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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">BHqJP3FZGGSSf6Lcnqw6JRH</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2013003900001</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(13)10100300001</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.2013S009</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Diretrizes</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Diretrizes brasileiras de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes em cardiologia</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lorga Filho</surname>
            <given-names>A M</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azmus</surname>
            <given-names>AD</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Soeiro</surname>
            <given-names>AM</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Quadros</surname>
            <given-names>AS</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Avezum Junior</surname>
            <given-names>A</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marques</surname>
            <given-names>AC</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Franci</surname>
            <given-names>A</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Manica</surname>
            <given-names>ALL</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Volschan</surname>
            <given-names>A</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>De Paola</surname>
            <given-names>AAV</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Greco</surname>
            <given-names>AIL</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>ACN</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>ACS</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pesaro</surname>
            <given-names>AEP</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sim&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>AF</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>ASSA</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Timerman</surname>
            <given-names>A</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ramos</surname>
            <given-names>AIO</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>BR</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Caramelli</surname>
            <given-names>B</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mendes</surname>
            <given-names>BA</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Polanczyk</surname>
            <given-names>CA</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Montenegro</surname>
            <given-names>CEL</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>CJDG</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Serrano Junior</surname>
            <given-names>CV</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Melo</surname>
            <given-names>CCL</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pinho</surname>
            <given-names>C</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>DAR</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Calderaro</surname>
            <given-names>D</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gualandro</surname>
            <given-names>DM</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Armaganijan</surname>
            <given-names>D</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Machado Neto</surname>
            <given-names>EA</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bocchi</surname>
            <given-names>EA</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>EF</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Stefanini</surname>
            <given-names>E</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>D'Amico</surname>
            <given-names>E</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Evaristo</surname>
            <given-names>EF</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>EER</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>F</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brito Junior</surname>
            <given-names>FS</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bacal</surname>
            <given-names>F</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ganem</surname>
            <given-names>F</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>FLT</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mattos</surname>
            <given-names>FR</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moraes Neto</surname>
            <given-names>FR</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tarasoutchi</surname>
            <given-names>F</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Darrieux</surname>
            <given-names>FCC</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Feitosa</surname>
            <given-names>GS</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fenelon</surname>
            <given-names>G</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Morais</surname>
            <given-names>GR</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Correa Filho</surname>
            <given-names>H</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castro</surname>
            <given-names>I</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gon&#231;alves Junior</surname>
            <given-names>I</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ati&#233;</surname>
            <given-names>J</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza Neto</surname>
            <given-names>JD</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>JFM</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nicolau</surname>
            <given-names>JC</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faria Neto</surname>
            <given-names>JR</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Annichino-Bizzacchi</surname>
            <given-names>JM</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zimerman</surname>
            <given-names>LI</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Piegas</surname>
            <given-names>LS</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pires</surname>
            <given-names>LJT</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Baracioli</surname>
            <given-names>LM</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>LB</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mattos</surname>
            <given-names>LAP</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lisboa</surname>
            <given-names>LAF</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Magalh&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>LPM</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>MACQ</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Montera</surname>
            <given-names>MW</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Figueiredo</surname>
            <given-names>MJO</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Malachias</surname>
            <given-names>MVB</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gaz</surname>
            <given-names>MVB</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Andrade</surname>
            <given-names>MD</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bacellar</surname>
            <given-names>MSC</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>MR</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Clausell</surname>
            <given-names>NO</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dutra</surname>
            <given-names>OP</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Coelho</surname>
            <given-names>OR</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yu</surname>
            <given-names>PC</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lav&#237;tola</surname>
            <given-names>PL</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lemos Neto</surname>
            <given-names>PA</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Andrade</surname>
            <given-names>PB</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Farsky</surname>
            <given-names>PS</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Franco</surname>
            <given-names>RA</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kalil</surname>
            <given-names>RAK</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>RD</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Esporcatte</surname>
            <given-names>R</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Heinisch</surname>
            <given-names>RH</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kalil Filho</surname>
            <given-names>R</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Giraldez</surname>
            <given-names>RRCV</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>RC</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Leite</surname>
            <given-names>REGS</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gagliardi</surname>
            <given-names>RJ</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ramos</surname>
            <given-names>RF</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Montenegro</surname>
            <given-names>ST</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Accorsi</surname>
            <given-names>TAD</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>TSV</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scudeler</surname>
            <given-names>TL</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mois&#233;s</surname>
            <given-names>VA</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Portal</surname>
            <given-names>VL</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>101</volume>
      <issue>3 suppl 3</issue>
      <fpage>01</fpage>
      <lpage>95</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>05</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>DIRETRIZES</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Diretrizes brasileiras de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes em cardiologia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Lorga Filho A M; Azmus AD; Soeiro AM; Quadros AS; Avezum Junior A; Marques AC; Franci A; Manica ALL; Volschan A; De Paola AAV; Greco AIL; Ferreira ACN; Sousa ACS; Pesaro AEP; Sim&#227;o AF; Lopes ASSA; Timerman A; Ramos AIO; Alves BR; Caramelli B; Mendes BA; Polanczyk CA; Montenegro CEL; Barbosa CJDG; Serrano Junior CV; Melo CCL; Pinho C; Moreira DAR; Calderaro D; Gualandro DM; Armaganijan D; Machado Neto EA; Bocchi EA; Paiva EF; Stefanini E; D'Amico E; Evaristo EF; Silva EER; Fernandes F; Brito Junior FS; Bacal F; Ganem F; Gomes FLT; Mattos FR; Moraes Neto FR; Tarasoutchi F; Darrieux FCC; Feitosa GS; Fenelon G; Morais GR; Correa Filho H; Castro I; Gon&#231;alves Junior I; Ati&#233; J; Souza Neto JD; Ferreira JFM; Nicolau JC; Faria Neto JR; Annichino-Bizzacchi JM; Zimerman LI; Piegas LS; Pires LJT; Baracioli LM; Silva LB; Mattos LAP; Lisboa LAF; Magalh&#227;es LPM; Lopes MACQ; Montera MW; Figueiredo MJO; Malachias MVB; Gaz MVB; Andrade MD; Bacellar MSC; Barbosa MR; Clausell NO; Dutra OP; Coelho OR; Yu PC; Lav&#237;tola PL; Lemos Neto PA; Andrade PB; Farsky PS; Franco RA; Kalil RAK; Lopes RD; Esporcatte R; Heinisch RH; Kalil Filho R; Giraldez RRCV; Alves RC; Leite REGS; Gagliardi RJ; Ramos RF; Montenegro ST; Accorsi TAD; Jardim TSV; Scudeler TL; Mois&#233;s VA; Portal VL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos dez anos, observamos um crescimento exponencial de agentes anticoagulantes e antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios desenvolvidos para uso cl&#237;nico, com intuito de substituir a heparina, os antagonistas da vitamina K e/ou auxiliar no tratamento da doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria. A literatura cient&#237;fica tem aumentado a cada dia com novas evid&#234;ncias de aplica&#231;&#245;es dessas drogas, sendo algumas delas j&#225; aprovadas pela ANVISA para uso no Brasil como a dabigratana, a rixoxabana, o prasugrel e o ticagrelor. Esse fato traz alternativas ao tratamento, por&#233;m imp&#245;e tanto recomenda&#231;&#245;es quanto restri&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas e riscos associados a cada medicamento que devem ser observados antes de utiliz&#225;-los. Seguindo pela contram&#227;o com o desenvolvimento de novas medica&#231;&#245;es, a seguran&#231;a do paciente passou a ser mais valorizada, inclusive com maior aplicabilidade de escores de risco de sangramento.</p>
    <p>Atualmente j&#225; s&#227;o diversos os estudos multic&#234;ntricos e randomizados desenvolvidos para valida&#231;&#227;o desses medicamentos com consistente evid&#234;ncia para uso em s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas, tromboembolismo venoso, tromboembolismo pulmonar e profilaxia de eventos tromb&#243;ticos. O Brasil participou de alguns dos principais <italic>trials</italic> como centro de inclus&#227;o de pacientes, por&#233;m a experi&#234;ncia nacional no uso e manejo dessas drogas ainda &#233; apenas inicial.</p>
    <p>A Diretoria da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (SBC), no ensejo da relev&#226;ncia desse fato para a cardiologia brasileira, prop&#244;s desenvolver uma diretriz acerca das recomenda&#231;&#245;es de uso de medicamentos anticoagulantes e antiplaquet&#225;rios.</p>
    <p>Essa diretriz foi elaborada a partir de um corpo editorial formado por cardiologistas brasileiros com reconhecida experi&#234;ncia e qualifica&#231;&#227;o no tema. Trata-se de uma compila&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;ltiplas evid&#234;ncias nacionais e internacionais e opini&#245;es de especialistas brasileiros com o intuito de auxiliar m&#233;dicos na tomada de decis&#227;o ante um paciente nas mais variadas situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas. Didaticamente, os antitromb&#243;ticos s&#227;o classificados em antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes.</p>
    <p>A SBC, os editores e todo o grupo de colaboradores desta diretriz esperam que a elabora&#231;&#227;o e divulga&#231;&#227;o deste documento contribua para uma melhor forma de normatiza&#231;&#227;o do uso de medicamentos anticoagulantes e antiagregantes, estabelecendo melhor efetividade em seu uso e maior seguran&#231;a ao paciente em quest&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>1.1. Metodologia e evid&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O corpo editorial selecionado para escrever estas recomenda&#231;&#245;es &#233; formado por m&#233;dicos com vasta experi&#234;ncia na &#225;rea, envolvidos no manejo e tratamento de diferentes situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas em que se empregam amplamente essas medica&#231;&#245;es, atuantes em grandes centros de ensino e pesquisa da Am&#233;rica Latina.</p>
    <p>Foram levados em considera&#231;&#227;o os estudos relevantes publicados at&#233; 2012, obedecendo a pir&#226;mide de evid&#234;ncias e o enquadramento nos graus de recomenda&#231;&#245;es (Classes I, IIa, IIb, III; ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">Tabela 1</xref>), e o impacto dos n&#237;veis de evid&#234;ncia (A, B, C; ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>1.2. Apresenta&#231;&#227;o do texto</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As diretrizes expostas neste documento est&#227;o colocadas de dois modos. O primeiro consiste num texto completo onde inclui a descri&#231;&#227;o dos estudos relacionados a cada agente, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es e os respectivos n&#237;veis de evid&#234;ncia colocados em tabelas, juntamente com as cita&#231;&#245;es. Esse texto est&#225; dispon&#237;vel no site dos <italic>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</italic>.</p>
    <p>O seguinte modo trata-se do sum&#225;rio executivo, onde est&#227;o apenas as tabelas das recomenda&#231;&#245;es e os n&#237;veis de evid&#234;ncias. Essa parte estar&#225; dispon&#237;vel nas publica&#231;&#245;es dos <italic>Arquivos</italic>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2. Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes no infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST (IAMCEST) configura o espectro mais grave das s&#237;ndromes isqu&#234;micas mioc&#225;rdicas inst&#225;veis (com incid&#234;ncia variando de 29 a 47% dos casos de s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas em diferentes registros), sendo respons&#225;vel por grande morbidade e mortalidade. Dados norte-americanos do Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)<sup>1</sup> demonstram que no ano de 2010 a principal causa de mortalidade foram as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, sendo o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio respons&#225;vel por cerca de 5% da mortalidade geral. Al&#233;m do grande impacto em termos de mortalidade na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio tem importante relev&#226;ncia em termos econ&#244;micos, frente ao grande n&#250;mero de interna&#231;&#245;es e seus custos. Conforme dados do Heart Diseases and Stroke Statistics<sup>2</sup>, estima-se que no ano de 2006 os Estados Unidos gastaram US$ 11,7 bilh&#245;es de d&#243;lares com encargos hospitalares relacionados ao infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
