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<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" dtd-version="3.0" article-type="review-article" xml:lang="pt">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">Q8N55Wzw54ZfFRdRMY3FRtC</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2014000300012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20140022</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="pt">Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica: Como as Muta&#231;&#245;es Levam &#224;
               Doen&#231;a?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marsiglia</surname>
            <given-names>J&#250;lia Daher Carneiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Costa</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <aff>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv3">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country>Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas,
                  Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP -
                  Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>Correspond&#234;ncia: </bold>J&#250;lia Daher Carneiro Marsiglia, Av. Dr. En&#233;as de
               Carvalho Aguiar, 44, Cerqueira C&#233;sar. CEP 05403-900, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil. E-mail:
                  <email>julia.marsiglia@usp.br</email>; <email>jaune18@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do
                  intelectual: Pereira AC; Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados, An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e
                  Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Marsiglia JDC.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p>
            <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
          </p>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o desse estudo a programas de p&#243;s gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date pub-type="epub-ppub">
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2014</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>102</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>295</fpage>
      <lpage>304</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/">
          <license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
                  Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License which permits unrestricted
                  non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
                  original work is properly cited. </license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract xml:lang="pt">
        <p>A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH) &#233; a doen&#231;a card&#237;aca gen&#233;tica monog&#234;nica mais
               comum, com uma preval&#234;ncia estimada de 1:500 na popula&#231;&#227;o em geral. Clinicamente, CMH
               &#233; caracterizada por hipertrofia das paredes do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, principalmente o
               septo, geralmente assim&#233;trica, na aus&#234;ncia de qualquer doen&#231;a card&#237;aca ou sist&#234;mica
               que leve a uma hipertrofia secund&#225;ria. A manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da doen&#231;a tem grande
               heterogeneidade, variando desde sintomas leves at&#233; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, em idade
               avan&#231;ada, e morte card&#237;aca s&#250;bita, em jovens, sendo causada por uma muta&#231;&#227;o em um dos
               genes que codificam uma prote&#237;na do sarc&#244;mero, disco Z ou controladores
               intracelulares de c&#225;lcio. Apesar de muitos genes e muta&#231;&#245;es j&#225; serem conhecidos por
               causar CMH, as vias moleculares que levam ao fen&#243;tipo ainda n&#227;o s&#227;o claras. Esse
               artigo teve como foco os mecanismos moleculares da CMH, as vias da muta&#231;&#227;o ao
               fen&#243;tipo cl&#237;nico e como o gen&#243;tipo da doen&#231;a se correlaciona com o fen&#243;tipo.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica</kwd>
        <kwd>Fen&#243;tipo</kwd>
        <kwd>Gen&#243;tipo</kwd>
        <kwd>Genes</kwd>
        <kwd>Sarc&#244;mero</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="1"/>
        <table-count count="1"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="68"/>
        <page-count count="10"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH) &#233; a doen&#231;a card&#237;aca gen&#233;tica monog&#234;nica mais comum,
            com preval&#234;ncia estimada de 1:500<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. A CMH &#233;
            caracterizada por hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE), especialmente do septo,
            geralmente assim&#233;trica, na aus&#234;ncia de qualquer doen&#231;a card&#237;aca ou sist&#234;mica, que leva a
            uma hipertrofia secund&#225;ria. O curso cl&#237;nico apresenta uma grande heterogeneidade inter e
            intrafamiliar, que variam de sintomas leves de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, em idade
            avan&#231;ada, at&#233; morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca, em indiv&#237;duos jovens. Al&#233;m da hipertrofia card&#237;aca,
            h&#225; acentuado desarranjo histol&#243;gico de miofilamentos e diferentes graus de fibrose<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>.</p>
      <p>A doen&#231;a &#233; uma importante causa de incapacidade e morte em pacientes de todas as idades,
            embora a morte s&#250;bita e inesperada em indiv&#237;duos jovens seja talvez o componente mais
            devastador de sua hist&#243;ria natural. Essa revis&#227;o se concentrou sobre os mecanismos
            moleculares da CMH, quais s&#227;o as vias da muta&#231;&#227;o para o fen&#243;tipo cl&#237;nico e como o
            gen&#243;tipo da doen&#231;a se correlaciona com o fen&#243;tipo. Al&#233;m disso, apresentamos dados
            recentes do perfil gen&#233;tico de pacientes com CMH na popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Gen&#233;tica da Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica</title>
      <p>A doen&#231;a &#233; causada por uma muta&#231;&#227;o em um dos genes que codificam uma prote&#237;na do
            sarc&#244;mero, Z-disco ou moduladores intracelulares de c&#225;lcio (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t01">Tabela 1</xref>). Para genes sarcom&#233;ricos, as muta&#231;&#245;es identificadas s&#227;o,
            em sua maioria, substitui&#231;&#245;es de um &#250;nico nucleot&#237;deo e para a maioria dos genes.
            Acredita-se que a prote&#237;na mutante seja incorporada ao sarc&#244;mero, exercendo um efeito
            dominante negativo (muta&#231;&#245;es dominantes negativas). At&#233; agora, a &#250;nica exce&#231;&#227;o &#233; o gene
            da Prote&#237;na C Card&#237;aca Ligada &#224; Miosina (<italic>MYBPC3</italic>), em que muitas
            muta&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o dele&#231;&#245;es ou inser&#231;&#245;es que levam a uma muta&#231;&#227;o do tipo
               <italic>frameshift</italic> e a maioria das muta&#231;&#245;es leva a uma prote&#237;na truncada sem
            fun&#231;&#227;o; assim, nesse caso, a doen&#231;a parece ser causada por um mecanismo de
               haploinsufici&#234;ncia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>. Para outros genes
            relacionados (Z-disco e mediadores de c&#225;lcio), o mecanismo espec&#237;fico ainda n&#227;o est&#225;
            elucidado. A maioria das muta&#231;&#245;es &#233; do tipo substitui&#231;&#227;o de um &#250;nico nucleot&#237;deo (ou
            muta&#231;&#227;o de ponto), mas n&#227;o se sabe se a doen&#231;a &#233; causada pela domin&#226;ncia negativa ou por
            haploinsufici&#234;ncia.</p>
      <table-wrap id="t01">
        <label>Tabela 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Genes envolvidos na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica e sua frequ&#234;ncia em pacientes
                  com essa doen&#231;a</title>
        </caption>
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <thead>
            <tr align="center">
              <th>&#160;</th>
              <th>
                <bold>Antes do sildenafil</bold>
              </th>
              <th>
                <bold>Durante administra&#231;&#227;o do sildenafil</bold>
              </th>
              <th>
                <bold>Depois da administra&#231;&#227;o do sildenafil</bold>
              </th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left"> FC (bpm) </td>
              <td> 100 </td>
              <td> 80 </td>
              <td> 79 </td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left"> SATO<sub>2</sub> (%) </td>
              <td> 90 </td>
              <td> 99 </td>
              <td> 99 </td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left"> Classe funcional </td>
              <td> III </td>
              <td> II </td>
              <td> I </td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left"> VD (mm) </td>
              <td> 23 </td>
              <td> 19,1 </td>
              <td> 14,7 </td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left"> VDF VE (mL/m<sup>2</sup>) </td>
              <td> 208 </td>
              <td> 122 </td>
              <td> 95 </td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left"> VSF VE (mL/m<sup>2</sup>) </td>
              <td> 168 </td>
              <td> 51,6 </td>
              <td> 48,7 </td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left"> FE VE (%) </td>
              <td> 19 </td>
              <td> 32-43 </td>
              <td> 60 </td>
            </tr>
            <tr align="center">
              <td align="left"> BNP (pg/mL) </td>
              <td> 641 </td>
              <td> 15 </td>
              <td> 42 </td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Associa&#231;&#227;o gen&#243;tipo versus fen&#243;tipo</title>
      <p>A compreens&#227;o das formas moleculares de muta&#231;&#245;es que levam &#224; doen&#231;a abre a perspectiva
            para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de ambas as associa&#231;&#245;es gen&#243;tipo-fen&#243;tipo moleculares e cl&#237;nicas.
            Isso poderia levar n&#227;o somente a melhores modelos de previs&#227;o de doen&#231;as, mas tamb&#233;m
            servir para orientar a terap&#234;utica. De fato, v&#225;rios autores t&#234;m descrito sugestivas
            associa&#231;&#245;es gen&#243;tipo-fen&#243;tipo em diversas popula&#231;&#245;es.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de uma muta&#231;&#227;o identificada</title>
      <p>A detec&#231;&#227;o de muta&#231;&#245;es em um dos genes sarcom&#233;ricos est&#225; associada com o aumento da
            gravidade da doen&#231;a. Um estudo revelou que a raz&#227;o entre espessura do Septo
            Intraventricular (SIV) e da parede posterior era significativamente maior nos pacientes
            com muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes <italic>MYBPC3, MYH7</italic> ou <italic>TPM1</italic> do que em
            pacientes sem muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes sarcom&#233;ricos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>.
