The administration of aspirin 30 minutes prior to niacin can relieve some of
            those effects. Japanese patients with elevated Lp(a) levels (&gt; 300 mg/L) have shown a
            20% reduction in Lp(a) levels with low doses of aspirin (81 mg/day)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>. Women with high Lp(a) levels and an apo(a) polymorphic allele
            seem to have benefited more from the treatment with aspirin than those who lack that
               allele<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>.</p>
      <p>In addition, LDL apheresis has been able to reduce Lp(a) concentration in more than 50%
            of patients with familial hypercholesterolemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>.</p>
      <p>In hormone replacement, for both men and women<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>,
            as well as in hypothyroidism<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>, Lp(a)
            concentrations seem to decrease. Even considering the beneficial effects of estrogen
            therapy on Lp(a) and other plasma lipids, it is worth noting the controversies on
            hormone replacement regarding the increased risk for certain malignant neoplasias and
            thromboembolic accidents.</p>
      <p>Other agents that might reduce Lp(a) levels are as follows: L-carnitine; a combination
            of L-lysine and ascorbate; thyromimetics; CETP inhibitors; anti-proprotein convertase
            subtilisin/kexin type 9 (anti-PCSK-9) monoclonal antibodies; protein responsible for
            degrading LDL receptor; and anti-tocilizumab antibody, that can block IL-6 signaling and
            is still in an experimental phase<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>.</p>
      <p>Mipomersen, approved by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be used in homozygous
            familial hypercholesterolemia in January 2013, might be a promise to decrease Lp(a)
               levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>. Mipomersen is an antisense
            oligonucleotide that acts on messenger RNA, inhibiting apoB synthesis by the liver,
            reducing the concentration of lipoproteins that contain that apolipoprotein. That drug
            can reduce both LDL-cholesterol and Lp(a) levels; however, the safety of its use has not
            been established<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>.</p>
      <p>Methotrexate, an immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory drug used in the treatment of
            rheumatoid arthritis, has also reduced Lp(a) levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>.</p>
      <p>So far, there is no specific therapy to decrease Lp(a) levels. New therapeutic agents
            that can more effectively reduce the concentration of that lipoprotein, which has a high
            pro-atherogenic potential, being thus a risk factor for cardiovascular disease, are
            still being sought.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Final considerations</title>
      <p>Almost half a century after the discovery of Lp(a) by Berg, there is little doubt
            whether Lp(a) is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease. However, the
            mechanisms linking Lp(a) to atherogenesis are still unclear. In extreme cases, LDL
            apheresis is recommended<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>, but studies proving
            that the therapeutic decrease of Lp(a) reduces the number of events still lack.</p>
      <p>In daily clinical practice and in the absence of well-tolerated drugs that effectively
            decrease Lp(a) concentrations, levels over 25-30 mg/dL should lead to a more strict
            control of the other risk factors for CAD.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="con">
        <p>
          <bold>Author contributions</bold>
        </p>
        <p>Conception and design of the research: Maranh&#227;o RC; Acquisition of data: Carvalho PO;
               Writing of the manuscript: Maranh&#227;o RC, Carvalho PO, Strunz CC; Critical revision of
               the manuscript for intellectual content: Maranh&#227;o RC, Carvalho PO, Strunz CC, Pileggi
               F.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <p>
          <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
        </p>
        <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <p>
          <bold>Study Association</bold>
        </p>
        <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <ref-list>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="pt">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo De Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="pt">Lipoprote&#237;na (a): Estrutura, Metabolismo, Fisiopatologia e
               Implica&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Maranh&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Raul Cavalcante</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Priscila Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Strunz</surname>
            <given-names>Celia Cassaro</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pileggi</surname>
            <given-names>Fulvio</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <aff>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv3">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country>Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da
                  Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP -
                  Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: Raul Cavalcante Maranh&#227;o,</bold> Avenida Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho
               Aguiar, 44, bloco 2, 1&#186; subsolo, sala 21 - Cerqueira C&#233;sar. CEP 05403-000, S&#227;o Paulo,
               SP - Brasil. E-mail: <email>priscila.oliveira@incor.usp.br</email>,
                  <email>ramarans@usp.br</email>
           </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract xml:lang="pt">
        <p>A part&#237;cula de lipoprote&#237;na (a) apresenta estrutura semelhante &#224; da LDL,
               diferenciando-se pela presen&#231;a da apolipoprote&#237;na (a) ligada por uma ponte dissulfeto
               &#224; apolipoprote&#237;na B. Sua s&#237;ntese ocorre no f&#237;gado e sua concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica varia
               de &lt; 1 mg a &gt; 1.000 mg/dL, podendo ser dosada de rotina em laborat&#243;rio cl&#237;nico
               por m&#233;todo baseado em anticorpos monoclonais. Acima de 20 a 30 mg/dL o risco de
               desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a cardiovascular aumenta em cerca de duas vezes, o que n&#227;o &#233;
               v&#225;lido para os afrodescendentes, que j&#225; apresentam normalmente n&#237;veis mais altos
               dessa lipoprote&#237;na, do que caucasianos e orientais. Entretanto, o risco para
               indiv&#237;duos negros tamb&#233;m deve ser levado em conta. G&#234;nero e idade exercem pouca
               influ&#234;ncia na concentra&#231;&#227;o de lipoprote&#237;na (a). A homologia com o plasminog&#234;nio, que
               interfere na cascata fibrinol&#237;tica, pode ser um mecanismo da aterogenicidade da
               lipoprote&#237;na (a). Entretanto, a deposi&#231;&#227;o direta na parede da art&#233;ria tamb&#233;m &#233; um dos
               mecanismos poss&#237;veis, sendo a lipoprotr&#237;na (a) mais oxid&#225;vel do que a LDL. De forma
               geral estudos prospectivos confirmam a lipoprote&#237;na (a) como fator predisponente &#224;