    <p>No Brasil, no ano de 2003, segundo dados do DATASUS<sup>3</sup>, as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares foram respons&#225;veis por 11% das interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares e cerca de 19,5% dos recursos gastos pelo SUS com interna&#231;&#245;es em geral. O infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio representou 4,2% do total de interna&#231;&#245;es, reiterando a import&#226;ncia desta mol&#233;stia em termos de morbidade e custos hospitalares.</p>
    <p>No que tange ao tratamento dessa entidade cl&#237;nica, em conjunto com as terapias de reperfus&#227;o (qu&#237;mica, com trombol&#237;ticos, ou percut&#226;nea, por interm&#233;dio de angioplastia prim&#225;ria), a terap&#234;utica antiagregante e anticoagulante configura elementos fundamentais na redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade e recorr&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Esta se&#231;&#227;o ter&#225; como objetivo avaliar o uso de antiplaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes no tratamento do IAMCEST.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.2. Terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria no IAMCEST</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.2.1. AAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O uso do &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico (AAS, aspirina) no IAMCEST est&#225; embasado em evid&#234;ncias s&#243;lidas, sendo o seu uso considerado imprescind&#237;vel. O estudo Second International Study of Infarct Survival (ISIS-2)<sup>5</sup> avaliou o uso isolado do AAS ou da estreptoquinase ou sua associa&#231;&#227;o. O uso isolado do AAS reduziu a mortalidade por todas as causas em 23% e uma redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade por todas as causas de 42% quando associado &#224; estreptoquinase. Houve uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade de 25&#177;7%, quando utilizado nas primeiras 0-4 horas do in&#237;cio dos sintomas, de 21&#177;7% entre 5-12 horas, de 21&#177;12% entre 13-24 horas.</p>
    <p>Meta-an&#225;lises posteriores refor&#231;aram o papel fundamental do AAS na redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade e eventos cardiovasculares, tanto no uso precoce quanto a longo prazo. Publica&#231;&#227;o do grupo "Antiplatelet Trialists Collaboration"<sup>6</sup> evidenciou redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo de 29% na incid&#234;ncia de eventos vasculares (infarto n&#227;o fatal, acidente vascular cerebral ou morte vascular); em publica&#231;&#227;o mais recente<sup>7</sup>, analisando os mesmos desfechos, evidenciou-se redu&#231;&#227;o de 36 eventos vasculares para cada 1.000 pacientes tratados portadores de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio pr&#233;vio.</p>
    <p>No que se refere &#224; dose, o estudo CURRENT-OASIS-7<sup>8</sup> avaliou em um de seus bra&#231;os a hip&#243;tese do uso de dose de manuten&#231;&#227;o de AAS dobrada em pacientes com s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas (SCA; 29% dos quais com IAMCEST submetidos &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea prim&#225;ria [ICPP]). Tal estudo n&#227;o evidenciou diferen&#231;a entre a dose de manuten&#231;&#227;o habitual (75 - 100mg por dia) em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; dose elevada (300 - 325mg por dia) na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares (morte cardiovascular, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal ou acidente vascular cerebral em 30 dias - p = 0,61, com IC 0,86 a 1,09); al&#233;m disso, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a no que tange a incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores (p = 0,90, com IC 0,84 a 1,17).</p>
    <p>O uso do AAS deve ser contraindicado em algumas situa&#231;&#245;es excepcionais: hipersensibilidade conhecida (urtic&#225;ria, broncoespasmo ou anafilaxia); &#250;lcera p&#233;ptica ativa; discrasia sanguinea ou hepatopatia grave.</p>
    <p>Frente a tais evid&#234;ncias, o uso do AAS nos pacientes com IAMCEST tem import&#226;ncia fundamental na preven&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade e eventos cardiovasculares, seja a curto ou longo prazo, devendo ser utilizado por tempo indefinido ap&#243;s o evento agudo (preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.2.2. Clopidogrel</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o do clopidogrel, um derivado tienopirid&#237;nico inibidor da adenosina difosfato (ADP), em SCA teve in&#237;cio com o estudo CURE<sup>9</sup>, que avaliou o uso de AAS isolado em compara&#231;&#227;o com a associa&#231;&#227;o de AAS e clopidogrel, no cen&#225;rio de angina inst&#225;vel de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto, e infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio sem eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST (IAMSEST). Tal estudo mostrou redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo de 20% no caso de morte cardiovascular, acidente vascular cerebral e infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal.</p>
    <p>No contexto do IAMCEST, dois estudos de grande relev&#226;ncia merecem destaque. O estudo CLARITY-TIMI 28<sup>10</sup> incluiu 3.491 pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de IAMCEST e com idade <underline>&lt;</underline>75 anos, submetidos &#224; terapia trombol&#237;tica (99,7% da amostra submetida &#224; tromb&#243;lise) para receberem AAS ou AAS associado a clopidogrel; em seu desenho, era previsto uso de dose de ataque de clopidogrel de 300g e manuten&#231;&#227;o de 75mg ao dia. Tal estudo evidenciou redu&#231;&#227;o de 36% no desfecho combinado de morte, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal ou revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do vaso-alvo; n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a em termos de sangramento na compara&#231;&#227;o dos grupos. Neste estudo, a idade limite para inclus&#227;o foi de 75 anos e o tempo m&#233;dio de uso do clopidogrel foi de 4 dias.</p>
    <p>Tamb&#233;m de grande relev&#226;ncia, o estudo COMMIT<sup>11</sup> randomizou 45.852 pacientes com suspeita de IAMCEST em 1.250 centros na China, sendo divididos para utiliza&#231;&#227;o de AAS 162mg ao dia ou AAS (em mesma dose) associado ao clopidogrel 75mg ao dia, sem dose de ataque. Esse estudo possui em sua coorte 26% de pacientes com mais de 70 anos (sem limite de idade m&#225;xima). Al&#233;m disso, nessa amostra, 50% dos pacientes foram submetidos &#224; tromb&#243;lise. Esse estudo encontrou redu&#231;&#227;o de 9% no desfecho combinado (morte, reinfarto ou acidente vascular cerebral), sem diferen&#231;a em termos de sangramento. O tempo m&#233;dio de uso do clopidogrel foi de 28 dias. O benef&#237;cio do clopidogrel ocorreu tanto entre os pacientes que receberam terapia trombol&#237;tica como naqueles n&#227;o reperfundidos. Houve uma diminui&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade total de 7% (RR 0.93: IC 95% 0.87-0.99).</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disso, o estudo CURRENT-OASIS-7<sup>7</sup>, que avaliou 25.086 pacientes, testou duas hip&#243;teses: o uso de dose elevada de manuten&#231;&#227;o de AAS (descrita acima, em sess&#227;o espec&#237;fica) e o uso de dose dobrada de ataque de clopidogrel de 600mg, seguida por dose de 150mg/dia por 7 dias, seguida de 75mg/dia, frente ao regime habitual (300mg em dose de ataque seguida por 75mg/dia), em pacientes com SCA (29% de pacientes com IAMCEST). Tal estudo n&#227;o evidenciou diferen&#231;a entre o regime com doses maiores na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares (mortes cardiovasculares, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal ou acidente vascular cerebral em 30 dias; p = 0,30). J&#225; no que se refere a sangramentos maiores, o grupo que recebeu doses mais elevadas de clopidogrel apresentou maior incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores (2,5 x 2,0%, com p = 0,01). A an&#225;lise dos desfechos secund&#225;rios revelou uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na incid&#234;ncia de trombose de stent (1,6 x 2,3%, p = 0,001) no grupo submetido a ICP (17.263 pacientes). Vale salientar que o clopidogrel nunca foi avaliado em rela&#231;&#227;o a placebo em pacientes submetidos &#224; ICPP. O estudo CURRENT-OASIS-7 &#233; um estudo em pacientes com IAMCEST tratados com ICPP, mas comparou duas doses de clopidogrel. A dose dobrada de clopidogrel tamb&#233;m n&#227;o foi avaliada em pacientes que receberam terapia trombol&#237;tica ou foram tratados sem reperfus&#227;o e n&#227;o deve ser utilizada nesses pacientes.</p>
    <p>O uso da dose de ataque de 600mg de clopidogrel em pacientes submetidos &#224; ICPP tem se baseado na inibi&#231;&#227;o do receptor do ADP mais r&#225;pida que se obt&#233;m com essa dose. Isso foi demonstrado em diversos estudos observacionais<sup>12,13</sup>.</p>
    <p>Quanto ao tempo de uso, o clopidogrel deve ser administrado por 12 meses ap&#243;s o IAMCEST, principalmente se o paciente foi submetido &#224; ICPP. Tal dado surge de extrapola&#231;&#227;o dos estudos nas SCASEST, incluindo o estudo CURE<sup>8</sup> acima descrito.</p>
    <p>Assim, frente ao descrito, justifica-se o uso do clopidogrel no cen&#225;rio do IAMCEST, em dose de ataque de 300mg seguida por 75mg/dia, desde a fase aguda at&#233; 12 meses ap&#243;s o evento. &#201; preciso ressaltar ainda que, dentre os pacientes submetidos &#224; tromb&#243;lise, a dose de ataque de 300mg n&#227;o deve ser administrada em pacientes acima de 75 anos. Em pacientes submetidos &#224; ICPP, a dose de ataque deve ser de 600mg. A dose dobrada de 150mg/dia deve ser restrita aos pacientes com baixo risco de sangramento. Em caso de interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, a droga deve ser suspensa 5 dias antes do procedimento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.2.3. Prasugrel</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O prasugrel, componente da classe dos inibidores da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria induzida por adenosina difosfato (ADP) por meio do bloqueio irrevers&#237;vel dos receptores P2Y12, surgiu com o intuito de promover uma antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria mais efetiva que o clopidogrel, al&#233;m de antiagrega&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pida e consistente, evitando a conhecida resist&#234;ncia ao clopidogrel existente em uma parcela da popula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>O estudo TRITON-TIMI 38<sup>14</sup>, publicado em 2007, randomizou 13.608 pacientes para o uso de clopidogrel ou prasugrel, associado &#224; terap&#234;utica padr&#227;o (incluindo AAS), em pacientes portadores de s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas, com anatomia coron&#225;ria conhecida e ICP planejada. Em sua amostra, o IAMCEST representou 26% dos pacientes. Na coorte geral, o grupo que utilizou o prasugrel apresentou uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 19% (p&lt;0,001) no desfecho combinado de morte de causas cardiovasculares, infarto n&#227;o fatal ou acidente vascular cerebral, especialmente &#224; custa de redu&#231;&#227;o nos casos de infarto n&#227;o fatal. No que tange a sangramentos, o grupo prasugrel apresentou aumento de 32% (p=0,03) no risco de sangramento maior pelo escore TIMI. An&#225;lises post-hoc identificaram tr&#234;s grupos de maior risco de sangramento: idade maior ou igual a 75 anos, peso menor que 60kg ou antecedente de acidente vascular encef&#225;lico/ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>No subgrupo de 3.534 pacientes com IAMCEST, 2.438 foram submetidos &#224; ICPP e 1.096 &#224; ICP secund&#225;ria (pacientes encaminhados para ICP cerca de 38 horas ap&#243;s o IAM). O objetivo prim&#225;rio de &#243;bito cardiovascular, IAM n&#227;o fatal, com AVC ocorreu significativamente menos no grupo prasugrel <italic>versus</italic> clopidogrel (RC 0.79: IC 95% 0.65-0.97) em 15 meses. Houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o de trombose de stent no grupo prasugrel de 2,8% para 1,6%. Nesse subgrupo de pacientes n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a na taxa de sangramento em rela&#231;&#227;o ao clopidogrel<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>Assim, o uso do prasugrel no IAMCEST est&#225; indicado em casos de ICPP, ap&#243;s conhecimento da anatomia coron&#225;ria. O prasugrel deve ser administrado em dose de ataque de 60mg, com manuten&#231;&#227;o de 10mg por dia, e seu uso deve ser feito por 12 meses. Uma dose de manuten&#231;&#227;o menor, de 5mg, pode ser considerada para indiv&#237;duos com menos de 60kg e com mais de 75 anos, mas tal dose n&#227;o foi testada prospectivamente em estudos cl&#237;nicos de IAMCEST. O f&#225;rmaco est&#225; contraindicado em associa&#231;&#227;o com a terapia trombol&#237;tica e naqueles sem reperfus&#227;o (sem estudos nesta popula&#231;&#227;o), em pacientes com idade maior ou igual a 75 anos ou em pacientes com antecedente de acidente vascular encef&#225;lico/ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio. Em caso de interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, o f&#225;rmaco deve ser suspenso 7 dias antes do procedimento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.2.4. Ticagrelor</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O ticagrelor, outro componente da classe dos antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios inibidores da ADP, tem como caracter&#237;sticas importantes ser um inibidor revers&#237;vel dos receptores P2Y12 da ADP, ser uma droga que n&#227;o depende de metaboliza&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria (logo, n&#227;o se trata de uma pr&#243;-droga), al&#233;m de obter efeito antiagregante mais intenso, r&#225;pido e consistente em rela&#231;&#227;o ao clopidogrel.</p>
    <p>Tratando-se de SCA, o estudo PLATO<sup>16</sup> randomizou 18.624 para o uso de ticagrelor ou clopidogrel, associado ao tratamento habitual (incluindo AAS). Neste estudo, o clopidogrel ou o ticagrelor foram administrados no atendimento inicial, na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, sem conhecimento da anatomia coron&#225;ria. Na amostra, a preval&#234;ncia de IAMCEST foi de cerca de 38%. O grupo que fez uso do ticagrelor apresentou redu&#231;&#227;o de 16% na incid&#234;ncia do desfecho combinado de morte por causas vasculares, infarto n&#227;o fatal ou acidente vascular cerebral (p &lt;0,001). Na an&#225;lise de desfechos secund&#225;rios encontrou-se no grupo ticagrelor uma redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade por causas vasculares de 21% (p&lt;0,001) e de mortalidade por todas as causas de 22% (p&lt;0,001). Quanto &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores, o ticagrelor n&#227;o apresentou diferen&#231;a significativa em rela&#231;&#227;o ao clopidogrel entre os diferentes crit&#233;rios utilizados (incluindo escore TIMI). No entanto, o grupo ticagrelor apresentou maior incid&#234;ncia de dispneia, em geral transit&#243;ria, mas que requereu maior descontinua&#231;&#227;o da medica&#231;&#227;o neste grupo. Houve ainda maior incid&#234;ncia de bradicardia, tamb&#233;m geralmente transit&#243;ria e sem diferen&#231;a entre os grupos em termos de repercuss&#227;o cl&#237;nica (implante de marcapasso ou sintomas).</p>
    <p>Dessa forma, o uso do ticagrelor no IAMCEST est&#225; indicado em casos de pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda com ou sem eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST, independentemente do conhecimento da anatomia coron&#225;ria. O ticagrelor deve ser administrado em dose de ataque de 180mg, com manuten&#231;&#227;o de 90mg duasx/dia, e seu uso deve ser feito por 12 meses. O f&#225;rmaco est&#225; contraindicado em associa&#231;&#227;o com a terapia trombol&#237;tica ou pacientes n&#227;o reperfundidos (sem estudos nessa popula&#231;&#227;o). Em caso de interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, o f&#225;rmaco deve ser suspenso 5 dias antes do procedimento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.2.5. Inibidores da glicoprote&#237;na (GP) IIb/IIIa</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Estudos com inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa realizados previamente aos modernos esquemas de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria mostravam uma significativa redu&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de reinfarto tanto no cen&#225;rio da ICPP, como com o uso de trombol&#237;ticos. No primeiro cen&#225;rio sem incremento em complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas, por&#233;m com importante aumento de sangramento no contexto da tromb&#243;lise<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>Com o uso rotineiro do clopidogrel e o advento da ICP com stent, v&#225;rias d&#250;vidas surgiram sobre o emprego dos inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa no IAMCEST. Questiona-se desde ent&#227;o o momento do seu uso, o emprego rotineiro ou seletivo, assim como a melhor via de administra&#231;&#227;o (intracoron&#225;rio ou endovenoso).</p>
    <p>O estudo Relax-AMI<sup>18</sup>, que comparou em 210 pacientes o emprego precoce do abciximab <italic>versus</italic> o seu uso apenas antes da ICP no laborat&#243;rio de hemodin&#226;mica, obteve melhora nos par&#226;metros perfusionais e na recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular em 30 dias. J&#225; o estudo On-TIME 2<sup>19</sup>, que randomizou 984 pacientes com IAMCEST para uso de alta dose do bolus de tirofiban pr&#233;-hospitalar ou uso em casos selecionados durante a ICPP, evidenciou maior redu&#231;&#227;o do supradesnivelamento do segmento ST sem aumento significativo de sangramentos maiores.<sup>,</sup></p>