            Por outro lado, observou-se que outro grupo de pacientes com hipertrofia apical e um
            gen&#243;tipo positivo era mais propenso a ter um hist&#243;rico familiar positivo para CMH do que
            pacientes com gen&#243;tipo negativo. Em todos os outros aspectos, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre
            pacientes com gen&#243;tipo positivo <italic>versus</italic> negativo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>.</p>
      <p>Outro grupo descreveu que a morfologia de hipertrofia tem um impacto na positividade dos
            testes gen&#233;ticos. Eles compararam os subtipos de hipertrofia sigmoide, reversa, apical e
            neutra, e constataram que, no subtipo reverso, uma muta&#231;&#227;o em um dos genes dos
            miofilamentos pode ser identificada em quase 80% dos pacientes, enquanto que, no tipo
            sigmoide, menos de 10% dos pacientes carregam uma muta&#231;&#227;o sarcom&#233;rica. Eles sugerem que
            esses dados podem ser utilizados para a tomada de decis&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; execu&#231;&#227;o de
            testes gen&#233;ticos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. Na popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira, os
            autores encontraram correla&#231;&#227;o entre a presen&#231;a de uma muta&#231;&#227;o identificada com uma
            maior frequ&#234;ncia de taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada, menor idade e os pacientes
            eram mais jovens no momento do diagn&#243;stico, quando comparados com os pacientes sem
            muta&#231;&#227;o identificada nos genes <italic>MYH7, MYBPC3</italic> e
               <italic>TNNT2</italic>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Gene mutado</title>
      <p>Houve um consenso inicial de que muta&#231;&#245;es no gene <italic>MYH7</italic> tinham
            caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas vari&#225;veis, com algumas altera&#231;&#245;es malignas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>; muta&#231;&#245;es no
            gene <italic>MYBPC3</italic> estavam relacionadas com um progn&#243;stico mais benigno<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>; e que muta&#231;&#245;es no gene <italic>TNNT2</italic>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> estavam
            relacionadas com taxas mais altas de morte s&#250;bita com pouca ou nenhuma hipertrofia. Para
            o gene <italic>MYH7</italic>, ainda h&#225; uma grande variabilidade entre os pacientes, que
            varia de doen&#231;a assintom&#225;tica at&#233; fen&#243;tipos muito graves.</p>
      <p>No entanto, para os outros dois genes descritos em primeiro lugar e, posteriormente,
            para os outros genes relacionados com a CMH, ainda n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel fazer uma suposi&#231;&#227;o
            baseada no gene mutado. Estudo realizado por Wang e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> comparou pacientes com muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes <italic>MYH7</italic> e
               <italic>MYBPC3</italic> e concluiu que os pacientes com muta&#231;&#245;es no gene
               <italic>MYH7</italic> desenvolvem a doen&#231;a em uma idade mais jovem, t&#234;m maior taxa de
            morte s&#250;bita familiar, maior propor&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e necessitam de interven&#231;&#227;o
            cir&#250;rgica mais do que o segundo grupo. Outro grupo realizou uma an&#225;lise de 389 pacientes
            n&#227;o relacionados, com e sem muta&#231;&#245;es no gene <italic>MYH7</italic>. Eles observaram que
            aqueles com muta&#231;&#245;es no gene <italic>MYH7</italic> tamb&#233;m eram mais jovens no momento do
            diagn&#243;stico, tinham mais hipertrofia e, mais frequentemente, tinham sido submetidos &#224;
            miectomia, mas n&#227;o encontraram diferen&#231;a no hist&#243;rico familiar de morte s&#250;bita entre os
               grupos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
      <p>No entanto, outro grupo encontrou um di&#226;metro m&#233;dio maior do SIV em portadores de uma
            muta&#231;&#227;o <italic>MYBPC3</italic>, em compara&#231;&#227;o com pacientes
               <italic>MYH7</italic>-positivos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. Um estudo
            recente em pacientes brasileiros com CMH mostrou que muta&#231;&#245;es no gene
               <italic>MYH7</italic> est&#227;o mais relacionadas com o maior tamanho do &#225;trio esquerdo e
            maior frequ&#234;ncia de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, quando comparadas com muta&#231;&#245;es no gene
               <italic>MYBPC3</italic>, sugerindo um pior progn&#243;stico nesses pacientes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Tipos de muta&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o de muta&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas com o fen&#243;tipo cl&#237;nico da CMH &#233; ainda muito
            controversa. Desde a descoberta dos genes causadores de doen&#231;a, v&#225;rios autores tentaram
            rotular as muta&#231;&#245;es como "malignas" ou "benignas", de acordo com o fen&#243;tipo do paciente.
            No entanto, para a maioria das associa&#231;&#245;es, h&#225; uma exce&#231;&#227;o ou os pesquisadores mais
            recentes n&#227;o conseguem replicar os dados em outro grupo de pacientes. Na verdade, esse
            assunto foi tema de um debate entre os autores Ho<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> e Landstrom e Ackerman<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>, e ambos
            conclu&#237;ram que ainda &#233; dif&#237;cil fazer progn&#243;sticos com base em uma &#250;nica muta&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Algumas muta&#231;&#245;es apresentam alguma concord&#226;ncia entre os especialistas quanto &#224; sua
            gravidade, embora a apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica possa variar. Por exemplo, a muta&#231;&#227;o R723G no
            gene <italic>MYH7</italic> foi descrita pela primeira vez em 2000 por Enjuto e
               cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> com uma taxa elevada de morte s&#250;bita e
            insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca progressiva, ambas em torno da quinta d&#233;cada de vida. Em 2006, um
            grupo chin&#234;s detectou uma fam&#237;lia com a mesma muta&#231;&#227;o e, nela, apenas um indiv&#237;duo do
            sexo masculino tinha hist&#243;rico de s&#237;ncope; o outros cinco indiv&#237;duos morreram de
            insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca grave, e a m&#233;dia de idade foi de 66 anos &#224; &#233;poca da morte. Morte
            s&#250;bita n&#227;o foi descrita<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>. Isso sugere que o
            fen&#243;tipo torna-se maligno com a idade, sendo benigno em pacientes mais jovens, embora a
            apresenta&#231;&#227;o do fen&#243;tipo n&#227;o fosse a mesma.</p>
      <p>Por outro lado, n&#227;o h&#225; uma percep&#231;&#227;o clara em rela&#231;&#227;o a outras muta&#231;&#245;es, mesmo
            considerando qu&#227;o grave o fen&#243;tipo pode ser. A muta&#231;&#227;o Val606Met no gene
               <italic>MYH7</italic> foi descrita pela primeira vez como uma muta&#231;&#227;o benigna, com os
            pacientes portadores dessa altera&#231;&#227;o apresentando sobreviv&#234;ncia quase normal<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Mais tarde, v&#225;rios pesquisadores descreveram a
            mesma muta&#231;&#227;o como maligna, com risco maior de morte s&#250;bita<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
				<sup>-</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
      <p>Temos que concordar com Ho<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> e Landstrom e
               Ackerman<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> que ainda n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel determinar
            o progn&#243;stico com base na muta&#231;&#227;o. Acreditamos que existem tantas muta&#231;&#245;es diferentes
            que podem levar &#224; CMH em tantos genes diferentes, que &#233; dif&#237;cil encontrar um elevado
            n&#250;mero de pacientes com a mesma muta&#231;&#227;o para compar&#225;-los e definir com precis&#227;o o
               <italic>endpoint</italic> de fen&#243;tipo. Mesmo que tiv&#233;ssemos essa defini&#231;&#227;o, h&#225; v&#225;rias
            descri&#231;&#245;es na literatura sobre o efeito da modula&#231;&#227;o de genes modificadores sobre o
            fen&#243;tipo; assim, mesmo em pacientes com a mesma muta&#231;&#227;o, o fen&#243;tipo poder&#225; ser, e
            provavelmente ser&#225;, diferente.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>N&#250;mero de muta&#231;&#245;es</title>
      <p>Alguns pacientes s&#227;o portadores de mais do que uma muta&#231;&#227;o patog&#234;nica e a literatura
            atualmente estima que isso aconte&#231;a em 3 a 5% dos pacientes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
				<sup>-</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. De acordo
            com Kelly e Semsarian<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>, as caracter&#237;sticas
            cl&#237;nicas em pacientes com mais de uma muta&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o mais graves, com maior risco de morte
            s&#250;bita e hipertrofia do VE. Em sua revis&#227;o, eles compararam os dados publicados de
            pacientes com muta&#231;&#245;es homozig&#243;ticas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>, heterozig&#243;ticas
               compostas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> e duplo-heterozig&#243;ticas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> e, na maioria dos
            casos, o fen&#243;tipo &#233; mais grave com a idade de diagn&#243;stico, incluindo pacientes
            pedi&#225;tricos. Outro estudo recentemente publicado descreveu um perfil cl&#237;nico da muta&#231;&#227;o
            sarcom&#233;rica tripla<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. Eles encontraram quatro
            pacientes em uma coorte de 488 indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o relacionados com muta&#231;&#227;o tripla (0,8%) e
            conclu&#237;ram que esse cen&#225;rio &#233; raro, mas provoca um aumento do risco de progress&#227;o para
            fase terminal e arritmias ventriculares. No entanto, mais estudos ainda s&#227;o necess&#225;rios
            para entender completamente como as diferentes combina&#231;&#245;es de muta&#231;&#245;es agem para criar o
            fen&#243;tipo final, j&#225; que as combina&#231;&#245;es poss&#237;veis s&#227;o incont&#225;veis.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Genes modificadores</title>