               aterosclerose. O uso de estatinas n&#227;o interfere no n&#237;vel da lipoprote&#237;na (a),
               diferentemente da niacina e da ezetimiba, que promovem sua diminui&#231;&#227;o, embora essa
               &#250;ltima dependa de confirma&#231;&#227;o. N&#227;o est&#225; demonstrado que a redu&#231;&#227;o de lipoprote&#237;na (a)
               resulte em diminui&#231;&#227;o de risco de doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria. Diante de concentra&#231;&#245;es
               mais elevadas de lipoprote&#237;na (a) e na falta de medica&#231;&#245;es mais efetivas e de boa
               tolerabilidade, deve-se, pelo menos, procurar controlar, de forma mais rigorosa, os
               outros fatores de risco de doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Lipoprote&#237;na (a) / metabolismo</kwd>
        <kwd>Lipoprote&#237;nas LDL / ultraestrutura</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="1"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="80"/>
        <page-count count="9"/>
      </counts>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title>Estrutura da lipoprote&#237;na (a) e da apolipoprote&#237;na (a)</title>
        <p>A part&#237;cula de Lipoprote&#237;na (a) - Lp(a) -, cuja exist&#234;ncia foi detectada inicialmente
               por Berg, em 1963<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>, &#233; constitu&#237;da por um
               complexo macromolecular de estrutura esf&#233;rica de cerca de 25 nm de di&#226;metro, na faixa
               de densidade de 1,05 a 1,12 g/mL. A estrutura da Lp(a) assemelha-se &#224; das
               Lipoprote&#237;na de Baixa Densidade (LDL), pelo tamanho e pela composi&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica das
               part&#237;culas e pela presen&#231;a da Apolipoprote&#237;na B100 (apo B100). A maior diferen&#231;a
               estrutural entre as duas &#233; que a Lp(a) apresenta uma segunda prote&#237;na, al&#233;m da apo B,
               a Apolipoprote&#237;na (a) - apo(a) -, que est&#225; ligada &#224; apo B100 por meio de intera&#231;&#245;es
               n&#227;o covalentes e de uma &#250;nica ponte dissulfeto. A presen&#231;a de apo(a), assim,
               determina as diferen&#231;as na densidade e na mobilidade eletrofor&#233;tica entre a LDL e a
               Lp(a), sendo que o peso molecular dessa glicoprote&#237;na varia amplamente, de 400 a 700
               kDa. Para compara&#231;&#227;o, a apo B100 tem peso molecular aproximado de 550 kDa, enquanto o
               da apo A1 e das apos C's est&#225; na faixa de 7 e de 29 kDa, respectivamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
        <p>Uma descoberta fundamental foi a de que a apo(a) apresenta marcante homologia com o
               plasminog&#234;nio, umas das prote&#237;nas do sistema fibrinol&#237;tico. A apo(a) &#233; composta por
               um dom&#237;nio de protease inativa ou serina-protease, cuja sequ&#234;ncia de amino&#225;cidos
               coincide com a do plasminog&#234;nio em 94%. Al&#233;m deste, h&#225; outros dois dom&#237;nios
               constitu&#237;dos de estruturas tridimensionais de cadeia pesada e altamente glicosiladas,
               chamados <italic>kringles</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
        <p>O dom&#237;nio serina-protease da apo(a) apresenta a substitui&#231;&#227;o do amino&#225;cido serina por
               arginina no s&#237;tio de ativa&#231;&#227;o equivalente ao do plasminog&#234;nio. Isso impede a
               convers&#227;o da Lp(a) em protease ativa por a&#231;&#227;o do ativador tecidual do plasminog&#234;nio
               (t-PA), uroquinase ou estreptoquinase, como ocorre com o plasminog&#234;nio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
        <p>Dos dom&#237;nios <italic>kringles</italic>da apo(a), um &#233; semelhante ao <italic>Kringle
              </italic>V (KV) do plasminog&#234;nio, com apenas 9% de substitui&#231;&#227;o de amino&#225;cidos; o
               outro, o <italic>Kringle</italic>IV (KIV), que est&#225; presente apenas uma vez na
               estrutura do plasminog&#234;nio, cont&#233;m dez diferentes tipos na apo(a) (KIV tipo 1 a 10).
               Apenas o KIV tipo 2 ocorre de forma repetida na sequ&#234;ncia da apo(a) e coincide em
               cerca de 84% da sequ&#234;ncia de amino&#225;cidos do KIV no plasminog&#234;nio. Assim, o KV se
               apresenta como c&#243;pia &#250;nica e o KIV repete-se de 10 a 40 vezes na estrutura da apo(a).
               O n&#250;mero de repeti&#231;&#245;es do KIV &#233; geneticamente determinado, podendo variar de 12 a 51
               vezes, resultando em 34 diferentes isoformas de apo(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
        <p>Utilizando-se m&#233;todos de eletroforese e <italic>immunoblotting</italic>, foram
               identificadas seis diferentes alelos para Lp(a): Lp(a)F, Lp(a)B, Lp(a)S1, Lp(a)S2,
               Lp(a)S3 e Lp(a)S4. As denomina&#231;&#245;es F, S e B para apo(a) foram designadas de acordo
               com sua mobilidade comparada &#224; mobilidade da apo B100. F vem do ingl&#234;s
                  "<italic>fast</italic>", de mobilidade r&#225;pida; S, do ingl&#234;s
               "<italic>slow</italic>", de mobilidade lenta; e B &#233; referente &#224; mobilidade similar &#224;
               da apo B100. A isoforma &#233; determinante na concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica da Lp(a), pois
               representa fator limitante na s&#237;ntese da Lp(a). Prote&#237;nas menores s&#227;o secretadas de
               maneira mais eficiente do que aquelas de maior peso molecular. Isoformas com menor
               n&#250;mero de repeti&#231;&#245;es do KIV tipo 2, ou seja, sequ&#234;ncias de apo(a) menores, tendem a
               determinar concentra&#231;&#245;es mais elevadas da Lp(a) e maior atividade
                  pr&#243;-aterotrombog&#234;nica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. H&#225;, assim, uma
               forte correla&#231;&#227;o inversa do peso molecular das isoformas de apo(a) e a concentra&#231;&#227;o
               plasm&#225;tica da Lp(a).</p>
        <p>A poss&#237;vel exist&#234;ncia de um s&#233;timo alelo, denominado <italic>null</italic>- Lp(a)0
               -, que levaria &#224; aus&#234;ncia da lipoprote&#237;na no plasma, n&#227;o foi confirmada, j&#225; que, &#224;
               medida que foram sendo utilizados m&#233;todos mais sens&#237;veis de detec&#231;&#227;o da Lp(a), foi-se
               verificando que n&#227;o existem indiv&#237;duos totalmente negativos. N&#227;o existem tampouco
               indiv&#237;duos com mais de dois alelos para apo(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
        <p>A presen&#231;a da apo B100 na Lp(a) faz com que essa lipoprote&#237;na coprecipite com as LDL
               nos ensaios atualmente em uso para a separa&#231;&#227;o de lipoprote&#237;nas por m&#233;todo de
               precipita&#231;&#227;o qu&#237;mica. Isso acarreta na interfer&#234;ncia nos valores de LDL calculados
               pela f&#243;rmula de Friedewald<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. Assim, se a
               concentra&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a) em um paciente for alta, o c&#225;lculo do LDL-colesterol pela
               f&#243;rmula n&#227;o &#233; exato sem corre&#231;&#245;es que levem em conta a concentra&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Metodologia para determina&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a)</title>
        <p>O m&#233;todo mais comum para quantificar a Lp(a) consiste na determina&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o