    <p>Por outro lado, o estudo FINESSE randomizou pacientes para tr&#234;s grupos: ICPP, ICP facilitada com abciximab e ICP facilitada com dose reduzida de reteplase e abciximab. N&#227;o houve redu&#231;&#227;o dos desfechos isqu&#234;micos e ocorreu aumento de eventos hemorr&#225;gicos com uso do inibidor da GP IIb/IIIa. Ap&#243;s 12 meses de seguimento o subgrupo com IAM anterior apresentou uma tend&#234;ncia &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade com o emprego de reteplase e abciximab (p=0,093). O estudo BRAVE-3 randomizou pacientes com IAMCEST que receberam dose de ataque de clopidogrel com 600mg para uso rotineiro de abciximab ou placebo e n&#227;o mostrou redu&#231;&#227;o no tamanho da &#225;rea de infarto com essa estrat&#233;gia<sup>20,21</sup>.</p>
    <p>Dessa forma o emprego rotineiro dos inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa no IAMCEST n&#227;o se mostra ben&#233;fico e pode acarretar maiores taxas de sangramentos. O uso individualizado durante a ICPP dessa classe de medica&#231;&#245;es (alta carga de trombos, <italic>no reflow </italic>e outras complica&#231;&#245;es tromb&#243;ticas) pode ser considerado a despeito da aus&#234;ncia de evid&#234;ncias robustas. Uma quest&#227;o ainda sem resposta seria qual a melhor forma de se utilizar o tirofiban e o abciximab na vig&#234;ncia dos novos antiagregantes (prasugrel e clopidogrel).</p>
    <p>Outra quest&#227;o &#233; se o emprego intracoron&#225;rio dos inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa seria superior ao seu uso endovenoso. Diversos pequenos trabalhos avaliaram essa estrat&#233;gia, e em sua maioria o medicamento testado foi o abciximab, sugerindo que o emprego intracoron&#225;rio possa levar a melhor perfus&#227;o p&#243;s ICP, menor necessidade de nova revasculariza&#231;&#227;o e redu&#231;&#227;o na mortalidade precoce<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>O &#250;nico grande trabalho nesse assunto foi o estudo AINDA, que randomizou 2.065 pacientes com IAMCEST para uso de abciximab intracoron&#225;rio ou endovenoso (0,25mg/kg) com manuten&#231;&#227;o (0,125mg/kg/min) por 12 horas endovenoso. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a no desfecho prim&#225;rio de morte, IAM e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em 90 dias, e os grupos tamb&#233;m n&#227;o diferiram significativamente nos desfechos de seguran&#231;a. No entanto, na an&#225;lise dos desfechos secund&#225;rios o grupo com bolus intracoron&#225;rio apresentou uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 43% na incid&#234;ncia de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em 90 dias. Baseado nesses dados o uso dos inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa intracoron&#225;rio pode ser considerado, por&#233;m a via endovenosa permanece como via de escolha<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_2tab01">Tabela 1</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_2tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.3. Terapia anticoagulante no IAMCEST</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.3.1. Heparina n&#227;o fracionada</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O benef&#237;cio do uso da heparina n&#227;o fracionada (HNF) nas s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas foi reconhecido mesmo antes da utiliza&#231;&#227;o do AAS e da terapia trombol&#237;tica<sup>24</sup>. Em estudos seguintes como o GISSI-2<sup>25</sup> e o ISIS-3<sup>26</sup>, em que se avaliou o uso da HNF na vig&#234;ncia do tratamento com AAS e trombol&#237;ticos, a associa&#231;&#227;o de HNF n&#227;o foi relacionada a uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa de desfechos clinicamente relevantes. No entanto, nesses estudos, o regime de administra&#231;&#227;o da HNF foi subcut&#226;neo (SC) e com atrasos de 4 a 12 horas para o seu in&#237;cio, ap&#243;s a terapia trombol&#237;tica.</p>
    <p>O estudo GUSTO-I<sup>27</sup>, publicado em 1993, avaliou a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um regime endovenoso (EV) de HNF com bolus de 5.000UI seguido por infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua inicial de 1.000UI ou 1.200UI/hora nos pacientes com mais 80kg. O dose de HNF foi ajustada com o objetivo de manter um tempo de tromboplastina parcial ativado (TTPa) entre 60 e 85 segundos em pacientes com IAMCEST, em uso de AAS e submetidos a diferentes terapias trombol&#237;ticas. Com 41.021 pacientes randomizados, o grupo que recebeu o regime EV de HNF associada &#224; terapia trombol&#237;tica com r-TPA teve a menor mortalidade (6,3%) em 30 dias entre os grupos avaliados.</p>
    <p>O estudo ASSENT-3<sup>28</sup> avaliou a efic&#225;cia e segura&#231;a da tenecteplase em combina&#231;&#227;o com enoxaparina, HNF ou abciximab. Nesse estudo, utilizou-se um regime de HNF com bolus EV de 60UI/kg, com m&#225;ximo de 4.000UI, seguido por infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua de 12UI/kg/hora (m&#225;ximo de 1.000UI/hora, inicialmente) e ajustes para manter um TTPa entre 50 e 70 segundos. A ocorr&#234;ncia de &#243;bito, reinfarto ou isquemia recorrente em 30 dias foi maior no grupo HNF em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo enoxaparina, por&#233;m n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a na mortalidade em 30 dias. Esse regime de administra&#231;&#227;o da HNF est&#225; associado &#224; menor incid&#234;ncia de eventos hemorr&#225;gicos (sangramento maiores e necessidade de transfus&#227;o), por&#233;m sem diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; enoxaparina.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.3.2. Heparina de baixo peso molecular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Um dos primeiros grandes estudos em que &#233; poss&#237;vel a compara&#231;&#227;o entre as heparinas de baixo peso molecular (HBPM) e a HNF &#233; o j&#225; citado ASSENT-3<sup>24</sup>. Com mais detalhes, em 6.095 pacientes com IAMCEST ou BRE novo e at&#233; 6 horas de in&#237;cio dos sintomas isqu&#234;micos, os pacientes que receberam enoxaparina associada &#224; terapia trombol&#237;tica com tenecteplase tiveram redu&#231;&#227;o significativa de 26% no risco relativo de &#243;bito, reinfarto ou isquemia refrat&#225;ria em 30 dias, quando comparados aos pacientes que receberam HNF associada &#224; tenecteplase, com um n&#250;mero necess&#225;rio de pacientes tratados para evitar um desfecho (NNT) de 25.</p>
    <p>No entanto, os dados mais robustos referentes &#224; efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a da enoxaparina em pacientes com IAMCEST s&#227;o provenientes do ExTRACT TIMI 25<sup>29-31</sup>; um estudo publicado em 2006, internacional, multic&#234;ntrico, randomizado e duplo-cego que incluiu 20.506 pacientes com at&#233; 6h de in&#237;cio dos sintomas isqu&#234;micos, ECG mostrando eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST em pelo menos duas deriva&#231;&#245;es cont&#237;guas ou BRE novo e com programa&#231;&#227;o de receber terapia trombol&#237;tica. Os pacientes eram randomizados para receber heparina n&#227;o fracionada por um m&#237;nimo de 48h ou enoxaparina por 8 dias ou at&#233; a alta hospitalar. O regime de enoxaparina foi de 30mg em bolus EV, administrado 15 minutos antes ou at&#233; 30 minutos ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio da tromb&#243;lise, seguido de uma inje&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea de 1,0mg/kg a cada 12h, respeitando um m&#225;ximo de 100mg para as duas primeiras doses. Nos pacientes com idade maior ou igual a 75 anos, n&#227;o foi administrado o bolus e a dose de enoxaparina foi ajustada para 0,75mg/kg a cada 12h, respeitando um m&#225;ximo de 75mg para as duas primeiras doses. Nos pacientes com clearance de creatinina estimado &lt;30ml/min, a dose foi ajustada para 1,0mg/kg a cada 24 horas. A heparina n&#227;o fracionada foi administrada em bolus EV de 60UI/kg, com m&#225;ximo de 4.000UI, seguido por infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua de 12UI/kg/hora (m&#225;ximo de 1.000UI/hora, inicialmente). Os resultados mostraram uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa de 17% no risco relativo para ocorr&#234;ncia de &#243;bito ou infarto n&#227;o fatal em 30 dias no grupo randomizado para receber enoxaparina, com um NNT de 48. Na an&#225;lise de seguran&#231;a, houve um aumento significativo de 53% no risco relativo para ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores no grupo que recebeu enoxaparina, por&#233;m sem aumento significativo na ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramento intracraniano. Nas avalia&#231;&#245;es pr&#233;-especificadas de benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico l&#237;quido, em que se analisaram conjuntamente a ocorr&#234;ncia de &#243;bito, IAM n&#227;o fatal, AVC com sequelas graves, sangramento maior n&#227;o fatal ou hemorragia intracraniana, os resultados foram favor&#225;veis &#224; enoxaparina.</p>
    <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o da enoxaparina em pacientes com IAMCEST submetidos &#224; ICPP foi avaliada no estudo ATOLL, publicado em 2011. Foram randomizados 910 pacientes para receber enoxaparina 0,5mg/kg EV ou HNF 70 a 100UI/kg EV nos pacientes que n&#227;o receberam inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa e 50 a 70UI/kg naqueles que receberam inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa. A dose de HNF foi ajustada pelo TCA durante a realiza&#231;&#227;o do procedimento. Nesse estudo, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa no desfecho composto de &#243;bito, infarto, falha na realiza&#231;&#227;o do procedimento ou sangramento maior em 30 dias (p=0,063)<sup>32</sup>. No Brasil, nas salas de hemodin&#226;mica, ap&#243;s a ICPP existe uma prefer&#234;ncia no uso da HNF sobre a enoxaparina.</p>
    <p>Uma meta-an&#225;lise com 6 estudos, publicada em 2007, comparou a enoxaparina com HNF em 27.131 pacientes com IAMCEST. O desfecho cl&#237;nico composto de &#243;bito, infarto n&#227;o fatal ou sangramento maior n&#227;o fatal em 30 dias foi reduzido significativamente em 16% nos pacientes tratados com enoxaparina<sup>33</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.3.4. Fondaparinux</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O fondaparinux &#233; um agente antitromb&#243;tico que inibe indiretamente o fator Xa por meio de liga&#231;&#227;o seletiva &#224; antitrombina, inibindo a gera&#231;&#227;o de trombina. A administra&#231;&#227;o do fondaparinux em pacientes com IAMCEST foi avaliada em apenas um grande estudo cl&#237;nico. O OASIS-6<sup>34</sup>, publicado em 2006, incluiu mais de 12.000 pacientes randomizados para receber fondaparinux por 8 dias ou at&#233; a alta hospitalar, <italic>versus</italic> HNF ou placebo segundo a indica&#231;&#227;o do investigador. Os pacientes foram tratados com terapia trombol&#237;tica, ICPP ou n&#227;o receberam terapia de reperfus&#227;o. O estudo mostrou uma discreta redu&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de &#243;bito ou reinfarto em 30 dias no grupo que recebeu fondaparinux (2,5mg, primeira dose EV seguida por 2,5mg SC ao dia) em compara&#231;&#227;o com HNF ou placebo. Esse benef&#237;cio foi claro nos pacientes submetidos &#224; terapia trombol&#237;tica (RR 0,79; p=0,003) e naqueles que n&#227;o receberam terapia de reperfus&#227;o (RR 0,80; p=0,03). No entanto, n&#227;o houve benef&#237;cio nos pacientes submetidos &#224; ICPP gra&#231;as a um aumento na incid&#234;ncia de trombose de cat&#233;ter e complica&#231;&#245;es durante o procedimento e n&#227;o deve ser utilizada nestes pacientes. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos na incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores em 9 dias.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.3.5. Bivalirudina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No estudo HORIZONS-AMI<sup>35,36</sup>, publicado em 2008, 3.602 pacientes com IAMCEST, at&#233; 12 horas do in&#237;cio dos sintomas e encaminhados para ICPP foram randomizados para receber bivalirudina ou HNF associada &#224; inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa. Nesse estudo, houve redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo de 24% na ocorr&#234;ncia do desfecho prim&#225;rio composto de morte, reinfarto, necessidade de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do vaso-alvo por isquemia ou AVC em 30 dias no grupo tratado com bivalirudina, al&#233;m de uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 40% na ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores. Na an&#225;lise de desfechos secund&#225;rios, houve redu&#231;&#227;o de 38% na ocorr&#234;ncia de &#243;bitos por causas cardiovasculares e 36% na mortalidade por quaisquer causas. Apesar do claro benef&#237;cio no tratamento de pacientes com IAMCEST que ser&#227;o submetidos &#224; ICPP, a bivalirudina ainda n&#227;o est&#225; dispon&#237;vel para utiliza&#231;&#227;o no Brasil.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_2tab02">Tabela 2</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_2tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>3. Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes na s&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda sem eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas sem eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST (SCASEST) s&#227;o as formas mais comuns de apresenta&#231;&#227;o da coronariopatia aguda. Estas incluem a angina inst&#225;vel de baixo, intermedi&#225;rio e alto risco, al&#233;m do infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio sem eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST (IAMSEST), que &#233; caracterizado pela altera&#231;&#227;o dos marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica, notadamente a troponina, com aus&#234;ncia de eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST ao eletrocardiograma.</p>
    <p>Em um grande registro norte-americano com mais de 46.000 pacientes<sup>1</sup>, a preval&#234;ncia m&#233;dia das SCASEST entre 1999 e 2008 foi de, aproximadamente, 67% entre os pacientes hospitalizados por SCA. Em pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento, entretanto, uma publica&#231;&#227;o recente mostra que este percentual fica pr&#243;ximo ao percentual de pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST (IAMCEST), com claras diferen&#231;as regionais em rela&#231;&#227;o aos tratamentos utilizados<sup>2,3</sup>. O registro norte-americano mostra ainda que, no per&#237;odo analisado, houve queda na incid&#234;ncia de hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por SCA, principalmente por causa da redu&#231;&#227;o persistente na ocorr&#234;ncia de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST (IAMCEST). Por outro lado, a incid&#234;ncia de IAMSEST se elevou at&#233; o ano de 2004 e, posteriormente, passou a acompanhar a queda geral. Este aumento pode ser possivelmente atribu&#237;do ao refinamento das t&#233;cnicas para detec&#231;&#227;o de necrose mioc&#225;rdica, principalmente com o advento e dissemina&#231;&#227;o dos exames de troponina com sensibilidades cada vez maiores. Este registro mostra ainda uma redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade em 30 dias, entre 1999 e 2008, nos pacientes hospitalizados por SCA. Interessantemente, nos pacientes com IAMSEST houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o de risco relativo de &#243;bito de 18% (HR 0,82, IC 95%, 0,67 - 0,99), enquanto a mortalidade em pacientes com IAMCEST n&#227;o se alterou significativamente no per&#237;odo (HR 0,93, IC 95%, 0,71 - 1,20), apesar do aumento no n&#250;mero de pacientes submetidos &#224; revasculariza&#231;&#227;o. O uso crescente de medicamentos com efeito cardioprotetor previamente aos eventos coron&#225;rios (estatinas, inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina, bloqueadores dos receptores AT-1 da angiotensina II e betabloqueadores) &#233; sugerido como respons&#225;vel pela redu&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de &#243;bito nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Considera-se ainda que, com o uso da troponina, e consequente aumento da sensibilidade para o diagn&#243;stico de IAMSEST, houve uma inclus&#227;o de pacientes com menor gravidade e melhor progn&#243;stico.</p>