      <p>Muito provavelmente, existem genes modificadores que podem modular o fen&#243;tipo, tornando
            o progn&#243;stico baseado em gen&#243;tipo ainda mais dif&#237;cil. Por exemplo, algumas variantes no
            gene do receptor de angiotensina II tipo 2 foram significativamente associadas com o
            grau de hipertrofia em pacientes com CMH, independentemente de sua press&#227;o arterial<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>. A enzima conversora de angiotensina tamb&#233;m foi
            implicada como moduladora do fen&#243;tipo. Pesquisadores correlacionaram um polimorfismo no
            gene com a dispers&#227;o do QT, que reflete as diferen&#231;as regionais na repolariza&#231;&#227;o
            ventricular e &#233; utilizado como marcador do conte&#250;do de col&#225;geno (nos pacientes com o
            gen&#243;tipo DD, a dispers&#227;o do QT &#233; aumentada)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>.</p>
      <p>Outro grupo estudou, em pacientes com CMH, a presen&#231;a de resistina, uma nova citocina
            associada &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o e suspeita de induzir hipertrofia em ratos. Eles analisaram ambos
            os n&#237;veis de resistina e o polimorfismo -410C &gt; G no promotor do gene, verificando
            que ambos os n&#237;veis de resistina e o polimorfismo poderiam estar associados com a
            hipertrofia card&#237;aca no grupo estudado<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>.</p>
      <p>Outros estudos avaliaram o polimorfismo -34T &gt; A no gene da calmodulina
               (<italic>CALM3</italic>) e observaram que o polimorfismo &#233; um agente modificador para
            a CMH porque provavelmente afeta a express&#227;o do gene, que tem um papel fundamental na
            homeostase do Ca<sup>2+</sup>, atuando como um sensor intracelular dessa mol&#233;cula<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>.</p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, o papel dos genes dos receptores de horm&#244;nios sexuais na hipertrofia
            ventricular esquerda em pacientes do sexo masculino CMH tamb&#233;m foi investigado. Foi
            descrito que um n&#250;mero menor de repeti&#231;&#245;es (CAG)n no receptor de androg&#234;nio estava
            associado com maior Espessura da Parede do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo (EPVE) nos indiv&#237;duos do
            sexo masculino. Os indiv&#237;duos do sexo masculino portadores do alelo A no SNP rs6915267
            da regi&#227;o promotora do gene do receptor de estrog&#234;nio 1 tinham uma diminui&#231;&#227;o de 11% na
            m&#233;dia da EPVE quando comparados com os indiv&#237;duos do sexo masculino homozigotos GG<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>. Uma vez que h&#225; tantos polimorfismos e genes
            diferentes envolvidos com o efeito da modula&#231;&#227;o da CMH, isso pode, pelo menos em parte,
            explicar a grande variabilidade fenot&#237;pica observada na doen&#231;a.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Desequil&#237;brio de express&#227;o</title>
      <p>Quase todos os pacientes com CMH s&#227;o heterozigotos para muta&#231;&#245;es no gene afetado. Assim,
            presume-se que 50% das prote&#237;nas sejam defeituosas. No entanto, Trapathi e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> mostraram, em seu estudo, que h&#225; um desequil&#237;brio
            entre miofilamentos de tipo selvagem e mutantes em pacientes com muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes
               <italic>MYH7</italic> e <italic>MYBPC3</italic>. Tamb&#233;m foi relatado que a fra&#231;&#227;o de
            prote&#237;na mutada se correlaciona com a gravidade da doen&#231;a e &#233; geralmente dependente da
            muta&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica. Os autores mostraram, em seu artigo, que a express&#227;o do
               <italic>MYH7</italic>-mRNA mutado &#233; semelhante entre pacientes de gera&#231;&#245;es diferentes
            e tamb&#233;m entre pacientes n&#227;o relacionados, e que essa diferen&#231;a depende da muta&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Por exemplo, a muta&#231;&#227;o no gene V606M no gene <italic>MYH7</italic> leva a excis&#227;o do
            exon 16; por isso, &#233; prov&#225;vel que tenha um decaimento mediado por
               <italic>nonsense</italic>. Por outro lado, os mecanismos subjacentes de regula&#231;&#227;o
            dessas muta&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o s&#227;o completamente compreendidos, mas sabe-se que algumas muta&#231;&#245;es
            influenciam a efici&#234;ncia de <italic>splicing</italic> e, ent&#227;o, especula-se que algumas
            delas possam ter um mecanismo de <italic>splicing</italic> mais eficiente do que a
            transcri&#231;&#227;o de tipo selvagem, levando a uma maior taxa de prote&#237;nas mutadas no tecido.
            Relataram tamb&#233;m, em seu estudo, que a abund&#226;ncia de prote&#237;nas mutadas est&#225; relacionada
            com uma progress&#227;o grave da doen&#231;a em longo prazo e os efeitos &#243;bvios sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o do
            sistema contr&#225;til. Essa parece ser uma descoberta interessante, mas precisa ser
            replicada em outros estudos.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Modelos animais</title>
      <p>A cria&#231;&#227;o de modelos animais adequados de CMH fornece conhecimento consider&#225;vel sobre a
            progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a ao longo da vida do animal. Com esse objetivo, v&#225;rios modelos
            animais da doen&#231;a foram criados ao longo do tempo. Em 1996, dois grupos distintos
            criaram modelos de ratos com CMH com uma muta&#231;&#227;o <italic>MYH7</italic> que ajudou nos
            estudos sobre a hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>.</p>
      <p>Em 1999, outro grupo criou uma linhagem diferente de camundongos com CMH com uma muta&#231;&#227;o
            na miosina alfa-card&#237;aca de cadeia pesada. Eles descobriram que camundongos
            heterozigotos tinham as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#225;ssicas da CMH, mas os animais homozigotos
            morriam logo ap&#243;s o nascimento devido &#224; presen&#231;a de uma cardiomiopatia dilatada fatal. O
            grupo tamb&#233;m notou que a incorpora&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na mutante aumentou rapidamente ap&#243;s o
            nascimento e especulou que essa incorpora&#231;&#227;o vari&#225;vel pudesse ser respons&#225;vel pela morte
            focal dos mi&#243;citos na CMH<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
      <p>Recentemente, alguns modelos animais foram utilizados em estudos farmacol&#243;gicos. Por
            exemplo, os investigadores mostraram que as muta&#231;&#245;es da prote&#237;na sarcom&#233;rica ativam as
            vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o que promovem a transcri&#231;&#227;o de sinais proliferativos e probi&#243;ticos em
            c&#233;lulas n&#227;o mi&#243;citas, principalmente por meio de <italic>Transforming Growth fator
               Beta</italic> (TGF-&#946;) em um modelo de camundongos. Eles administraram anticorpos
            neutralizadores de TGF-&#946; e observaram que a n&#227;o prolifera&#231;&#227;o de mi&#243;citos, bem como a
            fibrose, foi abolida. Al&#233;m disso, a administra&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica de losartana, um antagonista
            do receptor da angiotensina II, tipo 1, evitou o surgimento de hipertrofia, de
            prolifera&#231;&#227;o de n&#227;o mi&#243;citos e de fibrose em camundongos positivos para a muta&#231;&#227;o. Em
            animais com hipertrofia estabelecida, o f&#225;rmaco n&#227;o reverteu o fen&#243;tipo, mas reduziu a
            prolifera&#231;&#227;o de n&#227;o mi&#243;citos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>. O estudo foi
            bem-sucedido ao estabelecer que TGF-&#946; &#233; um mecanismo fundamental para o desenvolvimento
            de fibrose e abriu as portas para o tratamento de portadores de muta&#231;&#245;es.</p>
      <p>O cora&#231;&#227;o murino &#233; composto principalmente por alfa-miosina, enquanto o cora&#231;&#227;o humano &#233;
            composto principalmente por beta-miosina. O coelho pode ser um modelo melhor, porque a
            composi&#231;&#227;o da miosina &#233; semelhante &#224; do cora&#231;&#227;o humano. Assim, um modelo de coelho
            transg&#234;nico com a muta&#231;&#227;o R400Q no gene <italic>MYH7</italic> foi criado com
               sucesso<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. Al&#233;m disso, uma muta&#231;&#227;o causadora
            de CMH, que ocorre naturalmente em gatos Maine Coon, imita os aspectos heredit&#225;rios,
            hist&#243;ria natural e caracter&#237;sticas patol&#243;gicas da CMH em seres humanos. Esse modelo
            animal tem sido uma ferramenta valiosa para estudar a fisiopatologia macrosc&#243;pica,
            celular e molecular da doen&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>.</p>
      <p>Um modelo de camundongos transg&#234;nicos foi criado com quantidades vari&#225;veis de um gene
               <italic>MYBPC3</italic> mutado sem os dom&#237;nios de liga&#231;&#227;o da miosina e da titina.
            Eles descobriram que o pept&#237;deo era est&#225;vel, mas n&#227;o se incorporou de forma eficaz no
            sarc&#244;mero. A express&#227;o de prote&#237;nas transg&#234;nicas leva &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de
            prote&#237;na end&#243;gena<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. O mesmo grupo produziu outro
            transg&#234;nico com um gene <italic>MYBPC3</italic>, faltando apenas o s&#237;tio de liga&#231;&#227;o da
            miosina, e pouca prote&#237;na foi encontrada no cora&#231;&#227;o dos camundongos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>. Os autores acreditam que esses experimentos podem ajudar a
            compreender os mecanismos gen&#233;ticos da doen&#231;a. De acordo com eles, tanto o alelo nulo
            quanto a hip&#243;tese do pept&#237;deo dominante-negativo s&#227;o relevantes para o fen&#243;tipo, e sua
            import&#226;ncia relativa pode variar consideravelmente, dependendo da muta&#231;&#227;o
               <italic>MYBPC3</italic> em particular.</p>
      <p>Outro modelo animal muito importante para a CMH &#233; o peixe-zebra. O modelo de peixe &#233; uma
            ferramenta poderosa para estudar diversas doen&#231;as, sendo particularmente importante para
            o desenvolvimento do cora&#231;&#227;o, devido a algumas caracter&#237;sticas, como o desenvolvimento
            externo do cora&#231;&#227;o, que permite a an&#225;lise n&#227;o invasiva do cora&#231;&#227;o durante sua forma&#231;&#227;o.