               da apo(a) usando anticorpos monoclonais anti-apo(a). Os primeiros
                  <italic>kits</italic> comerciais determinavam a Lp(a) por radioimunoensaio ou
               imunodifus&#227;o radial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. Atualmente, s&#227;o muito
               utilizados o m&#233;todo de enzima imunoensaio (ELISA) e os m&#233;todos baseados em
               nefelometria ou turbidimetria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. A ampla
               varia&#231;&#227;o no peso molecular da apo(a) faz com que a rela&#231;&#227;o entre massa e concentra&#231;&#227;o
               molar varie entre os indiv&#237;duos. Quando o m&#233;todo de determina&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a) utiliza
               anticorpos que reagem com a regi&#227;o <italic>kringle</italic>da apo(a), que apresenta
               grande variabilidade individual, podem ocorrer diferen&#231;as na rea&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o relacionadas
               &#224; concentra&#231;&#227;o molar. Da&#237; as diferen&#231;as quanto aos valores normais plasm&#225;ticos de
               Lp(a) em amostras populacionais diversas. Nesse contexto, h&#225; dificuldades na
               padroniza&#231;&#227;o da metodologia para determina&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a) de forma a permitir uma
               compara&#231;&#227;o mais exata dos diversos estudos. At&#233; hoje, ainda est&#227;o sendo desenvolvidos
               novos m&#233;todos para determina&#231;&#227;o da Lp(a).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>S&#237;ntese e metabolismo de Lp(a)</title>
        <p>Apesar das semelhan&#231;as estruturais entre a Lp(a) e a LDL, a s&#237;ntese e o metabolismo
               da Lp(a), que n&#227;o foram ainda completamente elucidados, s&#227;o totalmente independentes
               da s&#237;ntese e do metabolismo da LDL. Estudos <italic>in vitro</italic> demonstram que
               a s&#237;ntese da apo(a) ocorre nos hepat&#243;citos, e a associa&#231;&#227;o da mesma com a apo B100
               deve ocorrer na superf&#237;cie celular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>. Assim, o
               f&#237;gado tem sido descrito como o principal s&#237;tio de s&#237;ntese de Lp(a). N&#227;o h&#225;
               coordena&#231;&#227;o entre as vias de s&#237;ntese de apo(a) e de apo B100, tampouco entre a
               s&#237;ntese de Lp(a) e a do plasminog&#234;nio, que &#233; seu an&#225;logo estrutural.</p>
        <p>A Lp(a) n&#227;o &#233; derivada do catabolismo de outra lipoprote&#237;na, como ocorre com a
                  LDL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>. Em hipertriglicerid&#234;micos, a Lp(a)
               est&#225; reduzida, provavelmente por aumento do <italic>clearance</italic>plasm&#225;tico da
                  lipoprote&#237;na<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>. No entanto, quando a
               lip&#243;lise das VLDL foi estimulada pela inocula&#231;&#227;o de heparina durante procedimento de
               cateterismo em pacientes normolipid&#234;micos, houve redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides,
               sem que houvesse altera&#231;&#245;es na concentra&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a). Isso confirma que os n&#237;veis de
               Lp(a) n&#227;o est&#227;o ligados &#224; atividade da lipase lipoproteica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>.</p>
        <p>A maneira pela qual ocorre a capta&#231;&#227;o celular da Lp(a) ainda n&#227;o est&#225; bem
               estabelecida. V&#225;rios estudos demonstraram que a Lp(a) liga-se aos receptores
               espec&#237;ficos da LDL, embora com menos afinidade. Duas poss&#237;veis explica&#231;&#245;es para essa
               diferen&#231;a na afinidade s&#227;o (1) que alguns dom&#237;nios da Lp(a) pr&#243;ximos ao dom&#237;nio de
               liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; receptores de LDL estariam cobertos pela apo(a), ou (2) porque a apo(a) n&#227;o
               estaria ligada a apo B100 no s&#237;tio de liga&#231;&#227;o do receptor, ocasionando modifica&#231;&#245;es
               na regi&#227;o de liga&#231;&#227;o da apo B100. Entretanto, cabe ressaltar que, quando a apo(a) &#233;
               dissociada da Lp(a) por clivagem das pontes dissulfeto, a capacidade de liga&#231;&#227;o da
               lipoprote&#237;na aumenta, tornando-se equivalente &#224; das LDL<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>.</p>
        <p>H&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que o receptor da LDL possa n&#227;o ser t&#227;o importante na remo&#231;&#227;o
               plasm&#225;tica da Lp(a). Em grandes estudos cl&#237;nicos, reportou-se n&#227;o haver efeito das
               estatinas sobre a concentra&#231;&#227;o da Lp(a). Como as estatinas induzem superexpress&#227;o dos
               receptores da LDL seria esperada maior remo&#231;&#227;o da Lp(a) e diminui&#231;&#227;o dos seus n&#237;veis
               plasm&#225;ticos, caso o receptor fosse crucial neste processo. Outros receptores tamb&#233;m
               podem estar envolvidos na capta&#231;&#227;o da Lp(a), como o receptor de asialoglicoprote&#237;na,
               o receptor de megalina e os receptores <italic>scavenger</italic>dos macr&#243;fagos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>. A capacidade dos macr&#243;fagos de captarem a
               Lp(a) tem significado importante, j&#225; que a capta&#231;&#227;o de lipoprote&#237;nas em excesso pelos
               macr&#243;fagos, com sua subsequente transforma&#231;&#227;o em c&#233;lulas espumosas, &#233; justamente o
               principal mecanismo de aterog&#234;nese.</p>
        <p>Outros estudos demonstraram n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de Lp(a) elevados em pacientes com
               hipercolesterolemia familiar heterozig&#243;tica, comprovadamente deficientes em
               receptores de LDL. Levando em considera&#231;&#227;o que esse aumento &#233; consequ&#234;ncia direta de
               um defeito no receptor que interage com apo B100 da Lp(a), seria de se esperar que o
               defeito gen&#233;tico na pr&#243;pria apo B100 causasse a mesma situa&#231;&#227;o, como acontece com a
               LDL; no entanto, essa condi&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o foi confirmada, uma vez que os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos
               de Lp(a) n&#227;o foram afetados pela muta&#231;&#227;o da apo B100. Al&#233;m disso, apenas uma pequena
               fra&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a) se liga a c&#233;lulas de hepatoma via receptor de LDL, e a maior parte da
               lipoprote&#237;na se associa a essas c&#233;lulas por outro mecanismo celular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Portanto, embora o receptor de LDL atue na
               remo&#231;&#227;o da Lp(a), seu papel, nesse processo, &#233; limitado.</p>
        <p>As experi&#234;ncias realizadas at&#233; agora n&#227;o evidenciaram fun&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica da Lp(a) no
               transporte ou na regula&#231;&#227;o do metabolismo de lip&#237;deos. At&#233; o momento, a Lp(a)
               permanece conceitualmente apenas como uma "lipoprote&#237;na patog&#234;nica". Em indiv&#237;duos
               cuja concentra&#231;&#227;o da Lp(a) &#233; apenas residual n&#227;o foram relatadas defici&#234;ncias
               org&#226;nicas ou predisposi&#231;&#227;o para quaisquer doen&#231;as<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Aspectos gen&#233;ticos e &#233;tnicos da apo(a)</title>