    <p>A mortalidade intra-hospitalar de pacientes com SCASEST &#233; menor que naqueles com IAMCEST (entre 3 e 5% <italic>versus</italic> 7%, respectivamente). No entanto, a mortalidade avaliada em 6 meses &#233; semelhante (13% <italic>versus</italic> 12%) e, ap&#243;s quatro anos, o risco de &#243;bito em pacientes com SCASEST &#233; duas vezes maior que na popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com IAMCEST. Esta diferen&#231;a na evolu&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;dio e longo prazo pode ser atribu&#237;da a algumas diferen&#231;as entre esses perfis de pacientes, j&#225; que aqueles com SCASEST t&#234;m idade mais avan&#231;ada e maior n&#250;mero de comorbidades, notadamente diabetes e disfun&#231;&#227;o renal, al&#233;m de uma maior incid&#234;ncia de art&#233;rias pr&#233;vias, o que aumentaria a chance de (re)infarto<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Como as SCASEST incluem pacientes com diferentes espectros de apresenta&#231;&#227;o e evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica torna-se fundamental, ao tomar uma decis&#227;o terap&#234;utica, uma boa estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco do paciente, tanto do ponto de vista de eventos isqu&#234;micos quanto do ponto de vista de sangramento. Do ponto de vista de eventos isqu&#234;micos, a estratifica&#231;&#227;o "pontual" proposta inicialmente por Braunwald<sup>5</sup>, e os diferentes escores previamente publicados, possibilitam um an&#225;lise criteriosa. Talvez os escores de risco mais utilizados sejam o TIMI risk score<sup>6</sup> e o GRACE score<sup>7-9</sup>, cada qual com as suas qualidades e limita&#231;&#245;es<sup>10,11</sup>. &#201; importante salientar que muitas vezes o mesmo paciente se situa em risco baixo, intermedi&#225;rio ou alto pelos diversos m&#233;todos, sendo que nesta situa&#231;&#227;o o pior cen&#225;rio deve ser aplicado na tomada de decis&#227;o. J&#225; do ponto de vista de risco de sangramento, outros tantos escores foram propostos, como por exemplo, o oriundo do estudo CRUSADE<sup>12</sup> e o proposto por Mehran e cols.<sup>13</sup>. Muitas das orienta&#231;&#245;es quanto &#224; terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria e anticoagulante contidas nesta se&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o relacionadas diretamente ao grupo de risco em que o paciente foi estratificado, tornando essa etapa de avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com SCASEST de fundamental import&#226;ncia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.2. Terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria na SCASEST</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Existem duas indica&#231;&#245;es bem estabelecidas para o uso da dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria em pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria: implante de stent coron&#225;rio (para se prevenir a trombose de stent) e ap&#243;s um quadro de SCA (para se prevenir a recorr&#234;ncia de eventos isqu&#234;micos).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.2.1. AAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A import&#226;ncia do &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico (AAS) no tratamento das SCASEST est&#225; embasada em estudos publicados desde a d&#233;cada de 1980. Um dos primeiros, publicado por Cairns e cols.<sup>14</sup> em 1985, separou grupos para receber AAS, sulfinpirazona (agente uricos&#250;rico com atividade anti-inflamat&#243;ria por meio do bloqueio da cicloxigenase [COX]), ambas os f&#225;rmacos ou nenhum deles, no cen&#225;rio da angina inst&#225;vel. Tal estudo contou com 555 pacientes, e encontrou uma significativa redu&#231;&#227;o de 51% (p=0,008) no desfecho combinado de morte e infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal nos indiv&#237;duos que receberam AAS.</p>
    <p>Logo ap&#243;s, em 1988, publicou-se um estudo que comparou a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de AAS, heparina ou ambos para tratamento da angina inst&#225;vel, em estudo que contou com 479 pacientes<sup>15</sup>. Dentre os grupos que receberam AAS, observou-se uma significativa redu&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal com o uso do AAS, tanto quando usado de modo isolado (3% x 12% no grupo placebo, p=0,01) quanto em associa&#231;&#227;o com heparina (3% x 1,6% no grupo placebo, p=0,003); houve baixa incid&#234;ncia de mortalidade nesse estudo, n&#227;o sendo poss&#237;vel identificar diferen&#231;as entre os grupos. O mesmo grupo, em 1993, publicou estudo comparando o uso de AAS ou heparina na angina inst&#225;vel, com o objetivo de prevenir a ocorr&#234;ncia de infarto<sup>16</sup>. Esse estudo contou com 484 pacientes, e entre os pacientes que receberam AAS (244 pacientes) ocorreram apenas 9 infartos (o grupo que usou apenas heparina, e em 240 pacientes ocorreram apenas 2 infartos; o resultado do estudo favoreceu o uso isolado da heparina frente ao AAS, com p=0,035).</p>
    <p>No que tange as doses a serem utilizadas, o AAS deve ser administrado inicialmente na dose de ataque de 150 a 300mg<sup>17-19</sup>, seguido por uma dose de manuten&#231;&#227;o de 75 a 100mg por dia. O estudo CURRENT OASIS-7<sup>20</sup> testou em um de seus bra&#231;os a hip&#243;tese do uso de dose dobrada de manuten&#231;&#227;o do AAS em pacientes com s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas (cerca de 71% de pacientes com SCASEST). Tal estudo n&#227;o evidenciou diferen&#231;a entre a dose de manuten&#231;&#227;o habitual (75 - 100mg por dia) em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; dose elevada (300 - 325mg por dia) na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares (mortalidade, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal ou acidente vascular cerebral - p=0,61, 95% IC 0,86 a 1,09); al&#233;m disso, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a em rela&#231;&#227;o a sangramentos maiores (p=0,90, 95% IC 0,84 a 1,17).</p>
    <p>Deve-se ressaltar ainda que o uso de anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o hormonais (como o rofecocib, o celecoxib, o ibuprofeno, o diclofenaco, entre outros) associa-se ao aumento do risco de eventos isqu&#234;micos (esses compostos produzem bloqueio transit&#243;rio da COX-1, inibindo o bloqueio irrevers&#237;vel realizado pelo AAS). Devem, portanto, ser evitados em associa&#231;&#227;o ao AAS<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>Assim, o uso do AAS no cen&#225;rio da SCASEST, nas doses previamente citadas, encontra-se fortemente embasado e trata-se de medica&#231;&#227;o fundamental nesse contexto. A restri&#231;&#227;o ao uso do AAS deve ser feita apenas aos pacientes com conhecida alergia ao composto (fato raro, com preval&#234;ncia estimada em menos de 0,5% da popula&#231;&#227;o) e em casos de sangramentos digestivos ativos, em especial relacionados a &#250;lceras g&#225;stricas (em virtude do efeito irritativo g&#225;strico direto do composto associado ao efeito antiplaquet&#225;rio).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.2.2. Clopidogrel</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O clopidogrel, um derivado tienopirid&#237;nico, atua inibindo o receptor P2Y12 da adenosina difosfato (ADP) e, consequentemente, inibindo o processo de agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria mediado por essa via. Trata-se de uma pr&#243;-droga, dependente do mecanismo de primeira passagem hep&#225;tica (e dois processamentos neste &#243;rg&#227;o) para forma&#231;&#227;o de metab&#243;lito ativo, por meio de metaboliza&#231;&#227;o pelas enzimas do citocromo P450.</p>
    <p>Esse agente foi primeiramente estudado no contexto da SCASEST no estudo CURE<sup>22</sup>, em que foi avaliado o uso de AAS isolado (75 a 325mg por dia) em compara&#231;&#227;o com a associa&#231;&#227;o de AAS e clopidogrel (ataque com 300mg, seguido por dose di&#225;ria de manuten&#231;&#227;o de 75mg por dia), no cen&#225;rio de angina inst&#225;vel de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou alto e infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio sem eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST (IAMSEST). Tal estudo contou com uma popula&#231;&#227;o de 12.562 pacientes, e demonstrou redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo de 20% (9,3% x 11,4%, com p&lt;0,001, NNT 48) no desfecho composto de morte cardiovascular, acidente vascular cerebral e (re)infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal. Esse benef&#237;cio foi obtido &#224; custa de diminui&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de (re)infarto. Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos desfechos de seguran&#231;a, o grupo que recebeu clopidogrel apresentou um aumento na incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores de 38% (3,7% x 2,7%, p=0,001, NND 100); no entanto, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a na incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos amea&#231;adores &#224; vida (2,1% x 1,8%, p=0,13). Nesse estudo, 43,7% (5.491 pacientes) dos pacientes foram submetidos &#224; cineangiocoronariografia, 16,5% (2.072 pacientes) foram submetidos &#224; cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e 21,2% (2.658 pacientes) foram submetidos &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea (ICP). O uso do clopidogrel foi feito por at&#233; 12 meses, com m&#233;dia de 9 meses de uso.</p>
    <p>Subestudos do CURE mostraram a manuten&#231;&#227;o dos benef&#237;cios da associa&#231;&#227;o do clopidogrel ao AAS independentemente do tratamento posterior recebido (cl&#237;nico, percut&#226;neo ou cir&#250;rgico). O estudo PCI-CURE<sup>23</sup> evidenciou redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo de 30% na incid&#234;ncia do desfecho composto de morte cardiovascular, acidente vascular cerebral e infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal (4,5% x 6,4%, p=0,03, NNT 48), sem diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos em termos de sangramentos maiores (p=0,64). Na parcela da amostra submetida a tratamento cl&#237;nico exclusivo, o grupo que recebeu clopidogrel apresentou uma redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo de 20% na incid&#234;ncia do desfecho composto de morte cardiovascular, acidente vascular cerebral e infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal (8,1% x 10%, IC 0,69 a 0,92, NNT 53). No grupo submetido &#224; cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica tal benef&#237;cio &#233; menos claro; o grupo que recebeu clopidogrel apresentou uma redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo de 11% na incid&#234;ncia do desfecho composto de morte cardiovascular, acidente vascular cerebral e infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal (14,5% x 16,2%, IC 0,71 a 1,11) n&#227;o atingindo, essa diferen&#231;a, valor estatisticamente significante<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outra peculiaridade desse f&#225;rmaco refere-se &#224; velocidade em que o benef&#237;cio do seu uso ocorre. An&#225;lise temporal do estudo CURE<sup>25</sup> demonstra que a redu&#231;&#227;o de desfecho composto de morte cardiovascular, acidente vascular cerebral, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal e isquemia refrat&#225;ria j&#225; surge nas primeiras 24 horas do uso do clopidogrel associado ao AAS, com redu&#231;&#227;o de risco relativo de 34% (p&lt;0,01), e mantido por pelo menos 12 meses quando h&#225; coloca&#231;&#227;o de stent<italic>s</italic>.</p>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao regime de doses, o estudo CURRENT OASIS-7<sup>20</sup> avaliou 25.086 pacientes, testando duas hip&#243;teses: o uso de dose dobrada de manuten&#231;&#227;o de AAS (resultados discutidos previamente neste documento) e o uso de dose de ataque de clopidogrel de 600mg, seguida por dose de 150mg ao dia por 7 dias, e de 75mg ao dia a partir da&#237;. Este regime foi comparado ao regime habitual (300mg em dose de ataque seguida por 75mg ao dia), em pacientes com coronariopatia aguda (cerca de 70% de pacientes com SCASEST). Tal estudo n&#227;o evidenciou diferen&#231;a entre o regime com doses maiores de clopidogrel na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares (mortes cardiovasculares, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal ou acidente vascular cerebral em 30 dias; p=0,30). J&#225; no que se refere a sangramentos maiores, o grupo que recebeu doses mais elevadas de clopidogrel apresentou maior incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores (2,5 x 2,0%, com p=0,01). A an&#225;lise dos desfechos secund&#225;rios revelou redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na incid&#234;ncia de trombose de stent (1,6 x 2,3%, p=0,001) no grupo submetido a ICP (17.263 pacientes). Especificamente essa subpopula&#231;&#227;o submetida a ICP (n=17263) mereceu uma publica&#231;&#227;o &#224; parte<sup>26</sup>, na qual se demonstrou redu&#231;&#227;o de 14% na incid&#234;ncia de mortes cardiovasculares, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o fatal ou acidente vascular cerebral em 30 dias (p=0,039, NNT=167), al&#233;m de redu&#231;&#227;o significativa de trombose definitiva de stent (0,7% x 1,3%, p=0,0001), &#224; custa de maior incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores (1,6% x 1,1%, p=0,009, NNH=200).</p>
    <p>Outro ponto importante refere-se &#224; grande variabilidade intra e interindividual na resposta a esse composto, o que n&#227;o se observa com antiplaquet&#225;rios mais modernos. Essas limita&#231;&#245;es podem ser explicadas por: variabilidade gen&#233;tica, como as relacionadas ao processo de metaboliza&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica pelas enzimas do citocromo P450 (por polimorfismos relacionados ao CYP3A4 e ao CYP2C19, principalmente este)<sup>27</sup>, e ao processo de absor&#231;&#227;o intestinal do medicamento, relacionado &#224; express&#227;o da glicoprote&#237;na (GP) P nas c&#233;lulas epiteliais intestinais<sup>28</sup>, e com produ&#231;&#227;o dependente do gene ABCB1. Nesse ponto, o uso de testes gen&#233;ticos n&#227;o tem indica&#231;&#227;o rotineira na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, at&#233; porque explica apenas parcialmente a eventual m&#225; resposta ao uso do clopidogrel<sup>29</sup>, mas o uso de testes de agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria tem sido cada vez mais utilizado. O estudo GRAVITAS<sup>30</sup> avaliou 2.214 pacientes com m&#225; resposta ao clopidogrel avaliado pelo VerifyNow<sup>&#174;</sup> 12 &#224; 24 horas ap&#243;s angioplastia eletiva com stent<italic>s</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos, randomizados para receberem dose alta (ataque de 600mg e manuten&#231;&#227;o de 150mg ao dia), ou dose padr&#227;o, sem dose de ataque e com manuten&#231;&#227;o de 75mg ao dia, ambos os regimes por 6 meses. Ao final do seguimento, n&#227;o se encontrou diferen&#231;a em termos de eventos nos dois grupos (2,3% x 2,3%, com p=0,97). Por outro lado, outro estudo<sup>31</sup> comparou &gt;100 pacientes submetidos &#224; ICP eletiva e seguidos por 1 ano. Ao final do seguimento, a maioria desses testes (mas n&#227;o todos) mostrou correla&#231;&#245;es significativas com eventos, por&#233;m com capacidade preditiva pobre ou, quando muito, moderada. Assim, o uso de testes de agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria para guiar a terap&#234;utica ainda n&#227;o encontram lugar definido na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, sendo seu uso rotineiro nas SCASEST n&#227;o recomendado, exceto nos casos em que o paciente apresente um quadro de coronariopatia aguda na vig&#234;ncia de tratamento adequado com AAS + clopidogrel.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disso, diversos f&#225;rmacos interferentes no metabolismo hep&#225;tico mediado por enzimas do citocromo P450 influenciam a a&#231;&#227;o do clopidogrel, como por exemplo o cetoconazol (inibindo o citocromo P450 e reduzindo a&#231;&#227;o do clopidogrel) e a rifampicina (estimulando o citocromo P450 e acentuando a a&#231;&#227;o do clopidogrel). Ponto importante na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, o uso associado dos inibidores de bomba de pr&#243;tons (IBP) ao clopidogrel ainda n&#227;o se encontra totalmente resolvido. Diversos estudos in vitro demonstram redu&#231;&#227;o na inibi&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria induzida por clopidogrel quando da associa&#231;&#227;o deste com IBP, especialmente o omeprazol. Pequenos estudos cl&#237;nicos sugerem um aumento na incid&#234;ncia de eventos isqu&#234;micos com essa associa&#231;&#227;o, mas o &#250;nico estudo cl&#237;nico randomizado que testou tal hip&#243;tese, o estudo COGENT<sup>32</sup>, avaliou 3.761 pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o de dupla terapia antiagregante por pelo menos 12 meses (um grupo recebendo clopidogrel e omeprazol contra um grupo recebendo clopidogrel e placebo). Tal estudo foi interrompido precocemente por quest&#245;es de financiamento, mas at&#233; o n&#250;mero de pacientes randomizados n&#227;o mostrou diferen&#231;a na incid&#234;ncia de eventos isqu&#234;micos (4,9% no grupo omeprazol x 5,7% no grupo placebo, p=0,96). Adicionalmente, demonstrou maior incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos digestivos no grupo placebo (2,9% x 1,1%, com p&lt;0,001). Assim, o uso de IBP (principalmente omeprazol) em conjunto com o clopidogrel deve ser reservado aos grupos com maior risco de sangramento gastrointestinal (antecedente de hemorragia digestiva, &#250;lcera p&#233;ptica, infec&#231;&#227;o por <italic>H. pylori </italic>em idade maior ou igual a 65 anos, uso concomitante de anticoagulantes ou esteroides). Por outro lado, bloqueadores de H2 (ranitidina, cimetidina) podem ser utilizados como op&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Portanto, o uso do clopidogrel est&#225; indicado nos indiv&#237;duos portadores de SCASEST de risco moderado e alto para eventos isqu&#234;micos; devem receber dose de ataque de 300mg, com manuten&#231;&#227;o de 75mg ao dia. Em pacientes com baixo risco de sangramento e submetidos a ICP pode-se considerar a dose de ataque de 600mg, com manuten&#231;&#227;o de 150mg nos primeiros 7 dias e, a partir desse momento, manter dose de 7 a 5mg ao dia. O tempo de uso ideal, independentemente do tratamento recebido posteriormente (cl&#237;nico, percut&#226;neo ou cir&#250;rgico) &#233; de 12 meses. Em caso de procedimento cir&#250;rgico, o f&#225;rmaco deve ser suspenso por, pelo menos, 5 dias antes do procedimento.</p>