            Al&#233;m disso, inicialmente, os embri&#245;es de peixe-zebra n&#227;o utilizam o sistema
            cardiovascular para obter oxig&#234;nio, de modo que os mutantes podem sobreviver e continuar
            o desenvolvimento por v&#225;rios dias. Finalmente, embora o cora&#231;&#227;o do peixe-zebra seja mais
            simples em termos de estrutura, os genes essenciais respons&#225;veis pelo desenvolvimento do
            cora&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o conservados<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>.</p>
      <p>Um grupo desenvolveu um modelo de muta&#231;&#227;o humana no gene <italic>TNNT2</italic> no
            peixe-zebra para avaliar seu impacto durante o desenvolvimento do cora&#231;&#227;o. Eles
            descobriram que a muta&#231;&#227;o levava ao mesmo fen&#243;tipo observado em humanos com muta&#231;&#245;es:
            desarranjo sarcom&#233;rico e indu&#231;&#227;o maci&#231;a de vias hipertr&#243;ficas mioc&#225;rdicas. Al&#233;m disso,
            observaram que os cora&#231;&#245;es embrion&#225;rios, em oposi&#231;&#227;o ao cora&#231;&#227;o adulto, desenvolveram
            hiperplasia dos cardiomi&#243;citos. Eles conclu&#237;ram que as muta&#231;&#245;es sarcom&#233;ricas podem ter
            impacto sobre a biologia dos cardiomi&#243;citos muito mais cedo do que pens&#225;vamos e com
            efeitos distintos daqueles observados no cora&#231;&#227;o adulto, apesar de terem as mesmas
            respostas transcricionais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Mecanismos moleculares da Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica</title>
      <p>Embora muitos genes e muta&#231;&#245;es sejam causas conhecidas de CMH, tendo sido amplamente
            demonstrado em modelos animais, as vias moleculares que levam ao fen&#243;tipo n&#227;o s&#227;o ainda
            claras. A primeira hip&#243;tese proposta foi a de que a incorpora&#231;&#227;o de uma prote&#237;na mutante
            levaria &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til e que isso desencadearia uma hipertrofia
               compensat&#243;ria<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>. No entanto, segundo alguns autores, foi
            demonstrado que essa proposta era inconsistente com evid&#234;ncias laboratoriais e
            cl&#237;nicas.</p>
      <p>Em sua revis&#227;o, Asharafian e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> listaram
            tr&#234;s argumentos contra essa hip&#243;tese: (1) Inicialmente, as experi&#234;ncias com as prote&#237;nas
            mutantes revelaram uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o, especialmente caracterizada por uma redu&#231;&#227;o
            na mobilidade da prote&#237;na. No entanto, com o desenvolvimento de ensaios mais avan&#231;ados,
            percebeu-se que, para algumas muta&#231;&#245;es, h&#225;, na verdade, um aumento da mobilidade,
            sugerindo um ganho funcional da prote&#237;na mutada. Assim, a diminui&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o pode
            ser o &#250;nico est&#237;mulo para a hipertrofia. Corroborando esses dados, portadores da muta&#231;&#227;o
            que n&#227;o desenvolveram hipertrofia t&#234;m uma maior mobilidade no tecido card&#237;aco, que pode
            ser visualizado no ecocardiograma; (2) a hipertrofia presente em pacientes com CMH &#233;
            assim&#233;trica, muito diferente da hipertrofia conc&#234;ntrica, que &#233; vista em cora&#231;&#245;es com
            aumento da carga, como na hipertens&#227;o; (3) pacientes com CMH geralmente desenvolvem a
            hipertrofia ap&#243;s a puberdade e essa n&#227;o parece progredir muito depois disso. Al&#233;m disso,
            alguns pacientes s&#243; desenvolvem a hipertrofia na idade adulta. Assim, esses padr&#245;es n&#227;o
            podem ser explicados por um mecanismo compensat&#243;rio, considerando que a muta&#231;&#227;o est&#225;
            presente desde o desenvolvimento do cora&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Apesar de todos os argumentos serem bastante convincentes de que n&#227;o h&#225; nenhuma
            disfun&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica que precede o desenvolvimento da hipertrofia, eles n&#227;o abordam a
            quest&#227;o principal, isto &#233;, se h&#225; disfun&#231;&#227;o sarcom&#233;rica devido a problemas estruturais,
            ou, alternativamente, se h&#225; outros mecanismos epist&#225;ticos respons&#225;veis pelo
            desenvolvimento da hipertrofia. Nesse cen&#225;rio, a diminui&#231;&#227;o ou o aumento da mobilidade
            n&#227;o s&#227;o substitutos bem estabelecidos para a fun&#231;&#227;o sarcom&#233;rica e, mesmo que sejam,
            qualquer um dos dois pode ser o resultado de uma ruptura estrutural do sistema de
            contra&#231;&#227;o molecular; a assimetria da hipertrofia est&#225; provavelmente relacionada &#224;
            intera&#231;&#227;o entre as for&#231;as f&#237;sicas e moleculares dentro do &#243;rg&#227;o; e n&#227;o est&#225; claro se n&#227;o
            h&#225; progress&#227;o na hipertrofia durante o tempo de vida dos portadores de CMH (o que
            certamente n&#227;o &#233; o caso para outros fen&#243;tipos associados, como a fibrose).</p>
      <p>Muitos estudos se concentram na sensibilidade ao C<sup>2+</sup>, que est&#225; alterada no
            cora&#231;&#227;o hipertrofiado, como um mecanismo que leva a fen&#243;tipos de CMH. H&#225; cada vez mais
            evid&#234;ncias de que as muta&#231;&#245;es em diferentes genes de prote&#237;nas de miofilamentos aumentam
            a sensibilidade ao Ca<sup>2+</sup> e o consequente defeito na homeostase, tal como a
            modula&#231;&#227;o intracelular de Ca<sup>2+</sup>, a recapta&#231;&#227;o de Ca<sup>2+</sup> pelo ret&#237;culo
            sarcoplasm&#225;tico e a fosforila&#231;&#227;o de certas prote&#237;nas provavelmente contribuem para
            v&#225;rios dos aspectos da doen&#231;a<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>. Alguns estudos t&#234;m mostrado que uma maior
            sensibilidade miofibrilar ao Ca<sup>2+</sup> &#233; suficiente para aumentar a probabilidade
            de arritmias. Em camundongos, foi demonstrado que, com uma maior sensibilidade ao
               Ca<sup>2+</sup>, a forma do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o ventricular tornava-se alterado,
            resultando em per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios efetivos mais curtos, maior variabilidade
            batimento-a-batimento da dura&#231;&#227;o do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o e um aumento da dispers&#227;o da
            velocidade de condu&#231;&#227;o ventricular em frequ&#234;ncias card&#237;acas elevadas. Acredita-se que
            isso seja suficiente para criar um substrato arritmog&#234;nico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>.</p>
      <p>Essa associa&#231;&#227;o foi refor&#231;ada pelo estudo de camundongos transg&#234;nicos com uma muta&#231;&#227;o de
            troponina T, nos quais a carga de arritmias ventriculares tinha uma correla&#231;&#227;o com o
            grau de sensibilidade ao Ca<sup>2+</sup>. Finalmente, o miofilamento sensibilizador do
               Ca<sup>2+</sup> EMD 57033 agrava arritmias nesse modelo, enquanto blebistatina, que
            reverte a sensibiliza&#231;&#227;o de Ca<sup>2+</sup>, eliminou quase completamente a
               arritmia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>. N&#227;o est&#225; claro, contudo, se essas
            altera&#231;&#245;es observadas s&#227;o causadoras da hipertrofia ou, alternativamente, um epifen&#244;meno
            de todo o processo. Elas poderiam modular o fen&#243;tipo cl&#237;nico e explicar uma grande
            variabilidade interindividual, mas n&#227;o podem ser consideradas condi&#231;&#245;es suficientes para
            o desenvolvimento de hipertrofia de mi&#243;citos e desarranjo miofibrilar.</p>
      <p>Em conclus&#227;o as altera&#231;&#245;es na homeostase do c&#225;lcio est&#227;o associadas a fen&#243;tipos
            arr&#237;tmicos em modelos humanos e animais de CMH. No entanto, o mecanismo que conduz &#224;
            hipertrofia, provavelmente, o iniciador de processo, permanece obscuro.</p>
      <p>Em 2002, Ashrafian e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> afirmaram que a
            disfun&#231;&#227;o unificante na CMH era o aumento da demanda de energia devido &#224; utiliza&#231;&#227;o
            ineficiente de ATP sarcom&#233;rico e, com base nisso, criaram outra hip&#243;tese chamada de
            "hip&#243;tese de deple&#231;&#227;o de energia", que prop&#245;e que o aumento da demanda compromete a
            capacidade do cardiomi&#243;cito em manter os n&#237;veis de energia nos compartimentos
            subcelulares.</p>
      <p>Em 2008, Belus e cols.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> estudaram a mec&#226;nica de
            contra&#231;&#227;o e relaxamento de miofibrilas &#250;nicas de pacientes portadores da muta&#231;&#227;o R403Q
            no gene <italic>MYH7</italic> e compararam com cora&#231;&#245;es normais e saud&#225;veis, descobrindo
            que a gera&#231;&#227;o de tens&#227;o e relaxamento, ap&#243;s o aumento e a diminui&#231;&#227;o de Ca<sup>2+</sup>,
            era muito mais r&#225;pida na miofibrila mutada, mas a um custo de energia mais alto,
            corroborando a ideia de utiliza&#231;&#227;o ineficiente de ATP para a gera&#231;&#227;o de tens&#227;o. Essa
            hip&#243;tese tamb&#233;m pode fornecer uma explica&#231;&#227;o para a hipertrofia assim&#233;trica, pois, se a
            tens&#227;o na parede do mioc&#225;rdio e a demanda de energia n&#227;o forem uniformes no &#243;rg&#227;o por
            inteiro, a necessidade de energia extra pode ser mais prejudicial em regi&#245;es espec&#237;ficas
            do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
      <p>Mais recentemente, alguns autores descreveram o assim chamado "modelo de quarta fase", o
            qual pode ajudar a compreender como a muta&#231;&#227;o pode agir levando &#224; doen&#231;a, n&#227;o apenas em
            CMH, mas tamb&#233;m na cardiomiopatia dilatada e algumas doen&#231;as do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>
				<sup>,</sup>
				<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>. Essa hip&#243;tese refere-se &#224; adi&#231;&#227;o de uma quarta fase no bem conhecido
            modelo de regula&#231;&#227;o de tr&#234;s fases. Em sua revis&#227;o, Lehrer<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> explica que a compreens&#227;o de como o Ca<sup>2+</sup> e a miosina est&#227;o
            envolvidos na contra&#231;&#227;o muscular &#233;, em grande parte, fenomenol&#243;gica e a base molecular
            ainda n&#227;o est&#225; esclarecida. No modelo regular de tr&#234;s fases<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref>, a tropomiosina ligada &#224; actina equilibra-se entre as tr&#234;s fases,
            a ocupa&#231;&#227;o relativa, que &#233; afetada pela concentra&#231;&#227;o de Ca<sup>2+</sup> e as fortemente
            ligantes cabe&#231;as da miosina. As fases descritas s&#227;o o "est&#225;gio bloqueado", no qual o
            filamento fino &#233; incapaz de se ligar &#224; miosina, o "est&#225;gio fechado", no qual o filamento
            fino pode apenas se ligar &#224; miosina relativamente fraca, e o "est&#225;gio aberto", no qual a
            miosina pode se ligar e passar por isomeriza&#231;&#227;o para atingir uma conforma&#231;&#227;o de liga&#231;&#227;o
            mais forte e r&#237;gida.</p>
      <p>No entanto, de acordo com Lehrer, existem v&#225;rios fen&#244;menos inexplic&#225;veis na regula&#231;&#227;o do