        <p>No homem, o gene codificador da prote&#237;na apo(a), o <italic>LPA</italic>, foi clonado
               e sequenciado pela primeira vez em 1987 e apresenta at&#233; 70% de homologia com o gene
               do plasminog&#234;nio humano. Assim, o gene <italic>LPA</italic> est&#225; localizado no mesmo
                  <italic>cluster</italic> do gene do plasminog&#234;nio, no bra&#231;o longo do cromossomo 6
               na regi&#227;o 6q2.6-2.7<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>. O <italic>LPA</italic> &#233;
               caracterizado por dez variantes diferentes presentes no dom&#237;nio do KIV e por
               m&#250;ltiplas repeti&#231;&#245;es, que variam de 2 a 43, no dom&#237;nio do KIV tipo 2<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.</p>
        <p>Devido a essa impressionante variabilidade gen&#233;tica da apo(a) e, talvez, pelo
               envolvimento de outros genes ligados &#224; s&#237;ntese e ao metabolismo da Lp(a), os n&#237;veis
               plasm&#225;ticos dessa lipoprote&#237;na podem variar mais de mil vezes entre os indiv&#237;duos de
               uma mesma popula&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Estimou-se que o
                  <italic>LPA</italic> possa ser respons&#225;vel por 91% da varia&#231;&#227;o na concentra&#231;&#227;o da
               Lp(a). Dessa varia&#231;&#227;o, 69% se devem ao n&#250;mero de repeti&#231;&#245;es do KIV tipo 2 e 22% a
               outros fatores<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>.</p>
        <p>A frequ&#234;ncia al&#233;lica varia ainda mais de acordo com a etnia, indicando que o fator
               racial tem influ&#234;ncia importante sobre os n&#237;veis de Lp(a). Os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de
               Lp(a) apresentam uma distribui&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o gaussiana em indiv&#237;duos brancos e orientais,
               sendo semelhantes nessas duas popula&#231;&#245;es. Na popula&#231;&#227;o subsaariana e em
               afro-americanos, a distribui&#231;&#227;o &#233; gaussiana e os n&#237;veis de Lp(a) s&#227;o mais elevados,
               alcan&#231;ando m&#233;dias at&#233; duas a tr&#234;s vezes superiores &#224;s da popula&#231;&#227;o caucasiana ou
                  oriental<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>.</p>
        <p>Em estudo com v&#225;rios grupos &#233;tnicos, o polimorfismo da Lp(a) influenciou em 17 a 77%
               na varia&#231;&#227;o das concentra&#231;&#245;es de Lp(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>.
               Dentre a varia&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de Lp(a), 80% foram decorrentes do n&#250;mero de
                  <italic>kringles</italic>(raz&#227;o KIV/KV)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>.
               Em mais de 7 mil indiv&#237;duos, divididos em brancos n&#227;o hisp&#226;nicos, negros n&#227;o
               hisp&#226;nicos e hispano-americanos, foram analisados 19 polimorfismos. Dentre os 19
               polimorfismos, 15 estavam associados aos n&#237;veis de Lp(a) em pelo menos uma das
               subpopula&#231;&#245;es, seis deles em pelo menos duas e nenhum em todas as tr&#234;s
                  subpopula&#231;&#245;es<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>. Esses dados s&#227;o
               consistentes com os de outros estudos que demonstram pouco ou nenhum efeito de outros
               fatores, como g&#234;nero e idade, sobre as concentra&#231;&#245;es de Lp(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. O fator gen&#233;tico &#233; o principal respons&#225;vel por essa
               varia&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fisiopatologia da Lp(a)</title>
        <p>As concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de Lp(a) t&#234;m car&#225;ter heredit&#225;rio, apresentando grande
               varia&#231;&#227;o interindividual e praticamente n&#227;o s&#227;o alteradas por fatores ambientais,
               tendendo a se manter constantes ao longo da vida. Na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, as
               concentra&#231;&#245;es de Lp(a) podem variar de valores &lt; 1 mg/dL a valores &gt; 1.000
               mg/dL.</p>
        <p>Aumentos nos n&#237;veis de Lp(a) podem ser transit&#243;rios, quando na presen&#231;a de processos
               inflamat&#243;rios ou de danos tissulares, como ocorrem com outras prote&#237;nas de fase aguda
               (haptoglobina, a alfa-1-antitripsina e a prote&#237;na C-reativa)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>. Isso pode acontecer, por exemplo, ap&#243;s epis&#243;dio de infarto
               agudo de mioc&#225;rdio, no qual a Lp(a) aumenta consideravelmente nas primeiras 24 horas,
               retornando aos valores basais em aproximadamente 30 dias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
        <p>A Lp(a) encontra-se aumentada em doen&#231;as de car&#225;ter inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico, como
               artrite reumatoide<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>, l&#250;pus eritematoso
                  sist&#234;mico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> e s&#237;ndrome da imunodefici&#234;ncia
                  adquirida<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>, e em condi&#231;&#245;es como o
               p&#243;s-transplante card&#237;aco<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>, insufici&#234;ncia
               renal cr&#244;nica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref> e hipertens&#227;o arterial
                  pulmonar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>. Por outro lado, doen&#231;as
               hep&#225;ticas e o uso abusivo de horm&#244;nios esteroides diminuem os n&#237;veis de Lp(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>.</p>
        <p>N&#227;o est&#225; bem estabelecida a rela&#231;&#227;o da Lp(a) com o diabetes melito. No que toca ao
               diabetes melito tipo 1, alguns estudos relataram n&#237;veis mais altos de Lp(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>, o que n&#227;o foi confirmado por outros<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>. Resultados conflitantes tamb&#233;m foram
               encontrados no diabetes tipo 2. Em subestudo realizado a partir do <italic>San
                  Antonio Heart Study</italic>, homens e mulheres diab&#233;ticos n&#227;o apresentaram
               diferen&#231;as nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de Lp(a) quando comparados aos indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o
                  diab&#233;ticos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>. Por outro lado, estudo
               prospectivo em 26.746 mulheres americanas mostrou que houve incid&#234;ncia maior de
               diabetes melito tipo 2 entre as que tinham n&#237;veis mais baixos de Lp(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>.</p>
        <p>V&#225;rios mecanismos de participa&#231;&#227;o da Lp(a) no processo de aterog&#234;nese t&#234;m sido
               propostos. Um deles consistiria na deposi&#231;&#227;o direta da lipoprote&#237;na na parede
               arterial, como acontece com a LDL e LDL-oxidada. O fato da Lp(a) estar mais sujeita &#224;
               oxida&#231;&#227;o do que a pr&#243;pria LDL pode facilitar a capta&#231;&#227;o pelos macr&#243;fagos pela via dos
               receptores <italic>scavenger</italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>.