    <p>Nos pacientes que possuem indica&#231;&#227;o de terapia antitromb&#243;tica tripla, recomenda-se o clopidogrel em cima dos bloqueadores dos receptors P2Y12, onde ainda n&#227;o foram devidamente testados concomitantemente com anticoagulantes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.2.3. Prasugrel</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O prasugrel, um tienopirid&#237;nico de gera&#231;&#227;o mais recente, foi desenvolvido com o intuito de promover antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria mais efetiva que o clopidogrel, minimizando as limita&#231;&#245;es do mesmo. Seu metab&#243;lito ativo assemelha-se ao metab&#243;lito ativo derivado do clopidogrel, mas difere deste em rela&#231;&#227;o ao metabolismo: o prasugrel depende apenas de uma fase de metaboliza&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica, ocorrendo a primeira fase por meio de esterases plasm&#225;ticas. Como consequ&#234;ncia, ocorre antiagrega&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pida e consistente, al&#233;m de sofrer menor interfer&#234;ncia de agentes que atuam no citocromo P450.</p>
    <p>O estudo TRITON-TIMI 38<sup>33</sup>, publicado em 2007, randomizou 13.608 pacientes para o uso de clopidogrel ou prasugrel, associado &#224; terap&#234;utica padr&#227;o (incluindo AAS), em pacientes portadores de s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas sem uso pr&#233;vio de clopidogrel, com anatomia coron&#225;ria conhecida e ICP planejada. Em sua amostra, a SCASEST representou 74% dos pacientes. Na coorte geral, o grupo que utilizou o prasugrel apresentou redu&#231;&#227;o de 19% (9,9% x 12,1%, p&lt;0,001) no desfecho combinado de morte de causas cardiovasculares, infarto n&#227;o fatal ou acidente vascular cerebral (desfecho principal de efic&#225;cia), especialmente &#224; custa de redu&#231;&#227;o nos casos de infarto n&#227;o fatal (7,3% x 9,5%, p&lt;0,001), n&#227;o havendo diferen&#231;as significativas em rela&#231;&#227;o a &#243;bitos cardiovasculares e AVC; a an&#225;lise dos resultados aplicando-se a classifica&#231;&#227;o universal de IAM<sup>34</sup> mostra que a diminui&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de (re)infarto ocorre em todos os cinco tipos de infarto<sup>35</sup>. No que tange a sangramentos, o grupo prasugrel apresentou aumento de 32% no risco de sangramento maior pelo escore TIMI, desfecho principal de seguran&#231;a (2,4% x 1,8%, p=0,03); al&#233;m disso, houve significante aumento na incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos amea&#231;adores &#224; vida (1,4 x 0,9%, p=0,01). Incluindo-se numa mesma equa&#231;&#227;o o benef&#237;cio e o malef&#237;cio observados, demonstra-se um benef&#237;cio l&#237;quido a favor do clopidogrel de 13% (p=0,004). An&#225;lises post-hoc identificaram tr&#234;s grupos de maior risco de sangramento: indiv&#237;duos com idade maior ou igual a 75 anos, peso menor que 60kg (nesses dois subgrupos n&#227;o se demonstrou qualquer benef&#237;cio l&#237;quido), e antecedente de acidente vascular encef&#225;lico/ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio (no qual o benef&#237;cio l&#237;quido foi significativamente favor&#225;vel ao clopidogrel). Suban&#225;lises pr&#233;-especificadas mostram que o prasugrel &#233; superior ao clopidogrel em diversos subgrupos, parecendo haver um benef&#237;cio especial em pacientes diab&#233;ticos, apesar de n&#227;o ter sido demonstrado intera&#231;&#227;o significativa entre presen&#231;a de diabetes e os resultados obtidos nos grupos prasugrel e clopidogrel<sup>36</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em suma, o uso do prasugrel na SCASEST est&#225; indicado em casos de angina inst&#225;vel de risco intermedi&#225;rio e alto, al&#233;m do IAMSEST, que t&#234;m programa&#231;&#227;o de ICP, ap&#243;s conhecimento da anatomia coron&#225;ria. O prasugrel deve ser administrado em dose de ataque de 60mg, com manuten&#231;&#227;o de 10mg por dia, e seu uso deve ser feito por 12 meses. Dose de manuten&#231;&#227;o menor, de 5mg, pode ser considerada para indiv&#237;duos com menos de 60kg, mas tal dose n&#227;o foi testada prospectivamente em estudos cl&#237;nicos. O f&#225;rmaco deve ser evitado em pacientes com idade maior ou igual a 75 anos, sendo a dose de 5mg/dia recomendada caso se opte pela utiliza&#231;&#227;o do mesmo. O medicamento &#233; contraindicado para antecedente de acidente vascular encef&#225;lico/ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio. Em caso de interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, o f&#225;rmaco deve ser suspenso por, pelo menos, 7 dias antes do procedimento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.2.4. Ticagrelor</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O ticagrelor tamb&#233;m inibe a a&#231;&#227;o do ADP via bloqueio do receptor P2Y12, mas ao contr&#225;rio do clopidogrel e do prasugrel n&#227;o &#233; um tienopirid&#237;nico, pertencendo &#224; classe qu&#237;mica ciclopentiltriazolopirimidas (CPTP). Essa classe qu&#237;mica tem caracter&#237;sticas bastante diferentes dos tienopirid&#237;nicos, como o fato de inibir de forma revers&#237;vel os receptores P2Y12 do ADP. Por ser um medicamento que n&#227;o depende de metaboliza&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria (logo, n&#227;o se trata de uma pr&#243;-agente, tendo seu efeito principal mediado pelo pr&#243;prio ticagrelor e, de maneira menos expressiva, por um metab&#243;lito ativo), apresenta efeito antiagregante mais intenso, r&#225;pido e consistente em rela&#231;&#227;o ao clopidogrel. Possui meia-vida relativamente curta, cerca de 12 horas.</p>
    <p>Especificamente na coronariopatia aguda, o ticagrelor foi testado no estudo PLATO<sup>37</sup>, que randomizou 18.624 para utilizarem o pr&#243;prio ticagrelor, ou clopidogrel. No seu desenho, esse estudo apresentou caracter&#237;sticas muito interessantes, como por exemplo a inclus&#227;o de qualquer tipo de apresenta&#231;&#227;o da coronariopatia aguda (com exce&#231;&#227;o do IAM com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento de ST tratado com fibrinol&#237;tico), a possibilidade de uso de clopidogrel previamente &#224; randomiza&#231;&#227;o, ou a possibilidade do uso de dose adicional de clopidogrel antes de ICP. Neste estudo, o clopidogrel ou o ticagrelor foram administrados no atendimento inicial, sem conhecimento da anatomia coron&#225;ria, sendo os pacientes acompanhados por um ano. Na amostra, a preval&#234;ncia de SCASEST foi de cerca de 60% (angina inst&#225;vel de risco intermedi&#225;rio e alto, al&#233;m de IAMSEST). Durante a fase intra-hospitalar, 61% dos indiv&#237;duos receberam tratamento percut&#226;neo, cerca de 10% foram submetidos &#224; cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, permanecendo o restante em tratamento cl&#237;nico exclusivo.</p>
    <p>Do ponto de vista de resultados, o ticagrelor apresentou redu&#231;&#227;o de 16% na incid&#234;ncia do desfecho prim&#225;rio de efic&#225;cia, o combinado de morte por causas vasculares, (re)infarto n&#227;o fatal ou acidente vascular cerebral (9,8% x 11,7%, p&lt;0,001). Ao se analisar isoladamente os componentes do desfecho composto, demonstrou-se diminui&#231;&#245;es significativas nas incid&#234;ncias de (re)infarto (5,8% <italic>versus</italic> 6,9%, p=0,005) e &#243;bitos cardiovasculares (4,0% <italic>versus</italic> 5,1%, p&lt;0,001), n&#227;o havendo diferen&#231;as significativas em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s incid&#234;ncias de AVC. Adicionalmente, demonstrou-se diminui&#231;&#245;es significativas nas incid&#234;ncias de mortalidade por todas as causas de 22% (4,5% x 5,9%, p&lt;0,001). Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao desfecho &#224; seguran&#231;a, n&#227;o se detectou diferen&#231;as significativas nas incid&#234;ncias de sangramento importante (por diferentes defini&#231;&#245;es) ou necessidade de transfus&#245;es, no global da popula&#231;&#227;o. Outros efeitos colaterais que apresentaram incid&#234;ncias maiores no grupo ticagrelor foram a dispneia (13,8% x 7,8%, p&lt;0,001), mas que em geral foi transit&#243;ria e levou &#224; suspens&#227;o do medicamento em 0,9% <italic>versus</italic> 0,1%, p&lt;0,001, respectivamente; bradicardia, tamb&#233;m geralmente transit&#243;ria e sem diferen&#231;a entre os grupos em termos de repercuss&#227;o cl&#237;nica (implante de marcapasso, s&#237;ncope ou bloqueio card&#237;aco); tal fato fica claro na monitoriza&#231;&#227;o por Holter, que demonstrou significativo aumento na incid&#234;ncia de pausas ventriculares maiores que 3 segundos nos primeiros 7 dias de uso da medica&#231;&#227;o (5,8% x 3,6%, p=0,01), mas que perde tal signific&#226;ncia ap&#243;s 30 dias de utiliza&#231;&#227;o da mesma (2,1% x 1,7%, p&lt;0,52<sup>38</sup>. Finalmente, demonstra-se aumentos significativos nos n&#237;veis de creatinina (10% <italic>versus</italic> 8%) e de &#225;cido &#250;rico (14% <italic>versus</italic> 7%), com diferen&#231;as n&#227;o significativas entre os grupos um m&#234;s ap&#243;s o final do tratamento.</p>
    <p>Finalmente, o banco de dados do PLATO propiciou a publica&#231;&#227;o de diversas an&#225;lises de subgrupos pr&#233;-especificados, como por exemplo pacientes diab&#233;ticos ou n&#227;o<sup>39</sup>, com ou sem disfun&#231;&#227;o renal<sup>40</sup>, com ou sem AVC pr&#233;vio<sup>41</sup>, utilizando ou n&#227;o bloqueadores de bomba de pr&#243;tons<sup>42</sup>, com inten&#231;&#227;o de tratamento invasiva ou n&#227;o invasiva<sup>43</sup>, subgrupo submetido &#224; cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica<sup>44</sup>, entre outros. De forma geral, os resultados encontrados ficaram muito pr&#243;ximos aos resultados demonstrados na publica&#231;&#227;o original, com toda a popula&#231;&#227;o analisada.</p>
    <p>Dessa forma, o uso do ticagrelor na SCASEST est&#225; indicado em casos de angina inst&#225;vel de risco moderado ou alto, al&#233;m do IAMSEST, independentemente da estrat&#233;gia de tratamento posterior. O ticagrelor deve ser administrado em dose de ataque de 180mg, com manuten&#231;&#227;o de 90mg 2x/dia, e seu uso deve ser feito por 12 meses. Esse medicamento pode ser administrado desde o Pronto Socorro, mesmo sem o conhecimento da anatomia coron&#225;ria. Em caso de interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, o f&#225;rmaco deve ser suspenso 5 dias antes do procedimento. Entre outras precau&#231;&#245;es (ver bula), deve-se evitar a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do f&#225;rmaco em pacientes com nefropatia ur&#234;mica, e deve-se tomar cuidado com o in&#237;cio da utiliza&#231;&#227;o do mesmo em pacientes com bradicardia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.2.5. Inibidores da glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O emprego dos inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa est&#225; bem estabelecido nos pacientes com alto risco isqu&#234;mico (diab&#233;ticos, marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica positivos) submetidos a ICP. Tal evid&#234;ncia se origina, fundamentalmente, de estudos onde a estrat&#233;gia invasiva precoce e a dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria oral n&#227;o eram empregadas<sup>45-47</sup>. Entretanto, a meta-an&#225;lise com mais de 20.000 pacientes submetidos a ICP demonstra diminui&#231;&#227;o de 31% na mortalidade aos 30 dias de seguimento quando da utiliza&#231;&#227;o do medicamento<sup>48</sup>.</p>
    <p>N&#227;o existem estudos que compararam a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria com AAS e inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa contra a dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o oral (AAS com clopidogrel, prasugrel ou ticagrelor). Recentes estudos v&#234;m avaliando o emprego da tripla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria (dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o oral e inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa), com o objetivo de definir quando e em quais pacientes tal terapia deve ser utilizada.</p>
    <p>O estudo EARLY ACS<sup>49</sup> avaliou 9.492 pacientes com SCASEST sob emprego de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria (AAS e clopidogrel) e os randomizou para uso adicional de inibidor da GP IIb/IIIa rotineiramente antes da ICP, contra o uso em casos selecionados durante a ICP (presen&#231;a de trombos, doen&#231;a difusa, complica&#231;&#245;es tromb&#243;ticas). Nesse estudo o inibidor da GP IIb/IIIa utilizado foi o eptifibatide, um heptapept&#237;deo c&#237;clico sint&#233;tico n&#227;o dispon&#237;vel comercialmente no Brasil. Os resultados do EARLY ACS mostraram que o emprego rotineiro do inibidor da GP IIb/IIIa n&#227;o foi capaz de reduzir significativamente o desfecho composto de morte, IAM, isquemia recorrente e complica&#231;&#245;es tromb&#243;ticas na ICP (9,3% no grupo rotineiro x 10% no grupo seletivo, OR 0,92; p=0,23). Por outro lado, a tripla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria rotineira levou a um aumento significativo nos desfechos hemorr&#225;gicos maiores pelo crit&#233;rio TIMI (2,6% x 1,8%, OR 1,42; p=0,015).</p>
    <p>Outro estudo que avaliou o melhor momento para o emprego dos inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa foi o ACUITY, com 9.207 pacientes e um desenho fatorial 2x2: al&#233;m de avaliar tr&#234;s esquemas antitromb&#243;ticos (heparina com inibidor GP IIb/IIIa, bivalirudina com inibidor GP IIb/IIIa ou apenas bivalirudina), randomizou os pacientes dos grupos que receberiam inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa para o uso rotineiro antes da ICP contra uso em casos selecionados durante a ICP. O emprego rotineiro da tripla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria n&#227;o foi capaz de reduzir significativamente o desfecho principal composto de morte, IAM e nova revasculariza&#231;&#227;o em 30 dias (7,1% x 7,9%; RR 1,12; p=0,13). J&#225; o emprego em casos selecionados dos inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa implicou em menor incid&#234;ncia de eventos hemorr&#225;gicos maiores (4,9% x 6,1%, RR 0,8; p=0,009)<sup>50</sup>.</p>
    <p>Assim sendo, deve-se ent&#227;o utilizar os inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa, preferencialmente, como um terceiro antiagregante plaquet&#225;rio em pacientes que n&#227;o apresentem alto risco hemorr&#225;gico, e que por outro lado possuam alto risco isqu&#234;mico cl&#237;nico (marcadores de necrose positivos, isquemia recorrente, infradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST), apenas ap&#243;s confirma&#231;&#227;o angiogr&#225;fica (ateromatose grave, presen&#231;a de trombos e complica&#231;&#245;es tromb&#243;ticas da ICP).</p>
    <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso concomitante com os novos antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios orais (prasugrel e ticagrelor), demonstra-se que os benef&#237;cios dos mesmos (ver cap&#237;tulo espec&#237;fico) ocorrem independentemente da utiliza&#231;&#227;o ou n&#227;o dos inbidores GP IIb/IIIa. Em outras palavras, tanto no TRITON quanto no PLATO o valor de p para intera&#231;&#227;o entre prasugrel (ou ticagrelor) <italic>versus</italic> clopidogrel para pacientes em uso concomitante ou n&#227;o de inibidores GP IIb/IIIa n&#227;o atingiu signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica<sup>37,51</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa comercialmente dispon&#237;veis no Brasil s&#227;o o abciximab e o tirofiban. A meta-an&#225;lise publicada em 2010 mostrou que nos estudos nos quais se utilizou uma maior dose de ataque do tirofiban (25mcg/kg) houve equival&#234;ncia desse composto em rela&#231;&#227;o ao abciximab, no que se diz respeito a desfechos isqu&#234;micos<sup>52,53</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_3tab01">Tabela 1</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_3tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt05.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.3. Terapia anticoagulante nas SCASEST</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.3.1. Fondaparinux</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Trata-se de um pentassacar&#237;deo sint&#233;tico que se liga seletivamente &#224; antitrombina, causando de forma indireta inibi&#231;&#227;o do fator Xa. Possui pouca intera&#231;&#227;o com componentes do plasma e, dessa forma, age de maneira previs&#237;vel com baixa variabilidade individual. Apresenta meia-vida de 17 horas, excre&#231;&#227;o renal (contraindicado em depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina (ClCr &lt;20ml/min), n&#227;o induz trombocitopenia e n&#227;o necessita de monitoramento da a&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>O fondaparinux foi avaliado inicialmente na SCASEST no estudo PENTUA<sup>54</sup>, que randomizou 1.138 pacientes para diferentes doses de fondaparinux ou enoxaparina. Esse trabalho de fase dois concluiu que o emprego subcut&#226;neo de 2,5mg/dia &#233; seguro e t&#227;o eficaz quanto a enoxaparina na preven&#231;&#227;o de morte, IAM e isquemia recorrente.</p>