            m&#250;sculo (por exemplo, aumento da liga&#231;&#227;o do Ca<sup>2+</sup> causada por cabe&#231;as miosina
            de forte liga&#231;&#227;o e for&#231;a residual ativa com Ca<sup>2+</sup> baixo no caso de CMH), que
            podem envolver um estado ativo adicional na aus&#234;ncia de Ca<sup>2+</sup>. Essa nova
            proposta considera que existem dois est&#225;gios abertos, um na presen&#231;a de Ca<sup>2+</sup>
            e outro est&#225;gio aberto miosina-induzido na aus&#234;ncia de Ca<sup>2+</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura 1</xref>). Esse estado adicional pode ajudar a
            entender como uma muta&#231;&#227;o em qualquer uma das prote&#237;nas do sarc&#244;mero pode causar
            mudan&#231;as na sensibilidade ao Ca<sup>2+</sup> na CMH e DC .</p>
      <fig id="f01" fig-type="other">
        <label>Figura 1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Figura esquem&#225;tica do modelo de 4 est&#225;gios.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-102-03-0295-40022-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Os autores acreditam que a disfun&#231;&#227;o dos mi&#243;citos resulta em hipertrofia. No entanto,
            mais uma vez o mecanismo n&#227;o est&#225; claro. A principal quest&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; CMH ainda &#233;
            exatamente como uma muta&#231;&#227;o pode levar a diversos fen&#243;tipos cl&#237;nicos e anat&#244;micos,
            especialmente a hipertrofia. Acreditamos que a disfun&#231;&#227;o energ&#233;tica e a sensibilidade ao
            c&#225;lcio alterada podem muito bem ser a consequ&#234;ncia da disfun&#231;&#227;o sarcom&#233;rica, ao inv&#233;s de
            ser a causa prim&#225;ria de hipertrofia.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>An&#225;lise da express&#227;o global</title>
      <p>Compreender a base molecular do desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a vai al&#233;m da identifica&#231;&#227;o de
            diferentes muta&#231;&#245;es causais. Essa identifica&#231;&#227;o deve levar &#224; caracteriza&#231;&#227;o e &#224;
            compreens&#227;o do verdadeiro cen&#225;rio de altera&#231;&#245;es em v&#225;rias redes de genes. Trabalhos
            recentes est&#227;o se concentrando no transcriptoma, em busca de diferen&#231;as de express&#227;o
            entre indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis e doentes. Dessa forma, &#233; poss&#237;vel entender como a doen&#231;a
            afeta toda a cascata de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; CMH, h&#225; um estudo que comparou a
            express&#227;o g&#234;nica global que identificou 29 fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o distintamente
            expressos entre os cora&#231;&#245;es do tipo selvagem e pr&#233;-hipertr&#243;ficos de camundongos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>.</p>
      <p>Outro estudo foi realizado utilizando um modelo de camundongo n&#227;o CMH hipertr&#243;fico,
            silenciando a prote&#237;na G&#945;q para compreender a ativa&#231;&#227;o das vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o de
            hipertrofia card&#237;aca. Verificou-se que G&#945;q tem efeito mediador da resposta hipertr&#243;fica
            nos mi&#243;citos card&#237;acos, levando a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>, ent&#227;o os autores compararam, a partir desse modelo, todo o transcriptoma
            do tecido card&#237;aco de camundongos machos transg&#234;nicos e n&#227;o transg&#234;nicos, utilizando os
            sistemas de sequenciamento de pr&#243;xima gera&#231;&#227;o contra a mesma an&#225;lise usando um arranjo
            de express&#227;o. O camundongo transg&#234;nico G&#945;q tinha hipertrofia card&#237;aca, aumento
            ventricular, fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o diminu&#237;da e aumento da express&#227;o de genes card&#237;acos
            fetais, quando comparado com o camundongo n&#227;o transg&#234;nico. Al&#233;m disso, eles conclu&#237;ram
            que essa nova tecnologia &#233; melhor do que os experimentos baseados em arranjos
            tradicionais.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Custo-efetividade de um programa de triagem em cascata para Cardiomiopatia
            Hipertr&#243;fica</title>
      <p>Apesar das d&#250;vidas sobre o mecanismo patol&#243;gico da doen&#231;a, &#233; evidente que o diagn&#243;stico
            gen&#233;tico tem espa&#231;o na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, principalmente sob a forma de triagem em
            cascata. A triagem em cascata &#233; definida como uma abordagem para a fam&#237;lia de um
            paciente afetado por uma doen&#231;a gen&#233;tica e uma oferta de teste preditivo de DNA para
            aqueles em risco potencial, com base em informa&#231;&#227;o sobre uma muta&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica patog&#234;nica
               confirmada<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>. Essa abordagem tem sido usada
            com sucesso para diversas doen&#231;as gen&#233;ticas, tais como a hipercolesterolemia
               familiar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>, fibrose c&#237;stica<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65 </xref>e s&#237;ndrome de QT longo<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>.</p>
      <p>Um estudo analisando especificamente o custo-efetividade da triagem gen&#233;tica de CMH
            mostrou que essa abordagem &#233; custo-efetiva<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>, j&#225;
            que parentes com um resultado gen&#233;tico negativo seriam dispensados de outras avalia&#231;&#245;es
            cl&#237;nicas e indiv&#237;duos em risco podem ser diagnosticados precocemente, evitando uma
            triagem cl&#237;nica cara e desnecess&#225;ria. O diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico de parentes em risco de
            desenvolver a doen&#231;a &#233; particularmente importante porque a CMH pode ser assintom&#225;tica e
            ter a morte s&#250;bita como primeira manifesta&#231;&#227;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>.
            A triagem em cascata foi usada para a CMH com resultados positivos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> e &#233; recomendada pela Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>. Parentes com um resultado positivo de DNA devem
            ser encaminhados &#224; um cardiologista e aconselhados a evitar fatores de risco,
            desencorajados a seguirem carreiras atl&#233;ticas e encorajados a adquirir h&#225;bitos de vida
            saud&#225;veis.</p>
      <p>A desvantagem dessa abordagem &#233; o impacto psicol&#243;gico potencial em ambos os indiv&#237;duos
            assintom&#225;ticos afetados, especialmente os mais jovens, e os parentes n&#227;o afetados. No
            primeiro caso, a descoberta pode gerar ansiedade e depress&#227;o e, no segundo caso,
            parentes podem sofrer de "culpa do sobrevivente". Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com um resultado
            cl&#237;nico n&#227;o claro, que recebem um resultado gen&#233;tico negativo, podem experimentar
            frustra&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; incerteza do resultado, uma vez que a doen&#231;a n&#227;o pode ser
            confirmada nem exclu&#237;da nesse cen&#225;rio<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>. O
            aconselhamento gen&#233;tico &#233; fundamental e deve ser cuidadoso e t&#227;o informativo quanto
            poss&#237;vel, e o paciente deve ter um m&#233;dico dispon&#237;vel para atend&#234;-lo.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>O constante desenvolvimento de novas tecnologias pode ajudar a elucidar os mecanismos
            dessa doen&#231;a complexa e intrigante. As tecnologias de sequenciamento de pr&#243;xima gera&#231;&#227;o
            nos fornecer&#227;o grandes quantidades de dados e, em breve, seremos capazes de sequenciar
            todo o genoma do paciente, o que poderia nos ajudar a entender como a muta&#231;&#227;o interage
            com os genes modificadores para estabelecer o fen&#243;tipo. Essa tecnologia tamb&#233;m pode ser
            aplicada ao sequenciamento de RNA e poderemos ter todo o perfil do transcriptoma do
            paciente, ajudando-nos a visualizar o impacto da muta&#231;&#227;o na cascata de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Uma rede de express&#227;o comparativa de genes relacionados com cardiomiopatias pode nos dar
            uma ideia de como esses genes interagem uns com os outros. Por enquanto, podemos dizer
            que h&#225; ainda muito trabalho a fazer at&#233; que tenhamos algumas respostas definitivas sobre
            CMH, mas a triagem gen&#233;tica dos pacientes traz v&#225;rios benef&#237;cios, para o paciente e para
            os m&#233;dicos, e deve ser usada na pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <p>
          <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
        </p>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="SA1" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy: How do Mutations Lead to
               Disease?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marsiglia</surname>
            <given-names>J&#250;lia Daher Carneiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Costa</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <aff>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv3">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country>Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas,
                  Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP -
                  Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c02"><bold>Mailing Address: J&#250;lia Daher Carneiro Marsiglia,</bold> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de
               Carvalho Aguiar, 44, Cerqueira C&#233;sar. Postal Code 05403- 900, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil.
               E-mail: <email>julia.marsiglia@usp.br</email>; <email>jaune18@yahoo.com.br</email>
				</corresp>
        <fn fn-type="con">
          <p>
            <bold>Author contributions</bold>
          </p>
          <p>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for
                  intellectual content: Pereira AC; Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation
                  of the data and Writing of the manuscript: Marsiglia JDC.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <p>
            <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
          </p>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <p><bold>Study Association</bold> This study is not associated with any
                  post-graduation program.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common monogenic genetic cardiac
               disease, with an estimated prevalence of 1:500 in the general population. Clinically,
               HCM is characterized by hypertrophy of the left ventricle (LV) walls, especially the
               septum, usually asymmetric, in the absence of any cardiac or systemic disease that
               leads to a secondary hypertrophy. The clinical course of the disease has a large
               inter- and intrafamilial heterogeneity, ranging from mild symptoms of heart failure
               late in life to the onset of sudden cardiac death at a young age and is caused by a
               mutation in one of the genes that encode a protein from the sarcomere, Z-disc or
               intracellular calcium modulators. Although many genes and mutations are already known
               to cause HCM, the molecular pathways that lead to the phenotype are still unclear.