               Trata-se do mecanismo mais universal de aterog&#234;nese, segundo os quais os macr&#243;fagos
               se locupletam do colesterol da LDL e, eventualmente, da Lp(a), e se transformam em
               c&#233;lulas espumosas, precursoras da aterosclerose. Outro mecanismo pr&#243;-aterog&#234;nico da
               Lp(a) estaria ligado &#224; correla&#231;&#227;o inversa entre os n&#237;veis da lipoprote&#237;na e a
               reatividade vascular. Nesse caso, o aumento plasm&#225;tico da Lp(a) seria indutor de
               disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>.</p>
        <p>H&#225; controv&#233;rsia sobre a influ&#234;ncia dos n&#237;veis de Lp(a) e a espessura da placa de
               ateroma de car&#243;tida. Enquanto Kotani e Sakane<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> encontraram associa&#231;&#227;o inversa em popula&#231;&#227;o japonesa, nenhuma rela&#231;&#227;o
               entre espessura e n&#237;vel de Lp(a) foi encontrada por Calmarza e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> em espanh&#243;is.</p>
        <p>Outros autores encontraram associa&#231;&#227;o positiva de polimorfismos no gene da Lp(a) e
               dos n&#237;veis da lipoprote&#237;na com a incid&#234;ncia de acidente vascular encef&#225;lico isqu&#234;mico
               de grandes vasos, doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica e aneurisma a&#243;rtico abdominal. N&#227;o houve
               associa&#231;&#227;o com a espessura da &#237;ntima/m&#233;dia da car&#243;tida, mas houve com o n&#250;mero de
               art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias com obstru&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com Doen&#231;a Arterial
               Coron&#225;ria (DAC) que apresentam tais polimorfismos est&#227;o mais suscet&#237;veis a
               manifesta&#231;&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas fora da &#225;rvore coron&#225;ria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
        <p>T&#234;m-se verificado associa&#231;&#245;es entre Lp(a) e citocinas inflamat&#243;rias, incluindo Fator
               de Necrose Tumoral Alfa (TNF-&#945;), Fator de Crescimento Transformador Beta (TGF-&#946;),
               Interleucina 6 (IL-6) e Prote&#237;na Quimioatrativa de Mon&#243;citos 1 (MCP-1)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>. Dessa forma, a participa&#231;&#227;o da Lp(a) na aterog&#234;nese, potencialmente,
               seria multifacetada. Envolveria, al&#233;m da redu&#231;&#227;o da fibrin&#243;lise, agrega&#231;&#227;o
               plaquet&#225;ria, indu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o, remodelamento vascular via
               altera&#231;&#245;es na capacidade proliferativa e migrat&#243;ria das c&#233;lulas endoteliais e
               musculares lisas residentes, modifica&#231;&#227;o oxidativa e forma&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas
               espumosas.</p>
        <p>&#201; interessante ressaltar que o gene da apo(a) cont&#233;m m&#250;ltiplos elementos de resposta
               de IL-6, e estudos <italic>in vitro</italic> demonstraram que a express&#227;o desse gene
               &#233; aumentada pela IL-6, levando ao ac&#250;mulo de part&#237;culas de Lp(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>. Nos dados do estudo LIANCO (sigla do ingl&#234;s <italic>Lipid
                  Analytic Cologne</italic>) encontrou-se associa&#231;&#227;o entre o polimorfismo -74G/C de
               IL-6 e n&#237;veis elevados de Lp(a) (&#8805; 60 mg/dL)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>.</p>
        <p>Na esteira da descoberta da homologia da apo(a) com o plasminog&#234;nio, causou grande
               excita&#231;&#227;o no meio cient&#237;fico um mecanismo que ligaria a trombog&#234;nese e a aterog&#234;nese
               com as lipoprote&#237;nas plasm&#225;ticas por meio da Lp(a). Trata-se da hip&#243;tese de que a
               Lp(a) interferiria no sistema de fibrin&#243;lise, sugerindo que a Lp(a) compita com o
               plasminog&#234;nio por s&#237;tios de liga&#231;&#227;o a c&#233;lulas endoteliais, inibindo a fibrin&#243;lise e
               promovendo trombose intravascular<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>. Nesse
               cen&#225;rio, a Lp(a) seria um elo entre aterog&#234;nese e trombog&#234;nese, da&#237; o interesse
               redobrado nesse poss&#237;vel mecanismo.</p>
        <p>Uma quest&#227;o interessante foi levantada por Edelberg e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>, que observaram que Lp(a) interfere <italic>in vitro</italic>
               com a a&#231;&#227;o trombol&#237;tica do t-PA. No entanto, Santos Filho e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> testaram a hip&#243;tese em pacientes submetidos &#224;
               tromb&#243;lise p&#243;s-infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio com rt-PA e n&#227;o observaram diferen&#231;a na
               frequ&#234;ncia de reestenose em pacientes com Lp(a) alta.</p>
        <p>Tem sido estudada a possibilidade de haver ac&#250;mulo de Lp(a) no estado p&#243;s-prandial em
               pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiovascular, por competi&#231;&#227;o entre Lp(a) e remanescentes de
               quilom&#237;cron gerados pela absor&#231;&#227;o de gordura da dieta. Contudo, essa possibilidade
               foi descartada quando se verificou que os n&#237;veis de Lp(a) n&#227;o se alteraram ap&#243;s a
               alimenta&#231;&#227;o gordurosa nestes pacientes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Lp(a) como fator de risco da aterosclerose</title>
        <p>Estudos transversais realizados at&#233; o momento t&#234;m confirmado amplamente a associa&#231;&#227;o
               entre os n&#237;veis de Lp(a) e o risco de desenvolver DAC, independente de outros fatores
               de risco. Kostner e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref> estimaram o risco
               como sendo de 2,3 vezes maior em pacientes com Lp(a) acima de 50 mg/dL, enquanto que
               Riches e Porter<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref> calcularam o risco como
               sendo duas vezes maior com Lp(a) acima de 20 mg/dL. A rela&#231;&#227;o entre Lp(a) e doen&#231;a
               coron&#225;ria e infarto cerebral foi confirmada por Murai e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref> em popula&#231;&#227;o japonesa e por Rhoads e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> em descendentes de japoneses no Hava&#237;. Nesse
               &#250;ltimo trabalho, foi reportado que o risco em indiv&#237;duos abaixo de 60 anos e Lp(a)
               acima de 30 mg/dL era de 2,5 vezes e se atenuava com o progredir da idade, caindo
               para 1,6 na faixa de 60 a 69 anos e para 1,2 vez se &gt; 70 anos. Em popula&#231;&#227;o
               brasileira de S&#227;o Paulo, Maranh&#227;o e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
               encontraram risco de desenvolvimento de DAC de 2,3 vezes maior com Lp(a) &gt; 25
               mg/dL.</p>
        <p>V&#225;rios estudos prospectivos t&#234;m sido publicados e, ao contr&#225;rio dos estudos
               transversais, n&#227;o t&#234;m sido t&#227;o assertivos em apontar a Lp(a) como fator de risco
               independente. S&#227;o um tanto conflitantes e foram reportadas desde fortes associa&#231;&#245;es
               positivas at&#233; aus&#234;ncia completa de associa&#231;&#227;o entre Lp(a) e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.