    <p>O fondaparinux, no contexto das SCASEST, foi avaliado no estudo OASIS 5<sup>55</sup>, que incluiu 20.078 pacientes randomizados para grupo fondaparinux (2,5mg SC 1x/dia) ou grupo enoxaparina (1mg/kg de 12/12 horas ou de 24/24 horas se ClCr &lt;30 ml/min) . O fondaparinux mostrou-se n&#227;o inferior &#224; enoxaparina para o desfecho composto de &#243;bito e isquemia refrat&#225;ria em 9 dias (RR 1,01; IC 0,9-1,13; p=0,007 para n&#227;o inferioridade), meta principal do estudo. A incid&#234;ncia do desfecho secund&#225;rio principal (&#243;bito e infarto em 9 dias) tamb&#233;m n&#227;o diferiu significativamente entre os grupos. No seguimento em 30 e 90 dias ocorreu significativa redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade (respectivamente RR 0,83; p=0,02 e RR 0,89; p=0,05) &#224; custa basicamente dos pacientes tratados clinicamente, j&#225; que n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as significativas entre os grupos nos pacientes submetidos a ICP (RR 0,94 e 0,92 respectivamente aos 30 e 180 dias, p=NS).</p>
    <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o aos desfechos hemorr&#225;gicos, ocorreu importante redu&#231;&#227;o nos sangramentos maiores na popula&#231;&#227;o em uso de fondaparinux (2,2% <italic>versus</italic> 4,1%, RR 0,52; p&lt;0.001), com redu&#231;&#227;o significativa dos sangramentos fatais, &#224; custa de aumento significativo na incid&#234;ncia de trombose de cateter (RR 3,59; p=0,001). Por outro lado, a suban&#225;lise do OASIS 5<sup>56</sup> demonstrou que a diminui&#231;&#227;o de sangramentos maiores ocorreu no grupo tratado com fondaparinux, independentemente do uso de inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa ou de tienopirid&#237;nicos.</p>
    <p>Uma explica&#231;&#227;o para essa redu&#231;&#227;o nos eventos hemorr&#225;gicos &#233; que o fondaparinux apresenta um potencial de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o inferior ao da enoxaparina. Isso pode ser constatado, pois os n&#237;veis de anti-Xa em indiv&#237;duos tratados com fondaparinux s&#227;o 50% menores que nos medicados com enoxaparina - o que justifica o aumento na incid&#234;ncia de trombose de cat&#233;ter nos pacientes submetidos &#224; ICP durante o OASIS 5 previamente citado<sup>57</sup>. Suban&#225;lise apenas com os pacientes submetidos &#224; ICP (cerca de 40% da popula&#231;&#227;o do OASIS 5 mostrou que, mesmo nessa subpopula&#231;&#227;o, o grupo fondaparinux teve incid&#234;ncia significativamente menor de sangramento, n&#227;o se demonstrou entretanto diferen&#231;as significativas entre os grupos fondaparinux e enoxaparina em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; meta principal do estudo (&#243;bito, (re)infarto ou AVC) ou qualquer dos componentes da mesma, tanto aos 9 dias de seguimento, quanto aos 30 ou 180 dias<sup>58</sup>.</p>
    <p>O aumento na incid&#234;ncia de trombose de cat&#233;ter levou a modifica&#231;&#227;o no protocolo durante o desenvolvimento do estudo OASIS 5 com a incorpora&#231;&#227;o de bolus de heparina n&#227;o fracionada (HNF) no grupo fondaparinux. Entretanto, a dose ideal do bolus de HNF administrada a ser utilizada em nos pacientes tratados com fondaparinux durante a ICP foi avaliada posteriormente no estudo FUTURA OASIS 8. Nesse estudo, 2.026 pacientes inicialmente tratados com fondaparinux foram randomizados para receber doses diferentes do bolus de HNF no momento da ICP. Os indiv&#237;duos receberiam 50UI/kg (independentemente do uso de inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa) ou 85UI/kg (reduzido para 60UI/kg no caso de uso com inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa). N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa entre os grupos para o desfecho prim&#225;rio composto de sangramento maior, sangramento menor ou complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares. No entanto o benef&#237;cio l&#237;quido, sangramento maior em 48 horas e revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do vaso alvo em 30 dias, foi favor&#225;vel ao grupo com a dose de 85UI/kg (OR 1,51; p=0,05). Vale ressaltar que nesse estudo a incid&#234;ncia de trombose de cateter com uso do bolus de 85UI/kg foi de apenas 0,1%<sup>59</sup>.</p>
    <p>Dessa forma o emprego do fondaparinux (2,5mg SC 1x/dia) se mostra uma alternativa similar em efic&#225;cia, por&#233;m com um perfil de seguran&#231;a superior ao da enoxaparina em pacientes com SCASEST, sendo obrigat&#243;ria a utiliza&#231;&#227;o concomitante de bolus de HNF nos pacientes submetidos &#224; ICP.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.3.2. Heparina n&#227;o-fracionada</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A HNF &#233; uma mistura heterog&#234;nea de mol&#233;culas de polissacar&#237;deos (peso molecular m&#233;dio entre 15.000 e 18.000 Daltons). Geralmente, apenas um ter&#231;o das mol&#233;culas encontradas em uma solu&#231;&#227;o de heparina cont&#233;m a sequ&#234;ncia de pentassacar&#237;deo necess&#225;ria para a liga&#231;&#227;o com a antitrombina e o estabelecimento da atividade anticoagulante.</p>
    <p>Estudo de Th&#233;roux e cols.<sup>15</sup> comparou a terapia isolada com AAS ou HNF com a terapia combinada dos dois f&#225;rmacos ou placebo. De forma randomizada e duplo-cega, 479 pacientes com angina inst&#225;vel foram avaliados quanto &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de angina refrat&#225;ria, IAM ou morte. Tanto a terapia isolada com AAS quanto com HNF se associaram a redu&#231;&#245;es significativas na ocorr&#234;ncia de IAM quando comparada ao grupo placebo, com uma tend&#234;ncia favorecendo a HNF. Al&#233;m disso, houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o importante na ocorr&#234;ncia de angina recorrente no grupo tratado com HNF. Neste estudo, a associa&#231;&#227;o de AAS com HNF n&#227;o conferiu prote&#231;&#227;o adicional contra o risco de eventos isqu&#234;micos, e foi relacionada a discreto aumento no risco de sangramento.</p>
    <p>Publicado em 1994, o estudo ATACS<sup>19,60 </sup>randomizou 214 pacientes com angina inst&#225;vel ou IAMSEST para receberem, ou n&#227;o, HNF em adi&#231;&#227;o &#224; terapia com AAS. Houve redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos isqu&#234;micos aos 14 dias de evolu&#231;&#227;o nos pacientes que receberam a associa&#231;&#227;o de AAS e HNF (10,5% x 27%, p= 0,004), por&#233;m essa diferen&#231;a n&#227;o atingiu signific&#226;ncia na an&#225;lise ap&#243;s 12 semanas (19% x 28%, p= 0,09). Demonstrou-se, ainda, discreto aumento na incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos no grupo que recebeu HNF.</p>
    <p>An&#225;lise conjunta dos estudos cl&#237;nicos de maior relev&#226;ncia que compararam os benef&#237;cios da HNF e do AAS em pacientes com angina inst&#225;vel e IAMSEST mostrou redu&#231;&#227;o significativa no risco de IAM ou morte nos pacientes que receberam terapia combinada de AAS e HNF em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;queles que receberam AAS isoladamente (HR 0,44, IC 95%, 0,21 - 0,93)<sup>61</sup>.</p>
    <p>Com o advento da heparina de baixo peso molecular (HBPM), diversos estudos foram conduzidos para comparar a efic&#225;cia entre a HNF e esses novos f&#225;rmacos em reduzir o risco de eventos isqu&#234;micos, associada a um melhor perfil de seguran&#231;a relacionado ao risco de sangramento. Em metaan&#225;lise publicada em 2000, envolvendo 17.157 pacientes com SCASEST inclu&#237;dos em 12 estudos cl&#237;nicos, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa na ocorr&#234;ncia de morte ou IAM entre a terapia com HBPM ou HNF (HR 0,88, p= 0,34). Por outro lado, ambas se mostraram altamente eficazes em reduzir o risco de IAM ou morte quando comparadas a placebo ou controles n&#227;o tratados (HR 0,53, p=0,0001)<sup>62</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.3.3. Heparina de baixo peso molecular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As HBPM comp&#245;em um grupo heterog&#234;neo de compostos derivados da heparina, cujos pesos moleculares variam de 2.000 &#224; 10.000 Daltons. Tal grupo tem algumas vantagens muito relevantes em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; HNF<sup>61</sup>: comodidade posol&#243;gica e via de administra&#231;&#227;o (uso intermitente e por via subcut&#226;nea); n&#227;o haver necessidade de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o do efeito anticoagulante, exceto em situa&#231;&#245;es especiais (como obesidade e insufici&#234;ncia renal), nas quais deve-se realizar a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da atividade anti-Xa sempre que poss&#237;vel (alvo terap&#234;utico de 0,6 a 1,0UI/ml)<sup>63</sup>; absor&#231;&#227;o quase completa por via subcut&#226;nea; menor liga&#231;&#227;o a prote&#237;nas; menor ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria; e, principalmente, rela&#231;&#227;o dose-efeito mais previs&#237;vel.</p>
    <p>Na fase inicial da utiliza&#231;&#227;o das HBPM, houve diminui&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o significativa de 12% na ocorr&#234;ncia de &#243;bito ou IAM a favor da HBPM, quando comparada &#224; HNF. Por outro lado, o principal representante das HBPM, e de maior uso cl&#237;nico, &#233; a enoxaparina, testada em diversos estudos frente &#224; HNF no cen&#225;rio das SCASEST. Os estudos ESSENCE e TIMI 11B mostraram, pela primeira vez, a superioridade de uma HBPM em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; HNF<sup>64</sup>. Entretanto, por terem sido desenvolvidos em uma era em que a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gia invasiva e determinados antitromb&#243;ticos (como o inibidor GP IIb/IIIa) ainda n&#227;o existiam, houve a necessidade de se desenvolver um estudo mais contempor&#226;neo sobre o assunto, que foi o SYNERGY<sup>65</sup>. Tal estudo randomizou 10.027 pacientes com SCASEST de alto risco e programados para estrat&#233;gia invasiva precoce, para receberem enoxaparina ou HNF. Seu objetivo prim&#225;rio foi a an&#225;lise do desfecho composto de morte por todas as causas ou infarto do mioc&#225;rdio nos primeiros 30 dias ap&#243;s a randomiza&#231;&#227;o. Da amostra total, 92% dos pacientes foram submetidos a cineangiocoronariografia, 47% foram submetidos a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea e 19% a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, similarmente distribu&#237;dos entre os grupos enoxaparina ou HNF. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao desfecho prim&#225;rio, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos de HBPM ou HNF (14% <italic>versus</italic> 14,5%, p=0,4). Resultado semelhante foi observado tanto com 48 horas quanto em 14 dias (p=0,10 e 0,38, respectivamente). No que tange aos desfechos de seguran&#231;a, o grupo enoxaparina apresentou maior incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores pelo escore TIMI (p=0,008), mas n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa quando analisados tais eventos pelo escore GUSTO (p=0,08), ou quando utilizado como par&#226;metro o n&#250;mero de transfus&#245;es recebidas (p=0,15). Na popula&#231;&#227;o submetida &#224; ICP, as incid&#234;ncias de qualquer ICP sem sucesso, qualquer amea&#231;a de oclus&#227;o aguda, qualquer oclus&#227;o aguda e cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de emerg&#234;ncia, tiveram incid&#234;ncias similares entre os grupos. Informa&#231;&#227;o muito relevante desse estudo refere-se &#224; troca ("crossover") de heparinas durante o tratamento desses pacientes. Do total da popula&#231;&#227;o, aproximadamente 6.000 pacientes utilizaram apenas uma heparina durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, e nessa popula&#231;&#227;o com "terapia consistente", a an&#225;lise <italic>post hoc</italic> demonstrou diminui&#231;&#227;o significativa na incid&#234;ncia do desfecho principal de &#243;bito ou IAM aos 30 dias de evolu&#231;&#227;o, a favor da HBPM (12,8% <italic>versus</italic> 15,6%, HR 0,81, p=0,003).</p>
    <p>A meta-an&#225;lise que incluiu aproximadamente 22.000 pacientes com SCASEST tratados com enoxaparina ou HNF<sup>66</sup> demonstrou: na popula&#231;&#227;o global, redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na incid&#234;ncia do desfecho composto de morte e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio em 30 dias, a favor do grupo enoxaparina (OR 0,91; IC 0,83 a 0,99); diferen&#231;as n&#227;o significativas nas incid&#234;ncias de sangramentos maiores (OR, 1,04; IC 0.83 a 1.30) ou necessidade de transfus&#245;es (OR, 1,01; IC 0.89 a 1.14); na subpopula&#231;&#227;o sem uso de heparina previamente &#224; randomiza&#231;&#227;o, a vantagem da enoxaparina se amplia, em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; HNF, no que se refere a &#243;bito ou IAM (HR 0,81; 95% IC 0,70 a 0,94).</p>
    <p>Quanto a dose da enoxaparina a ser utilizada, recomenda-se 1mg/kg por dose, de 12/12 horas; tal dose deve ser ajustada para 1mg/kg 1x/dia em caso de insufici&#234;ncia renal com ClCr &lt;30ml/min e para 0,75mg 12/12 horas em caso de idosos com mais de 75 anos. No cen&#225;rio do procedimento percut&#226;neo (angioplastia), no caso de o mesmo ser realizado com menos de 8 horas da &#250;ltima dose de enoxaparina, n&#227;o h&#225; necessidade de dose adicional de enoxaparina; em caso de angioplastia com mais de 8 horas da &#250;ltima dose de enoxaparina, deve-se administrar uma dose adicional de 0,3mg/kg, intravenosa. O uso concomitante de enoxaparina e HNF durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o deve ser evitado<sup>67</sup>.</p>
    <p>Assim, o uso da HBPM deve ser realizado em pacientes que se apresentam com SCASEST de risco alto e intermedi&#225;rio, al&#233;m do IAMSEST, nas doses acima descritas, at&#233; a realiza&#231;&#227;o da ICP ou cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica; em caso de tratamento cl&#237;nico, seu uso deve ser feito por 8 dias ou at&#233; a alta hospitalar, sendo o uso acima desse per&#237;odo relacionado a aumento do risco de sangramento sem redu&#231;&#227;o significante de eventos isqu&#234;micos<sup>68,69</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3.3.4. Novos anticoagulantes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Dois inibidores orais do fator Xa (apixabana e rivaroxabana) em adi&#231;&#227;o &#224; dupla agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria foram observados em estudos de fase 3 no contexto da coronariopatia aguda. O estudo APRAISE-2 randomizou 7.392 pacientes, em m&#233;dia 6 dias ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio de sintomas compat&#237;veis com SCA, para uso de apixabana (5mg 12/12 horas) ou placebo. O estudo foi prematuramente interrompido por um importante aumento de sangramentos maiores pelo crit&#233;rio TIMI (HR 2,59; p=0,001), sem benef&#237;cio significativo em termos de eventos isqu&#234;micos<sup>70</sup>. A dose da apixabana utilizada foi a mesma testada no contexto da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, o que explicaria o excesso de sangramentos graves.</p>
    <p>O emprego da rivaroxabana em popula&#231;&#227;o semelhante (em m&#233;dia 4,7 dias ap&#243;s um evento isqu&#234;mico agudo) foi avaliado no estudo ATLAS ACS 2<sup>71</sup>. Foram randomizados &gt;15.000 pacientes para tr&#234;sgrupos: rivaroxabana 2,5mg 12/12 horas, rivaroxabana 5mg 12/12 horas e placebo (ambas as doses bem inferiores &#224;quelas testadas no contexto da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial). A dose de 2,5mg foi a que apresentou melhores resultados, com redu&#231;&#227;o relativa de 16% na meta prim&#225;ria do estudo, desfecho composto de morte cardiovascular, IAM e AVC (p=0,007) ao final do seguimento de 2 anos, inclusive com redu&#231;&#227;o significativa de &#243;bito cardiovascular (HR 0,66; p=0,005) e &#243;bito por qualquer causa (HR 0,68; p=0,004). Do ponto de vista de seguran&#231;a, conforme esperado o grupo rivaroxabana apresentou aumento significativo na incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos n&#227;o relacionados &#224; cirurgia (HR 3,46; p&lt;0,001), por&#233;m sem aumento significativo na incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos fatais (p=0,45).</p>
    <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o aos inibidores da trombina, a dabigratana foi avaliada ap&#243;s SCA em uso concomitante com dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria no estudo REDEEM<sup>72</sup>. Nesse trabalho se evidenciou um importante aumento na incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos nas diferentes doses avaliadas (50mg, 75mg, 110mg e 150mg).</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_3tab02">Tabela 2</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_3tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt06.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>4. Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes no acidente vascular cerebral e ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) constitui-se na segunda principal causa de morbidade e mortalidade no Brasil. Dados do DATASUS de 2010 demonstram que o AVC foi respons&#225;vel pelo &#243;bito de 99.732 pacientes (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://tabnet.datasus.gov.br/cgi/tabcgi.exe?sim/cnv/obt10uf.def">http://tabnet.datasus.gov.br/cgi/tabcgi.exe?sim/cnv/obt10uf.def</ext-link>)1; a primeira causa s&#227;o as doen&#231;as isqu&#234;micas do cora&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, &#233; fundamental reconhecer o ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio (AIT), j&#225; que este &#233; um forte preditor da ocorr&#234;ncia de um AVC.</p>
    <p>&#201; importante ressaltar ainda que dos pacientes que sobrevivem ao primeiro evento, uma parcela importante apresentar&#225; recorr&#234;ncia de AVC. Diante disso, &#233; fundamental a preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de novos eventos.</p>