               This review focus on the molecular mechanisms of HCM, the pathways from mutation to
               clinical phenotype and how the disease's genotype correlates with phenotype.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiomyopathy, Hypertrophic</kwd>
        <kwd>Phenotype</kwd>
        <kwd>Genotype</kwd>
        <kwd>Genes</kwd>
        <kwd>Sarcomers</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most common monogenic genetic cardiac
               disease with an estimated prevalence of 1:500<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>. HCM is characterized by hypertrophy of the left ventricle (LV), especially
               the septum, usually asymmetric, in the absence of any cardiac or systemic disease
               that leads to a secondary hypertrophy. The clinical course has a large inter and
               intrafamilial heterogeneity, ranging from mild symptoms of heart failure late in life
               to the onset of sudden cardiac death at a young age. Besides cardiac hypertrophy,
               there is marked histological disarray of myofilaments and fibrosis of varying
                  degrees<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B02">2</xref>. The disease is an important cause
               of disability and death in patients of all ages, although sudden and unexpected death
               in young individuals is perhaps the most devastating component of its natural
               history. This review will focus on the molecular mechanisms of HCM, the pathways from
               mutation to clinical phenotype and how the disease's genotype correlates with
               phenotype. Moreover, we will show recent data on the genetic profile of HCM patients
               on in the Brazilian population<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B03">3</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Genetics of HCM</title>
        <p>The disease is caused by a mutation in one of the genes that encode a protein from
               the sarcomere, Z-disc or intracellular calcium modulators (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t02">Table 1</xref>). For sarcomeric genes, identified mutations are in their
               majority single nucleotide substitutions and for most genes the mutant protein is
               thought to incorporate into the sarcomere exerting a poisoned peptide effect
               (negative dominant mutations). So far, the only exception is the cardiac binding
               protein C (<italic>MYBPC3</italic>) gene, in which many mutations are deletions or
               insertions that lead to a frameshift and most of the mutations lead to a truncated
               protein with no function, thus the disease appears to be caused by a
               haploinsufficiency mechanism in this case<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B04">4</xref>.
               For other related genes (Z-disk and calcium modulators), the specific mechanism is
               yet to be elucidated. Most of the mutations are single substitutions, but it is not
               known whether the disease is caused by negative dominance or haploinsufficiency.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t02">
          <label>Table 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Genes implicated in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and their frequency in HCM
                     patients</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">
                  <bold>Gene</bold>
                </th>
                <th>
                  <bold>Protein</bold>
                </th>
                <th>
                  <bold>Chromosome</bold>
                </th>
                <th>
                  <bold>Frequency</bold>
                </th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Myofilament genes</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>TTN</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Titin </td>
                <td align="center"> 2 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>MYH7</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center">&#946;-myosin heavy chain </td>
                <td align="center"> 14 </td>
                <td align="center"> 15-25% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>MYH6</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> &#913;-myosin heavy chain </td>
                <td align="center"> 14 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>MYL2</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Myosin regulatory light chain </td>
                <td align="center"> 12 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;2% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>MYL3</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Myosin essential light chain </td>
                <td align="center"> 3 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>MYBPC3</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Myosin binding protein C </td>
                <td align="center"> 11 </td>
                <td align="center"> 15-25% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>TNNT2</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Troponin T </td>
                <td align="center"> 1 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;5% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>TNNI3</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Troponin I </td>
                <td align="center"> 19 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;5% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>TPM1</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> &#913;-tropomyosin </td>
                <td align="center"> 15 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;5% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>ACTC</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Alpha actin cardiac </td>
                <td align="center"> 15 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>TNNC1</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Troponin C </td>
                <td align="center"> 3 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Z-Disc genes</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>LBD3</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> LIM domain-binding protein 3 </td>
                <td align="center"> 10 </td>
                <td align="center"> 1-5% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>CSRP3</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Muscular LIM protein </td>
                <td align="center"> 17 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>TCAP</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Telethonin </td>
                <td align="center"> 17 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>VCL</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Vinculin/Meta-vinculin </td>
                <td align="center"> 10 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>ACTN2</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> &#913;-actin </td>
                <td align="center"> 1 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>MYOZ2</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Myozenin </td>
                <td align="center"> 4 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>NEXN</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Nexilin </td>
                <td align="center"> 1 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <bold>Calcium handling genes</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
                <td align="center">&#160;</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>JPH2</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Junctophilin-2 </td>
                <td align="center"> 20 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>
                  <italic>PLN</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center"> Phospholamban </td>
                <td align="center"> 6 </td>
                <td align="center">&lt;1% </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Genotype x phenotype association</title>
        <p>The understanding of the molecular ways from mutations that lead to the disease opens
               the prospect for the identification of both molecular and clinical genotype-phenotype
               associations. This could potentially lead not only to better predictive disease
               models, but also to target therapeutics. In fact, several authors have described
               suggestive genotype-phenotype associations in several populations.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Presence or absence of an identified mutation</title>
        <p>Mutation detection in one of the sarcomeric genes is associated with increased
               severity of the disease. One study revealed that the ratios of intraventricular
               septum thickness to posterior wall thickness were significantly higher in the
               patients with <italic>MYBPC3, MYH7</italic>, or <italic>TPM1</italic> mutations than
               in patients without sarcomeric gene mutations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B05">5</xref>. On the other hand, another group observed that patients with apical
               hypertrophy and a positive genotype were more likely to have a positive family
               history for HCM than patients with a negative genotype. In all other aspects, there
               were no differences between the positive <italic>versus</italic> negative genotype
                  patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B06">6</xref>. Another group described that the
               morphology of hypertrophy has an impact on the positivity of genetic testing. They
               compared the sigmoid, reverse curve, apical, and neutral subtypes of hypertrophy and
               found out that in the reverse curve subtype, a mutation in one of the myofilament
               genes can be identified in almost 80% of the patients, while in the sigmoid type,
               less than 10% of the patients harbor a sarcomere mutation. They suggest that these
               data can be used to help in the decision to proceed to genetic testing<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B07">7</xref>. In the Brazilian population, the authors found
               a correlation between the presence of an identified mutation with higher frequency of
               non-sustained ventricular tachycardia, younger age and the patients were younger at
               diagnosis when compared with patients without an identified mutation in the
                  <italic>MYH7, MYBPC3</italic> and <italic>TNNT2</italic> genes<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Mutated gene</title>
        <p>There was an initial consensus that mutations in <italic>MYH7</italic> had variable
               clinical features with some malignant alterations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B01">1</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B09">9</xref>, mutations in the
                  <italic>MYBPC3</italic> gene were associated with a more benign prognosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> and mutations in the <italic>TNNT2</italic> gene<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> were
               associated with higher rates of sudden death with little or no hypertrophy. For
                  <italic>MYH7</italic>, there is still a great variability between patients,
               ranging from asymptomatic to very severe phenotypes.</p>
        <p>However, for the other two genes firstly described and later for the other genes
               related to HCM, it is not possible yet to make an assumption based on the mutated
               gene. A study performed by Wang et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>
               compared patients with mutations in the <italic>MYH7</italic> and
                  <italic>MYBPC3</italic> genes and concluded that patients with mutations in the
                  <italic>MYH7</italic> gene develop the disease at a younger age, have a higher
               rate of familiar sudden death, higher proportion of atrial fibrillation and needed
               more surgical intervention than the second group. Another group performed an analysis
               in 389 unrelated patients with and without <italic>MYH7 </italic>mutations. They
               observed that those with mutations in the <italic>MYH7</italic> gene were also
               younger at time of diagnosis, had more hypertrophy and had more frequently undergone
               myectomy, but they found no difference in family history of sudden death between
                  groups<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>.</p>
        <p>Yet, another group found a higher mean IVS diameter in carriers of a
                  <italic>MYBPC3</italic> mutation compared to <italic>MYH7</italic>-positive
                  patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>. A recent study with Brazilian
               HCM patients has shown that mutations in the <italic>MYH7</italic> gene are more
               often associated with higher left atrium size and higher frequency of atrial
               fibrillation when compared with mutations in the <italic>MYBPC3</italic> gene,
               suggesting a worse prognosis in these patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B08">8</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Type of mutations</title>
        <p>The association of specific mutations with the clinical phenotype of HCM is still
               very controversial. Since the discovery of the causative genes for the disease, many
               authors tried to label the mutations as "malignant" or "benign", according to the
               patient's phenotype. However, for most of the associations, there is an exception or
               subsequently, researchers fail to replicate the data in another group of patients. In
               fact, this topic was the subject of a debate between the authors Ho<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> and Ackerman<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>, and they both concluded that it is still hard to make prognosis based
               on a single mutation.</p>
        <p>There is some agreement among specialists regarding the severity of some mutations,
               although the clinical presentation may vary. For example, the R723G in the
                  <italic>MYH7</italic> gene mutation was first described in 2000 by Enjuto et
                  al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>, with a high rate of sudden death and
               progressive heart failure, both around the 50<sup>th</sup> decade of life. In 2006, a
               Chinese group detected a family with the same mutation and among them, only 1 man had
               syncope history; other 5 died of severe heart failure and the mean age at death was
               66 years. No sudden death was described<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>.