               No entanto, a maioria dos trabalhos prospectivos sustenta a hip&#243;tese de que a Lp(a)
               seja, realmente, um fator de risco independente para a doen&#231;a cardiovascular.</p>
        <p>Em um dos primeiros estudos, realizado em Boston, nos Estados Unidos, com quase 15
               mil homens, de 40 a 84 anos, n&#227;o houve preval&#234;ncia de Lp(a) alta entre os que viriam,
               subsequentemente, a apresentar infarto agudo de mioc&#225;rdio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>. No estudo prospectivo conduzido em Queb&#233;c, no Canad&#225;, por 5
               anos, em 2 mil homens entre 47 a 76 anos, a Lp(a) tamb&#233;m n&#227;o apareceu como fator de
               risco independente para eventos card&#237;acos, embora, aparentemente, Lp(a) alta tivesse
               exacerbado a pot&#234;ncia como fatores de risco tanto da hipercolesterolemia quanto da
               concentra&#231;&#227;o baixa de HDL-colesterol<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
        <p>A Lp(a) apareceu como fator de risco independente em popula&#231;&#227;o de 6 mil coreanos com
               DAC; pacientes com Lp(a) alta tiveram pior evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>. Meta-an&#225;lise englobando 27 estudos prospectivos envolvendo
               cerca de 5.500 indiv&#237;duos mostrou clara associa&#231;&#227;o independente entre Lp(a) e DAC,
               apesar de nove desses estudos apresentarem indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;a preexistente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>.</p>
        <p>Como vimos, al&#233;m da DAC, a Lp(a) pode ser tamb&#233;m fator de risco de aterosclerose em
               outros leitos arteriais, como no caso da doen&#231;a cerebral isqu&#234;mica, na qual o risco
               aparece com valor de corte de Lp(a) de 30 mg/dL <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref>.</p>
        <p>Em estudo prospectivo americano com cerca de 14 mil participantes, observou-se que
               mulheres caucasianas e homens e mulheres afrodescendentes com Lp(a) alta tiveram
               maior incid&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a cerebral isqu&#234;mica em um per&#237;odo de 13 anos de observa&#231;&#227;o.
               Homens caucasianos, no entanto, n&#227;o apresentaram risco aumentado associado a Lp(a)
                  alta<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>.</p>
        <p>Smolders e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>, revendo 31 estudos, tanto
               transversais quanto prospectivos, englobando cerca de 50 mil indiv&#237;duos, sugeriram
               que Lp(a) elevada pode estar associada com risco para acidente vascular encef&#225;lico
               isqu&#234;mico. Estudo de coorte composto por 2.365 indiv&#237;duos com DAC, 284 com acidente
               vascular encef&#225;lico isqu&#234;mico e 596 com doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica demonstrou
               associa&#231;&#227;o entre n&#237;veis aumentados de Lp(a) e eventos futuros das doen&#231;as arteriais,
               mas n&#227;o com doen&#231;a cerebral isqu&#234;mica. &#201; importante ressaltar que essa associa&#231;&#227;o foi
               independente dos n&#237;veis de LDL-colesterol<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>.</p>
        <p>A aterog&#234;nese &#233; comumente fator causal do aneurisma a&#243;rtico abdominal, enquanto o
               aneurisma a&#243;rtico tor&#225;cico &#233; decorrente da dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica e n&#227;o est&#225; associado &#224;
               aterosclerose. N&#237;veis de Lp(a) aparecem mais elevados no aneurisma abdominal do que
               no aneurisma tor&#225;cico, o que &#233; consent&#226;neo com o conceito da lipoprote&#237;na estar
               associada &#224; aterog&#234;nese<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref>.</p>
        <p>Um aspecto importante refere-se aos n&#237;veis extremamente altos de Lp(a), se eles podem
               representar um fator de risco de maior peso. Nesse sentido, estudo prospectivo
               dinamarqu&#234;s em mais de 9.000 indiv&#237;duos com seguimento de 10 anos mostrou que n&#237;veis
               extremamente elevados de Lp(a), ou seja, &#8805; 120 mg/dL, aumentaram de tr&#234;s a quatro
               vezes mais o risco de DAC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>.</p>
        <p>Em meta-an&#225;lise de 40 estudos prospectivos com 58 mil participantes, foi encontrado
               aumento de duas vezes no risco de desenvolver DAC e acidente vascular encef&#225;lico em
               portadores de isoformas de apo(a) menores, independentemente da concentra&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a)
               e dos fatores de risco cl&#225;ssicos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>.</p>
        <p>Outro aspecto importante &#233; o da rela&#231;&#227;o que a Lp(a) possa manter com o g&#234;nero. Apesar
               da maioria dos estudos n&#227;o apresentar diferen&#231;a entre os sexos nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de
               Lp(a), n&#237;veis mais elevados da lipoprote&#237;na parecem ser fatores de risco mais
               importantes no sexo feminino do que no masculino<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>. O &#250;ltimo estudo ARIC (nome do ing&#234;s <italic>Atherosclerosis Risk in
                  Communities Study</italic>), que avaliou Lp(a) como fator de risco, encontrou
               diferen&#231;a entre os sexos j&#225; na concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica dessa lipoprote&#237;na, sendo
               maior em mulheres, tanto caucasianas, quanto negras<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>. Knoflach e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>, ao
               avaliarem fatores de risco para aterosclerose em mulheres jovens, mostraram que os
               n&#237;veis de Lp(a) relacionavam-se com a raz&#227;o &#237;ntima/m&#233;dia carot&#237;dea, enquanto que
               fatores de risco cl&#225;ssicos n&#227;o tiveram influ&#234;ncia sobre esse par&#226;metro. Em mulheres
               p&#243;s-menopausa, n&#237;veis elevados de Lp(a) e triglic&#233;rides mostraram-se preditivos da
               presen&#231;a de DAC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>.</p>
        <p>Em negros, as m&#233;dias de concentra&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a) s&#227;o acentuadamente altas, de duas a
               tr&#234;s vezes maiores que em caucasianos e orientais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>. Em trabalhos mais antigos, com poder estat&#237;stico mais limitado,
               presumiu-se que a Lp(a) n&#227;o seria fator preditor de doen&#231;a cardiovascular em negros.