    <p>Esta se&#231;&#227;o ter&#225; como objetivo avaliar o uso de antiplaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de AVC n&#227;o cardioemb&#243;lico (abordado na Se&#231;&#227;o 4, intitulada Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial), priorizando principalmente os casos de origem ateroscler&#243;tica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.2. Terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria no acidente vascular cerebral</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os principais mecanismos envolvidos na fisiopatologia do AVC s&#227;o trombose arterial, particularmente relacionada &#224; doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica, e eventos cardioemb&#243;licos, reiterando que a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria tem papel importante no desenvolvimento do AVC. Assim, o uso de medica&#231;&#245;es que atuam no bloqueio da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria reduz a taxa de eventos vasculares (incluindo novo AVC, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio e morte).</p>
    <p>&#201; importante destacar que a maioria dos estudos envolvendo agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de AVC contemplam eventos cardiovasculares combinados, impossibilitando, desta forma, uma an&#225;lise efetiva da taxa de recorr&#234;ncia dos AVCs.</p>
    <p>A seguir, descreveremos as evid&#234;ncias existentes para a prescri&#231;&#227;o de agentes antiagregantes como profilaxia secund&#225;ria em caso de AVC ou AIT, ap&#243;s a fase aguda das primeiras 48 horas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.2.1. AAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O uso do &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico (AAS) &#233; consagrado como preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de AVC e AIT. Uma meta-an&#225;lise publicada em 1999<sup>2</sup> avaliou a efic&#225;cia do AAS na preven&#231;&#227;o de novos eventos cerebrovasculares. Foram inclu&#237;dos 11 estudos (totalizando mais de 9.500 pacientes) em que o AAS foi comparado contra um placebo na preven&#231;&#227;o de novo AVC em pacientes que j&#225; haviam apresentado epis&#243;dio pr&#233;vio de AVC isqu&#234;mico ou AIT. Os resultados dessa meta-an&#225;lise revelaram que o AAS reduziu em torno de 15% a ocorr&#234;ncia de novos eventos cerebrovasculares, com diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante. Um ponto importante desse estudo foi a constata&#231;&#227;o de que a redu&#231;&#227;o de risco independe de doses maiores de AAS, o que sugere que mesmo doses menores s&#227;o efetivas na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria. Outro fator a ser considerado &#233; que doses maiores de AAS est&#227;o relacionadas com maior quantidade de eventos hemorr&#225;gicos, principalmente de trato gastrointestinal. Dessa forma, o uso de AAS em baixas doses (por exemplo, 100mg) parece ser efetivo na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de AVC/AIT com menos efeitos adversos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.2.2. AAS mais dipiridamol</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A efetividade do dipiridamol em compara&#231;&#227;o com AAS na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de AVC isqu&#234;mico foi avaliada em 4 ensaios cl&#237;nicos maiores. Entre eles, o estudo ESPS-2<sup>3</sup> randomizou mais de 6.000 pacientes ap&#243;s um AVC isqu&#234;mico ou AIT para receber AAS (25mg 2x/dia), dipiridamol de libera&#231;&#227;o prolongada (200mg 2x/dia), AAS mais dipiridamol de libera&#231;&#227;o prolongada (25/200mg 2x/dia) ou placebo. Os desfechos prim&#225;rios avaliados foram AVC e morte. O grupo que fez uso da terapia combinada apresentou uma redu&#231;&#227;o de risco relativo de eventos de 23,1% e 24,7% respectivamente em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo AAS e dipiridamol isoladamente, com diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante. Por&#233;m, deve-se levar em conta que a dose de AAS neste estudo foi baixa. Quanto aos efeitos adversos, houve maior incid&#234;ncia de sangramento em pacientes que fizeram uso de AAS, tanto no grupo AAS isolado quanto no grupo AAS combinado com dipiridamol. J&#225; os pacientes que fizeram uso do dipiridamol apresentaram mais cefaleia e sintomas gastrointestinais, particularmente diarreia.</p>
    <p>O estudo ESPRIT<sup>4</sup>, por sua vez, randomizou mais de 2.500 pacientes ap&#243;s AVC ou AIT para receber AAS isolado (a dose podia variar entre 30 e 325mg/dia, sendo a dose m&#233;dia de 75mg/dia) ou AAS combinado com dipiridamol de libera&#231;&#227;o prolongada (a dose do dipiridamol foi de 200mg 2x/dia). O desfecho prim&#225;rio avaliado foi uma composi&#231;&#227;o de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM), AVC, morte por causa cardiovascular ou sangramento. Esses eventos ocorreram em 13% dos pacientes em terapia dupla e em 16% no grupo monoterapia. No entanto, um fato intrigante ocorreu nesse estudo, pois houve maior ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos hemorr&#225;gicos nos pacientes em uso de AAS isoladamente em rela&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes em terapia dupla. Desse modo, AAS mais dipiridamol de libera&#231;&#227;o prolongada (200mg 2x/dia) &#233; uma op&#231;&#227;o interessante para preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria em pacientes com AVC isqu&#234;mico ou AIT. Entretanto, essa configura&#231;&#227;o de dipiridamol ainda n&#227;o est&#225; dispon&#237;vel no Brasil.</p>
    <p>De modo geral, os estudos mostraram que dipiridamol associado com AAS foi t&#227;o efetivo quanto AAS isolado, mas com menor toler&#226;ncia pelos pacientes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.2.4. Ticlopidina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo CATS<sup>5</sup> envolveu mais de 1.000 pacientes ap&#243;s AVC, que foram randomizados para receber ticlopidina (250mg 2x/dia) ou placebo com intuito de avaliar a redu&#231;&#227;o de novo AVC, IAM ou morte por causa vascular. O grupo ticlopidina (avaliado por inten&#231;&#227;o de tratar) apresentou uma redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo de eventos de 23,3% em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo placebo, com diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante. Os efeitos adversos mais comuns relacionados ao uso de ticlopidina foram neutropenia, rash cut&#226;neo e diarreia (sendo todos revers&#237;veis ap&#243;s a suspens&#227;o da medica&#231;&#227;o).</p>
    <p>O estudo TASS<sup>6</sup> randomizou mais de 3.000 pacientes ap&#243;s AVC ou AIT para receber ticlopidina (250mg 2x/dia) ou AAS (625mg 2x/dia). O desfecho prim&#225;rio avaliado foi novo AVC ou morte por qualquer causa. A redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo com uso da ticlopidina foi de 12%. No entanto, a incid&#234;ncia de efeitos colaterais com a ticlopidina (semelhantes ao do estudo CATS) foi maior do que com o uso do AAS.</p>
    <p>O estudo AAASPS<sup>7</sup> selecionou quase 2.000 pacientes da ra&#231;a negra que haviam apresentado um AVC recente. Os pacientes foram randomizados para receber ticlopidina (250mg 2x/dia) ou AAS (325mg 2x/dia). Os desfechos avaliados foram novo AVC, IAM ou morte por causa cardiovascular. Houve uma incid&#234;ncia de eventos de 14,7% no grupo da ticlopidina contra 12,3% no grupo AAS, por&#233;m sem diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante. Os efeitos colaterais com o uso da ticlopidina foram semelhantes aos estudos anteriores.</p>
    <p>Considerando o maior perfil de eventos adversos s&#233;rios com uso da ticlopidina e op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica de f&#225;rmaco semelhante, o clopidogrel, o uso da ticlopidina n&#227;o tem sido mais considerado como linha alternativa para o AAS.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.2.5. Clopidogrel</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o existem estudos comparando o clopidogrel contra o placebo na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de AVC.</p>
    <p>O estudo CAPRIE<sup>8</sup> envolveu mais de 19.000 pacientes com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica manifesta (AVC isqu&#234;mico, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio e doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica sintom&#225;tica). Os pacientes foram randomizados para receber AAS (325mg/dia) ou clopidogrel (75mg/dia). O desfecho prim&#225;rio foi uma composi&#231;&#227;o de AVC isqu&#234;mico, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, hemorragia intracraniana, amputa&#231;&#227;o da perna e morte. Houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o relativa de risco de eventos de 8,7% em favor do clopidogrel. Se considerarmos apenas pacientes com AVC isqu&#234;mico, houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o relativa de risco de eventos de 7,3% em favor do clopidogrel, por&#233;m sem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica. No entanto, deve-se ressaltar que este estudo n&#227;o foi desenhado para avaliar eventos apenas em pacientes com AVC isqu&#234;mico pr&#233;vio.</p>
    <p>O estudo PRoFESS<sup>9</sup> randomizou mais de 20.000 pacientes com hist&#243;rico de AVC para receber clopidogrel (75mg/dia) ou AAS mais dipiridamol de libera&#231;&#227;o prolongada (25/200mg 2x/dia). O desfecho prim&#225;rio avaliado foi a recorr&#234;ncia de AVC. Os pacientes que receberam clopidogrel tiveram uma taxa de 8,8% de eventos prim&#225;rios, enquanto que nos pacientes do grupo AAS + dipiridamol de libera&#231;&#227;o prolongada essa taxa foi de 9,0%. Esse foi um estudo de n&#227;o inferioridade, por&#233;m o que se encontrou foi uma equival&#234;ncia entre os regimes de tratamento. Deve-se ressaltar, ainda, que houve mais eventos hemorr&#225;gicos nos pacientes que receberam AAS mais dipiridamol de libera&#231;&#227;o prolongada do que naqueles que receberam clopidogrel.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.2.6. AAS mais clopidogrel</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo MATCH<sup>10</sup> selecionou mais de 7.500 pacientes que estavam em uso de clopidogrel e apresentaram um AVC ou AIT para receber AAS (75mg/dia) ou placebo. O desfecho prim&#225;rio avaliado foi AVC, IAM, morte por causa vascular ou re-hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por isquemia aguda. Houve redu&#231;&#227;o de 9,5% no risco relativo de eventos nos pacientes que receberam clopidogrel mais AAS, por&#233;m sem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica. Entretanto, o grupo que recebeu a terapia combinada apresentou mais eventos hemorr&#225;gicos.</p>
    <p>O estudo CHARISMA<sup>11</sup> randomizou mais de 15.000 pacientes com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica manifesta ou com m&#250;ltiplos fatores de risco para receber AAS mais placebo ou AAS mais clopidogrel com o objetivo de avaliar se a associa&#231;&#227;o de antiplaquet&#225;rios era mais eficaz na redu&#231;&#227;o de IAM, AVC ou morte por causa cardiovascular quando comparada ao uso isolado do AAS. Os resultados demonstraram uma redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de eventos com a associa&#231;&#227;o dos antiplaquet&#225;rios, por&#233;m sem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica. A associa&#231;&#227;o de AAS mais clopidogrel aumentou a taxa de sangramentos. Na an&#225;lise de subgrupo que inclu&#237;a apenas pacientes com doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica manifesta (excluindo os pacientes que apresentavam apenas fatores de risco para doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica), observou-se uma redu&#231;&#227;o do desfecho prim&#225;rio, com signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica. Por&#233;m, na an&#225;lise apenas com os pacientes p&#243;s-AVC, observou-se que a associa&#231;&#227;o de AAS mais clopidogrel n&#227;o apresentou redu&#231;&#227;o de desfechos prim&#225;rios com diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante.</p>
    <p>O estudo FASTER<sup>12</sup> tinha como objetivo avaliar os poss&#237;veis benef&#237;cios da adi&#231;&#227;o de clopidogrel ao AAS em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do desfecho prim&#225;rio (AVC, AIT, IAM ou morte por todas as causas). No entanto, houve falha no recrutamento dos pacientes e o estudo foi interrompido precocemente. Os resultados deste estudo sugerem que a associa&#231;&#227;o de AAS (162mg dose de ataque seguido de 81mg/dia de manuten&#231;&#227;o) mais clopidogrel (300mg dose de ataque seguido de 75mg/dia de manuten&#231;&#227;o) n&#227;o foi eficaz em reduzir eventos, al&#233;m de ter aumentado a taxa de sangramento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.2.7. Cilostazol</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Um estudo piloto chin&#234;s (CASISP)<sup>13</sup> randomizou 720 pacientes p&#243;s-AVC isqu&#234;mico para receber AAS ou cilostazol, sem, no entanto, haver refer&#234;ncia &#224; dose usada em cada grupo de pacientes. O desfecho prim&#225;rio avaliado foi recorr&#234;ncia de AVC tanto isqu&#234;mico quanto hemorr&#225;gico. A redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo de eventos foi de 38,1% a favor do grupo que usou cilostazol, sendo que as curvas de eventos come&#231;aram a se separar 6 meses ap&#243;s o uso da medica&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica. Cefaleia, taquicardia, palpita&#231;&#245;es e tontura foram mais comuns entre os pacientes que usaram cilostazol.</p>
    <p>No estudo japon&#234;s CSPS-2<sup>14</sup> (estudo de n&#227;o inferioridade), foram randomizados mais de 2.500 pacientes p&#243;s-AVC isqu&#234;mico para receber AAS (81mg/dia) ou cilostazol (100mg 2x/dia). Os desfechos prim&#225;rios avaliados foram semelhantes ao do estudo CASISP. O cilostazol reduziu em 25% a chance de eventos prim&#225;rios, sendo, portanto, n&#227;o inferior ao AAS na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos p&#243;s-AVC isqu&#234;mico. Outro ponto a favor do cilostazol foi a menor incid&#234;ncia de eventos hemorr&#225;gicos. No entanto, deve-se levar em conta que os pacientes do grupo AAS usavam mais medica&#231;&#245;es antidiab&#233;ticas, anti-hipertensivas e hipolipemiantes, o que demonstra a maior gravidade deste grupo. Os efeitos adversos com uso de cilostazol foram semelhantes ao do estudo CASISP.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.2.8. Inibidores da glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O abciximab foi testado em um estudo de fase II em pacientes p&#243;s-AVC isqu&#234;mico agudo e mostrou-se seguro se for administrado em at&#233; 24 horas ap&#243;s o evento<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por outro lado, o estudo AbESTT-II<sup>16</sup>, um estudo de fase III, multic&#234;ntrico com maior n&#250;mero de pacientes, n&#227;o demonstrou nem seguran&#231;a nem efic&#225;cia com a administra&#231;&#227;o de abciximab em pacientes com AVC isqu&#234;mico. O estudo foi interrompido precocemente por causa do maior n&#250;mero de sangramentos no grupo que recebeu abciximab.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_4tab01">Tabela 1</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_4tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt07.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.3. Terapia anticoagulante no acidente vascular cerebral</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tromboembolismo de origem arterial &#233; um mecanismo importante na fisiopatologia do AVC isqu&#234;mico. Os estudos multic&#234;ntricos, de forma geral, n&#227;o t&#234;m demonstrado benef&#237;cio no uso de anticoagulantes na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria do AVC isqu&#234;mico n&#227;o cardioemb&#243;lico.</p>
    <p>A seguir descreveremos esses estudos e abordaremos tamb&#233;m o uso de heparina ap&#243;s um evento agudo de AVC.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.3.1. Varfarina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo SPIRIT<sup>17</sup> randomizou mais de 1.700 pacientes p&#243;s-AVC ou AIT para receber AAS 300mg/dia ou varfarina (RNI [rela&#231;&#227;o de normaliza&#231;&#227;o internacional] alvo entre 3,0 e 4,5). O desfecho prim&#225;rio avaliado foi uma composi&#231;&#227;o de morte por causa cardiovascular, AVC, IAM ou complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas importantes. Esse estudo foi interrompido precocemente por causa de maior incid&#234;ncia de eventos no grupo que recebeu varfarina (risco relativo = 2,3), com diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante. O que mais influenciou a ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos foram complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas, incluindo aquelas que desencadearam &#243;bito. Sendo assim, o uso da varfarina com objetivo de manter um RNI entre 3,0 e 4,5 n&#227;o &#233; seguro em pacientes com AVC isqu&#234;mico ou AIT.</p>
    <p>O estudo WARSS<sup>18</sup> envolveu mais de 2.200 pacientes p&#243;s-AVC isqu&#234;mico que foram randomizados para receber AAS (325mg/dia) ou varfarina (RNI alvo entre 1,4 e 2,8). Os desfechos prim&#225;rios avaliados foram morte por qualquer causa ou recorr&#234;ncia de AVC isqu&#234;mico. O grupo que recebeu varfarina apresentou um risco de eventos prim&#225;rios 1,13 maior que o grupo que recebeu AAS, sem diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante. O risco de sangramentos maiores foi 1,48 vezes maior no grupo varfarina, tamb&#233;m sem diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica.</p>