               This suggests that the phenotype becomes more malignant with age, being benign in
               younger patients, but the phenotype presentation was not the same. On the other hand,
               for other mutations there is no clear picture of even how severe the phenotype can
               be. The Val606Met mutation in the <italic>MYH7</italic> gene was first described as a
               benign mutation, with patients harboring this alteration having near-normal
                  survival<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>. Later on, several researchers
               described the same mutation as being malignant, with a higher risk of sudden
                  death<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>
					<sup>-</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>.</p>
        <p>We have to agree with Ho<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> and Landstrom e
                  Ackerman<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref> that it is not possible yet to
               determine prognosis based on the mutation. We believe that there are so many
               different mutations that can lead to the HCM in so many different genes that it is
               hard to find a high number of patients with the same mutation to compare and
               establish the phenotype end-point with some precision. Even if we did, there have
               been several descriptions in the literature about the effect of modifier genes'
               modulation on the phenotype; thus, even in patients with the same mutation, the
               phenotype can, and most probably will, differ.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Number of mutations</title>
        <p>Some patients harbor more than one pathogenic mutation and the literature so far
               estimates that it occurs in 3-5% of the patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>
					<sup>-</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>. According to
               Kelly and Semsarian<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>, the clinical features
               in patients with more than one mutation are more severe, with greater risk of sudden
               death and LV hypertrophy. In their review, they compared the published data from
               patients with homozygous<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>, compound heterozygous<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref> and
               double heterozygous mutations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> and in most of the
               cases, the phenotype is more severe with the age at diagnosis, including pediatric
               patients. Another recently published study described a clinical profile of triple
               sarcomeric mutations<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>. They found 4 patients
               within a 488 unrelated cohort with a triple mutation (0.8%) and concluded that this
               scenario is rare, but it causes an increased risk of end-stage progression and
               ventricular arrhythmias. However, more studies are still necessary to completely
               understand how the different mutation combinations act to create the final phenotype,
               as the possible combinations are countless.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Modifier Genes</title>
        <p>Most probably there are modifier genes that can modulate the phenotype, making
               genotype-based prognosis even harder. For example, some variants of the angiotensin
               II type 2 receptor gene were significantly associated with hypertrophy degree in
               patients with HCM, regardless of their blood pressure levels<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref>. The angiotensin-converting enzyme has also been implicated as
               phenotype modulator. Researchers correlated a gene polymorphism with QT dispersion,
               which reflects the regional differences in centrocular repolarization and is used as
               a marker of collagen content (in patients with the DD genotype, QT dispersion is
                  increased)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>.</p>
        <p>Another group studied in HCM patients, the presence of resistin, a novel cytokine
               associated with inflammation suspected to induce hypertrophy in rats. They analyzed
               both resistin levels and a -410C&gt;G polymorphism in the gene promoter and found
               that both resistin levels and the polymorphism may be associated with cardiac
               hypertrophy in the studied group<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>.</p>
        <p>Other studies evaluated a calmodulin (<italic>CALM3</italic>) gene polymorphism and
               observed that -34T&gt;A <italic>CALM3</italic> polymorphism is a modifier gene for
               HCM, probably affecting the expression of <italic>CALM3</italic> due to its key role
               in Ca<sup>2+</sup> homeostasis, acting as an intracellular sensor for Ca<sup>2+</sup>
               ions <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>. Also, the role of sex hormone
               receptor genes in left ventricular hypertrophy in HCM male patients was also
               investigated. It as described that a lower number of (CAG)n repeats in the androgen
               receptor were associated with higher left ventricular wall thickness (LVWT) in males.
               Males carrying the A allele at rs6915267 SNP from the promoter region of the estrogen
               receptor 1 gene had an 11% decrease in mean LVWT when compared with homozygous GG
                  males<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>. Since there are so many different
               polymorphisms and genes involved with the modulation effect of HCM, this can at least
               in part explain the great phenotypic variability seen in the disease.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Expression unbalance</title>
        <p>Nearly all patients with HCM are heterozygous for mutations in the affected gene,
               thus it is assumed that half of the proteins are defective. However, Trapathi et
                  al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> showed in their study that there is an
               imbalance between wild-type and mutated myofilaments in patients with mutations in
               the <italic>MYH7</italic> and <italic>MYBPC3</italic> genes. It has also been
               reported that the fraction of mutated protein correlates with disease severity and it
               is usually dependent of the specific mutation. The authors demonstrated in their
               study that the expression of mutated <italic>MYH7</italic>-mRNA was similar among
               patients of different generations and also from unrelated patients and that this
               difference depends on the mutation. For instance, the V606M mutation in the
                  <italic>MYH7</italic> gene leads to skipping of exon 16, so it is likely to have a
               nonsense-mediated decay. On the other hand, the mechanisms underlying regulation of
               those mutations are not fully understood, but it is known that some mutations
               influence splicing efficiency, so it is speculated that some of them can have a more
               efficient splicing than the wild-type transcript, leading to a greater rate of
               mutated proteins in the tissue. They also report in their study that the abundance of
               mutated protein is related to a severe long-term disease progression and conspicuous
               effects on the contractile apparatus function. This seems to be an interesting
               discovery, but it needs to be replicated in other studies.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Animal models</title>
        <p>The creation of suitable animal models of HCM offers considerable insight into the
               disease progression over the animal's lifetime. With this purpose, several animal
               models of the disease were created over time. In 1996, two distinct groups created
               mice models of HCM with a <italic>MYH7</italic> mutation that helped studies of the
               natural history of the disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>.</p>
        <p>In 1999, a different group created another lineage of mice with HCM with an
               alpha-cardiac myosin heavy chain mutation. They discovered that heterozygous mice had
               the classic features of HCM, but homozygous animals died soon after birth due to
               fatal dilated cardiomyopathy. The group also noticed that the incorporation of the
               mutant protein increased rapidly after birth and speculated that this variable
               incorporation may be responsible for focal myocyte death in HCM<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>.</p>
        <p>More recently, some animal models have been used for pharmacological assays. For
               instance, researchers showed that sarcomeric protein mutations activate signaling
               pathways that promote the transcription of proliferative and probiotic signals in
               non-myocyte cells, mainly via Tgf-&#946;, in a mouse model. They administrated Tgf-&#946;
               neutralizing antibodies and observed that non-myocyte proliferation and fibrosis were
               abolished. Also, the chronic administration of losartan, an angiotensin II type 1
               receptor antagonist, prevented the emergence of hypertrophy, non-myocyte
               proliferation and fibrosis in mutation-positive mice. In animals with established
               hypertrophy, the drug did not reverse the phenotype, but decreased the non-myocyte
                  proliferation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>. The study was successful
               in establishing that Tgf-&#946; is a pivotal mechanism for fibrosis development and opened
               doors to the treatment of mutation carriers.</p>
        <p>The murine heart is constituted manly of &#945;-myosin, while the human heart consists
               mainly of &#946;-myosin. The rabbit could be a better model because the myosin composition
               is similar to that of the human heart. Thus, a transgenic rabbit model with the
                  <italic>MYH7</italic> R400Q mutation was successfully created<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref>. Also, a naturally occurring HCM mutation in Maine coon cats
               mimics the hereditary aspects, natural history, and pathological characteristics of
               human HCM. This animal model has been a valuable tool for studying the gross,
               cellular, and molecular pathophysiology of the disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>.</p>
        <p>A transgenic mouse model was created with varying amounts of a mutated
                  <italic>MYBPC3</italic> gene lacking the myosin and titin binding domains. They
               found out that the peptide was stable, but did not effectively incorporate into the
               sarcomere. The expression of transgenic protein leads to a decrease in the levels of
               endogenous protein<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref>. The same group produced
               another transgenic model with a <italic>MYBPC3</italic> gene lacking only the myosin
               binding site and little protein was found in the mice's hearts<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref>. The authors believe that these experiments can help
               understand the genetic mechanisms of disease. According to them, both the null allele
               and poison peptide hypothesis are relevant to the phenotype and their relative
               importance may vary considerably depending upon the particular
                  <italic>MYBPC3</italic> mutation.</p>
        <p>Another very important animal model for HCM is the zebrafish. The fish model is a
               powerful tool to study several diseases and is particularly important in heart
               development, due to some characteristics such as the external development of the
               heart, allowing non-invasive analysis of the heart during its formation. Also,
               initially, zebrafish embryos do not rely on the cardiovascular system for oxygen, so
               the mutants can survive and continue development for several days. Finally, although
               the zebrafish heart is simpler in structure, the essential genes responsible for
               heart development are conserved<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>. One group
               developed a <italic>TNNT2</italic> human mutation model in zebrafish to assess its
               impact during heart development. They found that the mutation led to the same
               phenotype observed in mutated humans: sarcomere disarray and massive induction of
               myocardial hypertrophic pathways. Also, they observed that the embryonic hearts, in
               opposition to the adult heart, developed cardiomyocyte hyperplasia. They concluded
               that sarcomeric mutations can have an impact on cardiomyocyte biology much earlier
               than previously thought and with distinct effects from the adult heart, even though
               they have the same transcriptional responses<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Molecular mechanisms of HCM</title>
        <p>Although many genes and mutations are already known to cause HCM, which was
               extensively proven through animal models, the molecular pathways that lead to the
               phenotype are still unclear. The first proposed hypothesis was that incorporation of
               a mutated protein would lead to a depressed contractile function and this could
               trigger a compensatory hypertrophy<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref>. However,
               according to some authors, this proposal was proven inconsistent with laboratory and
               clinical evidence.</p>
        <p>In their review, Asharafian et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> listed
               three arguments against this hypothesis: 1) Initially, the experiments with mutant
               proteins revealed a decreased function, especially characterized by a reduction in
               protein motility. However, with the development of more advanced assays, it was
               realized that in some mutations there is actually an increase in motility, suggesting
               a gain of function of the mutated protein. Thus, decreased function cannot be the
               only stimulus for hypertrophy. Corroborating these data, mutation carriers who did
               not develop hypertrophy have an increased motility in the cardiac tissue that can be