               No entanto, em estudo recente com quase 3.500 afro-americanos, encontrou-se maior
               incid&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares comparando-se a faixa de concentra&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a)
               mais alta com a mais baixa<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>.</p>
        <p>Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Tabela 1</xref> est&#227;o relacionados v&#225;rios estudos
               transversais e prospectivos avaliando a Lp(a) como fator de risco de doen&#231;as
               vasculares de natureza ateroscler&#243;tica.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t02">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Estudos que avaliaram a lipoproteina (a) - Lp(a) - como fator de risco de
                     doen&#231;a vascular de natureza ateroscler&#243;tica: doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria (DAC),
                     infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) e acidente vascular encef&#225;lico isqu&#234;mico
                     (AVEI)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <tr align="center">
              <th align="left">Tipo de estudo/tempo de observa&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th>Popula&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th>Valor de corte da Lp(a) (mg/dL)</th>
              <th>Risco independente ou associa&#231;&#227;o</th>
              <th>Manifesta&#231;&#227;o da aterosclerose</th>
              <th>Refer&#234;ncia</th>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Transversal</td>
              <td>183 homens</td>
              <td>&gt; 50</td>
              <td>2,3 vezes maior</td>
              <td>IAM</td>
              <td>Kostner e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Transversal</td>
              <td>426 japoneses: 268 homens e 158 mulheres</td>
              <td>&gt; 17</td>
              <td>Positiva</td>
              <td>DAC e AVEI</td>
              <td>Murai e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td rowspan="3" align="left">Transversal</td>
              <td rowspan="3">711 homens japoneses no Hava&#237;</td>
              <td rowspan="3">&gt; 30</td>
              <td style="border-bottom:hidden">2,5 vezes: &lt; 60 anos</td>
              <td rowspan="3">IAM</td>
              <td rowspan="3">Rhoads e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center" style="border-bottom:hidden">
              <td>1,6 vez: 60-69 anos</td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td>1,2 vez: &gt;70 anos de idade</td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Transversal</td>
              <td>162 brasileiros: 112 homens e 50 mulheres</td>
              <td>&#8805; 25</td>
              <td>2,3 vezes maior</td>
              <td>DAC</td>
              <td>Maranh&#227;o e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospectivo (5 anos)</td>
              <td>15 mil homens norte-americanos</td>
              <td>30</td>
              <td>Negativa</td>
              <td>IAM</td>
              <td>Stampfer e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospectivo (5 anos)</td>
              <td>2 mil homens canadenses</td>
              <td>30</td>
              <td>Negativa</td>
              <td>DAC</td>
              <td>Cantin e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Meta-an&#225;lise (10 anos)</td>
              <td>27 estudos prospectivos, 5.500 indiv&#237;duos de ambos os sexos</td>
              <td>20-100</td>
              <td>Positiva</td>
              <td>DAC</td>
              <td>Danesh e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Retrospectivo (1997-1999)</td>
              <td>182 mulheres brasileiras na p&#243;s-menopausa</td>
              <td>&#160;</td>
              <td>2 a 3 vezes maior</td>
              <td>DAC obstrutiva</td>
              <td>Sposito e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospectivo</td>
              <td>346 homens e 184 mulheres com descend&#234;ncia europeia</td>
              <td>&#160;</td>
              <td>2 vezes maior</td>
              <td>DAC Lp(a) 2 vezes mais alta em mulheres</td>
              <td>Frohlich e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospectivo (13,5 anos)</td>
              <td>14 mil caucasianos e afrodescendentes de ambos os sexos</td>
              <td>30</td>
              <td>Positiva</td>
              <td>AVEI, exceto em homens caucasianos</td>
              <td>Ohira e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Meta-an&#225;lise (1966-2006)</td>
              <td>31 estudos transversais e prospectivos, 50 mil indiv&#237;duos de ambos os
                        sexos</td>
              <td>&#8805; 30</td>
              <td>Positiva</td>
              <td>AVEI</td>
              <td>Smolders e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Meta-an&#225;lise (1966-2008)</td>
              <td>2 mil indiv&#237;duos de ambos os sexos</td>
              <td>&#160;</td>
              <td>Positiva</td>
              <td>Aneurisma a&#243;rtico abdominal</td>
              <td>Takagi e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Transversal</td>
              <td>205 mulheres jovens (18 a 22 anos de idade)</td>
              <td>&#8805; 30</td>
              <td>Positiva</td>
              <td>Raz&#227;o &#237;ntima-m&#233;dia da car&#243;tida</td>
              <td>Knoflach e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospectivo</td>
              <td>730 caucasianos, negros e hisp&#226;nicos de ambos os sexos</td>
              <td>&#8805; 30</td>
              <td>Positiva</td>
              <td>AVEI Maior incid&#234;ncia nos homens e negros</td>
              <td>Boden-Albala e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Meta-an&#225;lise</td>
              <td>58 mil indiv&#237;duos de ambos os sexos</td>
              <td>apo(a) menor</td>
              <td>2 vezes maior</td>
              <td>DAC e AVEI Portadores de isoformas menores de apo(a) apresentaram maior
                        risco</td>
              <td>Erqou e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospectivo</td>
              <td>6 mil coreanos de ambos os sexos</td>
              <td>&#8805; 20,1</td>
              <td>1,8 vez maior</td>
              <td>DAC Pior evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a</td>
              <td>Kwon e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospectivo</td>
              <td>2 mil europeus do Reino Unido de ambos os sexos</td>
              <td>&#8805; 25</td>
              <td>Positiva</td>
              <td>Eventos futuros das doen&#231;as arteriais: coron&#225;ria e perif&#233;rica, exceto na
                        AVEI</td>
              <td>Gurdasani e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td rowspan="3" align="left">Prospectivo (20 anos)</td>
              <td rowspan="3">3.467 afro-americanos e 9.851 caucasianos de ambos os
                        sexos</td>
              <td align="center" style="border-bottom:hidden">&#8804; 10 e &gt; 10</td>
              <td rowspan="3">Positiva</td>
              <td rowspan="3">N&#250;mero de eventos cardiovasculares maior em mulheres e com
                        maior incid&#234;ncia na faixa de concentra&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a) mais alta com a mais
                        baixa</td>
              <td rowspan="3">Virani e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center" style="border-bottom:hidden">&#8804; 20 e &gt; 20</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="center">&#8804; 30 e &gt; 30</td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left">Prospectivo (10 anos)</td>
              <td>9 mil dinamarqueses de ambos os sexos</td>
              <td>&#8805; 120</td>
              <td>3 a 4 vezes maior</td>
              <td>DAC</td>
              <td>Kamstrup e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></td>
            </tr>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Efeitos de f&#225;rmacos sobre a concentra&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a)</title>
        <p>As interven&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas hipolipemiantes tradicionais, como estatinas ou
               fibratos, n&#227;o resultam consistentemente em diminui&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a). Com o
               uso da atorvastatina, foram encontradas tanto aus&#234;ncia de efeito sobre a Lp(a), na
               dose de 20 mg/dia durante 24 semanas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>, quanto
               diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis da lipoprote&#237;na em indiv&#237;duos hipercolesterol&#234;micos sem
                  doen&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref>. No estudo duplo-cego e com
               placebo, utilizando-se doses de 10 ou 40 mg/dia por 12 semanas, a concentra&#231;&#227;o de
               Lp(a) diminuiu significativamente<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>. Entre
               lovastatina, sinvastatina ou genfibrozil, esse &#250;ltimo mostrou maior efic&#225;cia em
               diminuir a Lp(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>.</p>
        <p>A ezetimiba reduz os n&#237;veis de Lp(a) em at&#233; 29%<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>. Contudo, o uso mais frequente da ezetimiba &#233; em associa&#231;&#227;o com a
               sinvastatina, a qual n&#227;o tem efeito aditivo ao da ezetimiba, no que se refere &#224;
               Lp(a).</p>
        <p>Outro composto amplamente utilizado no tratamento de dislipidemia, a niacina, diminui
               efetivamente os n&#237;veis de Lp(a) quando administrada em altas doses. Pacientes que
               receberam dose de 2 a 4 g/dia de niacina apresentaram uma diminui&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de
               Lp(a) de 25 e 38%, respectivamente. Em doses menores (1 g/dia) a niacina n&#227;o mostrou
               tamanha efetividade<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref>. O etofibrato, uma droga
               h&#237;brida, que combina niacina e clofibrato, reduziu os n&#237;veis de Lp(a) em 26% na dose
               de 1 g/dia em pacientes dislipid&#234;micos tipo IIb<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref>. Pacientes com hiperlipidemia tipos IIa e IIb, que receberam tratamento
               com neomicina, tiveram seus n&#237;veis de Lp(a) diminu&#237;dos em 24%, enquanto a associa&#231;&#227;o
               neomicina-niacina resultou em diminui&#231;&#227;o de 45%. Esse efeito &#233; conseguido com doses
               altas de ambas as drogas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref>.</p>
        <p>A niacina E<italic>xtended-Release</italic> (ER) diminuiu os n&#237;veis de Lp(a) em
               pacientes diab&#233;ticos com dislipidemia. Tanto a niacina ER quanto a niacina
               convencional em altas doses s&#227;o f&#225;rmacos interessantes na terapia das dislipidemias,
               j&#225; que, al&#233;m de diminu&#237;rem os n&#237;veis de LDL-colesterol, aumentam os de HDL-colesterol
               e diminuem os de Lp(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref>. Entretanto, doses
               altas dessa droga podem estar associadas a alguns efeitos adversos como enxaquecas,
                  <italic>flushing</italic>, diarreia, v&#244;mito, taquicardia e hepato-toxicidade. A
               administra&#231;&#227;o da aspirina 30 minutos antes da niacina pode amenizar alguns desses
               efeitos. Pacientes japoneses com n&#237;veis de Lp(a) elevados (&gt; 300 mg/L)
               apresentaram redu&#231;&#227;o de 20% da Lp(a) com doses baixas de aspirina (81 mg/dia)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>. Mulheres com Lp(a) alta e que apresentavam o
               alelo polim&#243;rfico da apo(a) parecem ter se beneficiado mais do tratamento com
               aspirina do que as n&#227;o portadoras desse alelo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref>.</p>
        <p>A af&#233;rese de LDL tamb&#233;m foi capaz de diminuir a concentra&#231;&#227;o de Lp(a) em mais de 50%
               dos pacientes com hipercolesterolemia familiar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>.</p>
        <p>Na reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal, tanto em homens quanto em mulheres, as concentra&#231;&#245;es de Lp(a)
               parecem diminuir<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref>, bem como em situa&#231;&#227;o de
                  hipotireoidismo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref>. Mesmo tendo em vista os
               efeitos ben&#233;ficos da terapia estrog&#234;nica sobre a Lp(a) e outros l&#237;pides plasm&#225;ticos,
               &#233; preciso ter em mente as controv&#233;rsias sobre a reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal, no que concerne
               ao risco aumentado de certas neoplasias malignas e acidentes tromboemb&#243;licos.</p>
        <p>Outros agentes possivelmente redutores de n&#237;veis de Lp(a) incluem a carnitina-L, uma
               combina&#231;&#227;o de lisina-L e ascorbato, os tireomim&#233;ticos, os inibidores de CETP e os
               anticorpos monoclonais anti-PCSK-9 (sigla do ingl&#234;s <italic>Proprotein Convertase
                  Subtilisin/Kexin Type 9</italic>), prote&#237;na respons&#225;vel pela degrada&#231;&#227;o do
               receptor de LDL, e anticorpo tocilizumabe, capaz de bloquear a sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de IL-6;
               estes &#250;ltimos, ainda em fase experimental<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>.</p>
        <p>O mipomersen, aprovado pelo <italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic> (FDA) para
               uso na hipercolesterolemia familiar homozig&#243;tica em janeiro de 2013, pode ser
               promissor tamb&#233;m para diminuir os n&#237;veis de Lp(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref>. O mipomersen &#233; um oligonucleot&#237;deo antissense, que atua no RNA
               mensageiro inibindo a s&#237;ntese de apo B pelo f&#237;gado, reduzindo a concentra&#231;&#227;o das
               lipoprote&#237;nas que cont&#234;m essa apolipoprote&#237;na. Esse medicamento pode reduzir n&#227;o s&#243; o
               LDL-colesterol quanto a Lp(a), no entanto, a seguran&#231;a do seu uso ainda n&#227;o foi
                  estabelecida<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref>.</p>
        <p>O metotrexato, imunossupressor e anti-inflamat&#243;rio usado no tratamento da artrite
               reumatoide, tamb&#233;m reduziu os n&#237;veis de Lp(a)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref>.</p>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225;, at&#233; hoje, uma terapia espec&#237;fica indicada para a diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de
               Lp(a). Nesse sentido, ainda se busca o desenvolvimento de novos agentes terap&#234;uticos
               que possuam uma maior efic&#225;cia na redu&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o dessa lipoprote&#237;na com alto
               potencial pr&#243;-aterog&#234;nico e, possivelmente, fator de risco para doen&#231;a
               cardiovascular.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Considera&#231;&#245;es finais</title>
        <p>Quase meio s&#233;culo ap&#243;s a descoberta da Lp(a) por Berg, h&#225; pouca d&#250;vida sobre a Lp(a)
               ser fator de risco independente das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, mas os mecanismos que
               ligam a Lp(a) &#224; aterog&#234;nese ainda est&#227;o obscuros. &#201; recomendada af&#233;rese de LDL em
               casos extremos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref>, no entanto, n&#227;o existem
               ainda estudos provando que a diminui&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica da Lp(a) reduza o n&#250;mero de
               eventos.</p>
        <p>Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica habitual, na falta de medicamentos de boa tolerabilidade e que
               diminuam efetivamente o n&#237;vel da Lp(a), valores acima de 25 ou 30 mg/dL devem levar a
               um tratamento mais en&#233;rgico dos outros fatores de risco de DAC.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Maranh&#227;o RC; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados: Carvalho PO;
                  Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Maranh&#227;o RC, Carvalho PO, Strunz CC; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do
                  manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante: Maranh&#227;o RC, Carvalho PO,
                  Strunz CC, Pileggi F.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <p>
            <bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold>
          </p>
          <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