               visualized in the echocardiogram; 2) the hypertrophy present in patients with HCM is
               asymmetric, very different from the concentric hypertrophy that is seen in hearts
               with increased load, such as in hypertension. 3) HCM patients usually develop
               hypertrophy after puberty and it does not appear to progress much afterwards. Also,
               some patients only develop hypertrophy in adulthood. Thus, these patterns cannot be
               explained by a compensatory mechanism, considering that the mutation is present since
               heart development.</p>
        <p>Despite all convincing arguments that there is no clinical dysfunction preceding
               hypertrophy development, these do not address the main question, whether there is
               sarcomere dysfunction due to structural problems or, alternatively, if there are
               other epistatic mechanisms responsible for hypertrophy development. In this scenario,
               decreased or increased motility are not well-established surrogates for sarcomere
               function, and even if they are, any of these two could be the result of an structural
               disassemble of the molecular contraction apparatus; the asymmetry of hypertrophy is
               probably related to the interaction between physical and molecular forces within the
               organ (see below); and it is not clear whether there is no progression in hypertrophy
               during the life span of HCM patients (that is certainly not the case for other
               associated phenotypes, such as fibrosis).</p>
        <p>Many studies focus on Ca<sup>2+</sup> sensitivity, which is altered in the
               hypertrophic heart, as a mechanism leading to HCM phenotypes. There is increasing
               evidence that mutations in different genes of myofilament proteins increase
                  Ca<sup>2+</sup> sensitivity and the consequent defect on the homeostasis, such as
               intracellular Ca<sup>2+</sup> handling, sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca<sup>2+</sup>
               reuptake and phosphorylation of some proteins, likely contribute to several of the
               aspects of the disease<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref>. Some studies have shown that greater
               myofibrillar sensitivity to Ca<sup>2+</sup> is enough to increase the probability of
               arrhythmias. In mice, it was demonstrated that with greater Ca<sup>2+</sup>
               sensitization, the shape of the ventricular action potentials was changed, resulting
               in shorter effective refractory periods, greater beat-to-beat variability of action
               potential duration and increased dispersion of ventricular conduction velocities at
               high heart rates. It is believed that this is sufficient to create an arrhythmogenic
                  substrate<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>.</p>
        <p>This association was reinforced by the study of transgenic mice with a troponin T
               mutation, in which the burden of ventricular arrhythmias had a correlation with the
               degree of Ca<sup>2+</sup> sensitivity. Finally, the myofilament Ca<sup>2+</sup>
               sensitizer EMD 57033 exacerbates arrhythmias in this model, while blebistatin, which
               reverses Ca<sup>2+</sup> sensitization, almost entirely eliminated the
                  arrhythmias<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref>. It is not clear, however, if
               these observed alterations are causative of hypertrophy or, alternatively, an
               epiphenomenon of the entire process. They could modulate the clinical phenotype and
               explain a great deal of interindividual variability, but cannot be considered
               sufficient conditions for the development of myocyte hypertrophy and myofibrillar
               disarray.</p>
        <p>In conclusion changes in calcium homeostasis are associated with arrhythmic
               phenotypes in human and animal models of HCM. Nonetheless, the mechanism that leads
               to hypertrophy, probably the process initiator, remains unclear.</p>
        <p>In 2002 Ashrafian et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref> stated that the
               unifying dysfunction in HCM was the increased energy demand due to an inefficient
               sarcomeric ATP utilization and, based on that, created another hypothesis called "the
               energy depletion hypothesis" proposing that increased demand compromises the capacity
               of the cardiomyocyte to maintain energy levels in subcellular compartments.</p>
        <p>In 2008, Belus et al<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> studied the contraction
               and relaxation mechanics of single myofibrils in patients carrying the R403Q mutation
               in the <italic>MYH7</italic> gene and compared with normal healthy hearts, finding
               out that the tension generation and relaxation following Ca<sup>2+</sup> increase and
               decrease were much faster in the mutated myofibril, but at a higher energy cost,
               corroborating the idea of inefficient ATP utilization for tension generation. This
               hypothesis can also provide an explanation for the asymmetric hypertrophy, because if
               the myocardial wall tension and the energy demand are not uniform throughout the
               entire organ, extra energy requirement can be more damaging in specific myocardial
               regions.</p>
        <p>More recently, some authors described the so-called 4<sup>th</sup> stage model that
               can help understand how the mutation can act leading to disease, not only in HCM but
               also in dilated cardiomyopathy and some skeletal muscle diseases<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref>
					<sup>,</sup>
					<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>. This
               hypothesis refers to a fourth stage in addition on the well-known 3-stage regulation
               model. In his review, Lehrer<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> explains that
               understanding how Ca<sup>2+ </sup>and myosin are involved in muscle contraction is
               largely phenomenological and the molecular basis is not yet elucidated. In the
               regular 3-stage model<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>, tropomyosin bound to
               actin equilibrates between 3 stages, the relative occupancy, which are affected by
               the Ca<sup>2+ </sup>concentration and strong binding myosin heads. The described
               stages are the "blocked stage", in which the thin filament is unable to bind myosin,
               the "closed state" in which the thin filament can only bind to relatively weak myosin
               and the "open stage", in which myosin can both bind and undergo isomerization to a
               more strongly bound, rigor-like conformation. Nonetheless, according to Lehrer, there
               are several unexplained phenomena in muscle regulation (e.g. increased
                  Ca<sup>2+</sup> binding caused by strong-binding myosin heads and residual active
               force at low Ca<sup>2+ </sup>in the case of HCM) that could involve an additional
               active stage in the absence of Ca<sup>2+</sup>. This new proposal consider that there
               are two open stages, one in the presence of Ca<sup>2+ </sup>and another
               myosin-induced open stage in the absence of Ca<sup>2+</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figure 1</xref>). This additional state could help understand how a
               mutation in any of the sarcomeric proteins could cause changes in Ca<sup>2+</sup>
               sensitivity in HCM and DC .</p>
        <fig id="f02" fig-type="other">
          <label>Figure 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>schematic figure from the 4th stage model.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-102-03-0295-40022-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
        <p>The authors believe that myocyte dysfunction results in hypertrophy. However, once
               again, the mechanism is not clear. The main question regarding HCM is still exactly
               how a mutation can lead to the diverse clinical and anatomical phenotypes, especially
               hypertrophy. We believe that energy dysfunction and altered calcium sensitivity can
               be as well the consequence of sarcomere dysfunction, rather than the primary cause of
               hypertrophy.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Global expression analysis</title>
        <p>Understanding the molecular basis of disease development goes beyond the
               identification of different causative mutations. This identification should lead to
               the characterization and understanding of true landscape changes in several
               gene-networks. Recent works are focusing on the whole transcriptome, searching for
               expression differences between healthy and affected individuals. This way, it is
               possible to understand how a disease affects the whole signaling cascade. In relation
               to HCM, one study compared global gene expression that identified 29 transcription
               factors distinctly expressed between wild-type and pre-hypertrophic hearts of
                  mice<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>.</p>
        <p>Another study was performed using a non-HCM hypertrophy transgenic mouse model
               through G&#945;q protein silencing to understand the signaling pathways activation in
               cardiac hypertrophy. It was found that G&#945;q mediates a hypertrophic response in
               cardiac myocytes, leading to heart failure<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref>,
               so the authors used this model to compare the whole transcriptome of male
               non-transgenic and transgenic mouse cardiac tissue using next-generation sequencing
               systems against the same analysis using expression arrays. The G&#945;q transgenic mouse
               exhibited cardiac hypertrophy, ventricular enlargement, diminished ejection
               performance, and increased expression of fetal cardiac genes when compared to the
               non-transgenic mouse. Also, they concluded that this new technology is better than
               traditional array-based experiments.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cost effectiveness of a cascade screening program for HCM</title>
        <p>Despite the doubts regarding the pathological mechanism of the disease, is clear that
               the genetic diagnosis has its space in clinical practice, especially in cascade
               screening. The cascade screening is defined as an approach to the family of a patient
               affected by a genetic disease and a predictive DNA test offer to those at potential
               risk, based on information about a confirmed pathogenic genetic mutation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>. This approach has been used successfully in
               several genetic diseases such as familial hypercholesterolemia<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref>, cystic fibrosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> and
               long QT syndrome<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>. One study analyzing
               specifically the cost-effectiveness of HCM genetic screening showed that this
               approach is cost effective<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref>, as relatives
               with a negative genetic result would be dismissed from further clinical evaluations
               and at-risk individuals could be diagnosed early, avoiding expensive and unnecessary
               clinical screening. The genetic diagnostic of relatives at risk of developing the
               disease is particularly important, because HCM can be asymptomatic and have sudden
               death as its first manifestation<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref>. Cascade
               screening has been used in HCM with positive results<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref> and is recommended by the European Cardiology Society<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>. Relatives with a positive DNA result must be
               referred to a cardiologist and counseled to avoid risk factors, discouraged to pursue
               athletic careers and encouraged to acquire healthy life habits.</p>
        <p>The downside of this approach is the potential psychological impact on both the
               asymptomatic affected individuals, especially the young ones, and the non-affected
               relatives. In the first case, the discovery can generate anxiety and depression and
               in the second case, relatives can undergo survivor's guilt. Also, the patients with
               an unclear clinical result that receive a negative genetic result can experience
               frustration towards the result's uncertainty, as the disease cannot be confirmed or
               excluded in this scenario<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref>. Genetic
               counseling is fundamental and must be careful and as informative as possible and the
               patient must have a doctor's appointment available.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>The constant development of new technologies may help elucidate the mechanisms of
               this complex and intriguing disease. The technologies of next generation sequencing
               will provide great amounts of data and soon we will be able to sequence the patient's
               entire genome, which could help us understand how the mutation interacts with
               modifier genes to create the phenotype. This technology can be also applied to RNA
               sequencing and we will be able to obtain the patient's entire transcriptome profile,
               helping us visualize the impact of the mutation on the signaling cascade.</p>
        <p>Comparative expression of networks of genes associated with cardiomyopathies can give
               us an insight of how those genes interact with each other. For now we can say that
               there still a lot of work to do until we have some definitive answers about HCM, but
               genetic screening of patients brings several benefits to the patients and the
               physicians and should be used in medical practice.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <p>
            <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
          </p>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