    <p>O estudo ESPRIT<sup>3</sup> inicialmente randomizou pacientes p&#243;s-AVC isqu&#234;mico ou AIT para receberem varfarina (RNI alvo entre 2,0 e 3,0) ou AAS (as doses podiam variar de 30 a 325mg/dia). O desfecho prim&#225;rio avaliado foi semelhante ao do estudo SPIRIT. Realizou-se tamb&#233;m uma an&#225;lise p&#243;s-hoc comparando o uso da varfarina com AAS mais dipiridamol de libera&#231;&#227;o prolongada (200mg 2x/dia), avaliando o mesmo desfecho. A incid&#234;ncia de eventos foi de 19% no grupo da varfarina e de 18% no grupo do AAS, sem diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica. Se considerarmos apenas eventos de origem isqu&#234;mica, a varfarina reduziu em 27% o risco relativo de eventos, sem diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica. Por&#233;m, se levarmos em conta os sangramentos importantes, o risco desses eventos foi 2,56 maior no grupo que recebeu varfarina, com diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante. Outro ponto importante a se destacar &#233; que na an&#225;lise p&#243;s-hoc a varfarina aumentou o risco de eventos prim&#225;rios em 1,31 vezes quando comparado com a associa&#231;&#227;o de AAS com dipiridamol de libera&#231;&#227;o prolongada, apesar de n&#227;o ter havido diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante.</p>
    <p>Algumas condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas espec&#237;ficas, como AVC por dissec&#231;&#227;o de art&#233;rias cerebrais, trombofilias adquiridas, s&#237;ndrome de anticorpo-antifosfolipideo, evid&#234;ncias indiretas de subgrupos de ensaios cl&#237;nicos, s&#233;rie de casos e opini&#227;o de especialistas, recomenda-se o uso de anticoagulantes orais de uso cr&#244;nico. Foge do escopo desta revis&#227;o abordar estas patologias.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.3.2. Heparina n&#227;o fracionada</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O n&#250;mero de estudos com heparina n&#227;o fracionada na fase aguda do AVC &#233; pequeno.</p>
    <p>Um estudo unic&#234;ntrico<sup>19</sup> randomizou mais de 400 pacientes nas primeiras 3 horas ap&#243;s um AVC isqu&#234;mico lacunar para receber heparina n&#227;o fracionada endovenosa (TTPA alvo entre 2,0 e 2,5) ou solu&#231;&#227;o salina. O desfecho prim&#225;rio avaliado foi o n&#237;vel de independ&#234;ncia para atividades da vida cotidiana ap&#243;s 90 dias do evento agudo. Os desfechos de seguran&#231;a foram morte, hemorragia intracraniana sintom&#225;tica e outros sangramentos maiores. Ap&#243;s 90 dias o desfecho prim&#225;rio avaliado foi atingido em 38,9% dos pacientes que receberam heparina e em 28,6% dos pacientes do grupo da solu&#231;&#227;o salina, com diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante. Por&#233;m, hemorragia intracraniana sintom&#225;tica ocorreu em 6,2% dos pacientes do grupo tratamento e em 1,4% do grupo controle, tamb&#233;m com diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante.</p>
    <p>Uma meta-an&#225;lise<sup>20</sup> avaliou o uso de anticoagulantes (incluindo heparina e anticoagulantes orais) no AVC isqu&#234;mico agudo. Os resultados demonstraram que n&#227;o houve benef&#237;cio do uso de anticoagulantes na redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade ou na melhoria da depend&#234;ncia dos pacientes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.3.3. Heparina de baixo peso molecular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Um estudo, realizado em Hong Kong<sup>21</sup>, randomizou cerca de 300 pacientes em at&#233; 48 horas ap&#243;s AVC agudo para receber durante 10 dias nadroparina em doses altas (4.000UI 2x/dia), nadroparina em doses baixas (4.000UI 1x/dia) ou placebo. O desfecho prim&#225;rio avaliado foi morte ou depend&#234;ncia nas atividades de vida di&#225;ria. Em 3 meses de avalia&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos. No entanto, na an&#225;lise de 6 meses, o desfecho prim&#225;rio ocorreu em 45% no grupo que recebeu nadroparina em altas doses, 52% no grupo com baixas doses e 65% no grupo placebo, sem aumento de transforma&#231;&#227;o hemorr&#225;gica. &#201; importante destacar que esse estudou incluiu pacientes com AVC de origem cardioemb&#243;lica.</p>
    <p>Outro estudo<sup>22</sup>, que utilizou a nadroparina, n&#227;o demonstrou benef&#237;cios do uso dessa medica&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m de ter demonstrado que doses maiores est&#227;o relacionadas com maiores taxas de sangramento.</p>
    <p>Um ponto importante a se destacar &#233; a contraindica&#231;&#227;o ao uso de qualquer antiagregante plaquet&#225;rio ou anticoagulante nas 24 horas posteriores ao tratamento trombol&#237;tico intravenoso do AVC isqu&#234;mico com alteplase<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4.3.4. Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s um evento cerebral hemorr&#225;gico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O momento para retornar a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o plena ap&#243;s um evento cerebral hemorr&#225;gico em pacientes previamente anticoagulados &#233; um grande desafio. Sabe-se que &#233; importante a avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de eventos tromb&#243;ticos dos pacientes e do risco de novos eventos hemorr&#225;gicos. Para tanto, alguns fatores s&#227;o importantes nessa avalia&#231;&#227;o: motivo pelo qual o paciente est&#225; anticoagulado, idade, presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, n&#237;vel de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, presen&#231;a de pequenas &#225;reas de sangramento na resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica, di&#225;lise e presen&#231;a de hemorragia lobar.</p>
    <p>Um estudo<sup>24</sup> avaliou mais de 230 pacientes que haviam apresentado uma hemorragia cerebral aguda em uso de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, dos quais 177 sobreviveram na primeira semana. Apenas 33% dos pacientes voltaram a ser anticoagulados ap&#243;s o evento hemorr&#225;gico. A recorr&#234;ncia de eventos hemorr&#225;gicos ocorreu em 8 pacientes que retomaram uso de anticoagulante e em 10 pacientes que n&#227;o estavam anticoagulados. O risco de eventos emb&#243;licos foi maior no grupo que n&#227;o estava anticoagulado. Ap&#243;s um modelo estat&#237;stico, os autores consideraram que o tempo ideal para o retorno da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o est&#225; entre 10 e 30 semanas ap&#243;s o evento.</p>
    <p>Num outro estudo<sup>25</sup> em que mais de 700 pacientes foram acompanhados ap&#243;s uma hemorragia intracraniana, Hanger et al. observaram que o risco de novo evento hemorr&#225;gico foi de 2,1% no primeiro ano de seguimento, enquanto que o risco de AVC isqu&#234;mico foi de 1,3%.</p>
    <p>De maneira geral &#233; importante destacar que se for necess&#225;rio iniciar a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, deve-se dar prefer&#234;ncia pelo uso de heparina n&#227;o fracionada em bomba de infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua, j&#225; que a titula&#231;&#227;o e a revers&#227;o s&#227;o mais f&#225;ceis com esta medica&#231;&#227;o.<sup>26</sup></p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_4tab02">Tabela 2</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_4tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt08.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>5. Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>5.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) &#233; a arritmia sustentada mais frequente na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Sua incid&#234;ncia e preval&#234;ncia aumentam &#224; medida que a popula&#231;&#227;o envelhece, dobrando a cada d&#233;cada de vida ap&#243;s os 50 anos de idade. A FA est&#225; associada ao aumento do risco de acidente vascular cerebral (AVC), insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e mortalidade total<sup>1-6</sup>.</p>
    <p>O AVC &#233; a terceira causa de &#243;bito em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos, sendo a principal causa de incapacita&#231;&#227;o grave de longo prazo, gerando um impacto negativo nos custos do tratamento. Pelo menos um em cada cinco AVCs tem como causa a FA<sup>5;7-10</sup>. Ademais, o AVC secund&#225;rio a um evento tromboemb&#243;lico em um paciente portador de FA, normalmente &#233; mais grave e incapacitante que um AVC de origem isqu&#234;mica<sup>9,10</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, &#233; importante salientar o risco aumentado de dist&#250;rbios cognitivos na popula&#231;&#227;o com FA. Pequenos estudos observacionais t&#234;m demonstrado que eventos emb&#243;licos assintom&#225;ticos podem contribuir para o d&#233;ficit cognitivo em pacientes com FA na aus&#234;ncia de um AVC clinicamente demonstr&#225;vel<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>O foco deste documento &#233; a atualiza&#231;&#227;o na terap&#234;utica antitromb&#243;tica na FA, em face dos principais avan&#231;os na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco na preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos, bem como a incorpora&#231;&#227;o do uso de novas terap&#234;uticas antitromb&#243;ticas, como os f&#225;rmacos dabigatrana, rivaroxabana e apixabana.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>5.2. Aplica&#231;&#227;o de escores de risco tromboemb&#243;lico em pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As principais estrat&#233;gias de tratamento da FA incluem a melhora dos sintomas (seja pelo controle de ritmo, seja pelo de frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca) e a preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos. Por&#233;m, a FA pode ocorrer de modo silencioso nas fases pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica, cl&#237;nica ou ap&#243;s interven&#231;&#245;es invasivas. Na presen&#231;a de fatores de risco, o foco na preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos &#233; considerado o principal pilar do tratamento da FA, independentemente da estrat&#233;gia adotada (controle de ritmo ou de frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca)<sup>12,13</sup>. Tamb&#233;m &#233; importante a informa&#231;&#227;o de que a FA parox&#237;stica tem exatamente o mesmo risco de AVC que as formas persistente e permanente de FA.</p>
    <p>O risco de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos pode ser avaliado pelo escore de CHADS<sub>2</sub><sup>14-16</sup>, bem como pelo recente escore de CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASC<sup>17</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig5qua01">Quadro 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">Tabela 1</xref>). Com o acr&#233;scimo deste novo escore houve uma "real" separa&#231;&#227;o entre baixo risco duvidoso e baixo risco de fato. Al&#233;m disso, v&#225;rios pacientes anteriormente classificados como de risco intermedi&#225;rio no escore antigo passaram a fazer parte de grupos de alto risco pelo novo escore de risco, com impacto cl&#237;nico (menor n&#250;mero de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos). A novidade foi a incorpora&#231;&#227;o de novos fatores de risco, como o sexo feminino, a doen&#231;a vascular arterial (como doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria, insufici&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica ou placa na aorta) e a idade intermedi&#225;ria (entre 65 e 74 anos de idade). A idade maior ou igual a 75 anos, gra&#231;as ao alto risco, passou a ser pontuada com 2 pontos. Assim, o escore de CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc passa a ser um refinamento do CHADS<sub>2</sub>, quando esse &#250;ltimo for pontuado como zero ou 1. Entretanto, como o escore de CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc j&#225; incorpora automaticamente os fatores de risco do antigo escore de CHADS<sub>2</sub>, fica mais simples e acurado que seja feito diretamente o acesso de risco de fen&#244;meno tromboemb&#243;lico em FA pelo escore de CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc. Escores de CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc acima de 1 indicam a terap&#234;utica anticoagulante (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="fig5qua01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt09.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt10.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>As indica&#231;&#245;es usuais para anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, baseadas no escore de CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc, podem ser visualizadas nas <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">Tabelas 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_5tab03">3</xref>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_5tab03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt11.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>5.3. Risco de fen&#244;menos hemorr&#225;gicos durante a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Evid&#234;ncias s&#243;lidas indicam o benef&#237;cio da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral (ACO) cr&#244;nica em pacientes de risco. Por outro lado, essa terapia est&#225; associada a complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas<sup>18-22</sup>. Uma das mais temidas &#233; a hemorragia intracraniana, quase sempre relacionada com n&#237;veis de RNI (rela&#231;&#227;o de normaliza&#231;&#227;o internacional) acima da faixa terap&#234;utica (RNI maior que 3,5 a 4,0). Considerando que a faixa terap&#234;utica do RNI &#233; muito estreita, v&#225;rios escores para avaliar o risco hemorr&#225;gico foram desenvolvidos, sendo o escore de risco HAS-BLED (em ingl&#234;s: Hypertension, Abnormal Renal/Liver Function, Stroke, Bleeding History or Predisposition, Labile INR, Elderly [&gt;65], Drugs/Alcohol Concomitantly)<sup>23</sup> o mais utilizado para pacientes com FA. Caso a pontua&#231;&#227;o seja maior ou igual a 3 (tr&#234;s), a ACO deve ser feita com bastante cautela e todo o esfor&#231;o deve ser empreendido para controlar os fatores de risco, tais como hipertens&#227;o arterial e consumo de &#225;lcool.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>5.4. Novos anticoagulantes para uso em pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>5.4.1. Resultados dos grandes estudos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A varfarina, em doses ajustadas, &#233; altamente eficaz na preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos na FA, causando redu&#231;&#227;o de 64% desse risco nos pacientes adequadamente tratados<sup>24-26</sup>. Apesar deste sucesso elevado, 50% dos pacientes que devem ser tratados n&#227;o o s&#227;o por diversas raz&#245;es que incluem a necessidade frequente de avalia&#231;&#227;o da taxa de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o (aferi&#231;&#227;o peri&#243;dica do RNI) e o risco de hemorragia, tanto por parte do paciente, como pelo m&#233;dico que prescreve<sup>24,25</sup>. Por outro lado, os pacientes tratados com este medicamento nem sempre se encontram na faixa terap&#234;utica apropriada, e isso se deve ao uso irregular da medica&#231;&#227;o, a intera&#231;&#227;o da varfarina com alimentos (particularmente os "verdes") e com outros medicamentos, como antibi&#243;ticos e anti-inflamat&#243;rios. Particularmente nos idosos, que geralmente fazem uso de outros medicamentos para o tratamento de mol&#233;stias associadas, o risco de a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o estar fora da faixa terap&#234;utica n&#227;o &#233; desprez&#237;vel. Deve-se destacar ainda a possibilidade de resist&#234;ncia ao medicamento relacionada com caracter&#237;sticas gen&#233;ticas individuais. Assim, a terapia anticoagulante, embora altamente eficaz, sofre de alguns destes inconvenientes, deixando de beneficiar a popula&#231;&#227;o que mais necessita.</p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos a descoberta de f&#225;rmacos bloqueadores da trombina ou do fator Xa trouxe uma nova perspectiva para a terap&#234;utica anticoagulante<sup>27</sup>. Esses f&#225;rmacos n&#227;o requerem monitora&#231;&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o (RNI) e t&#234;m pouca intera&#231;&#227;o com medicamentos e alimentos. Esses fatores, aliados &#224; elevada efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a, conferem a essas novas drogas o potencial de aumentar a ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento ACO e o n&#250;mero de pacientes tratados. Tr&#234;s s&#227;o os anticoagulantes de nova gera&#231;&#227;o que terminaram a fase 3 de investiga&#231;&#227;o: dabigatrana, rivaroxabana e apixabana, sendo os dois primeiros j&#225; dispon&#237;veis no Brasil. A dabigatrana &#233; um inibidor competitivo direto da trombina e os demais bloqueadores do fator Xa.</p>
    <p>A dabigatrana foi avaliada num estudo comparativo com a varfarina, envolvendo pouco mais de 18.000 pacientes, para preven&#231;&#227;o de tromboembolismo sist&#234;mico em pacientes portadores de FA parox&#237;stica ou permanente, com idade acima de 75 anos ou, com idade abaixo, por&#233;m com mais de um fator de risco associado, a saber: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, diabetes, hipertens&#227;o arterial ou hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de AVC. Os pacientes foram randomizados para receber varfarina em doses ajustadas de acordo com o RNI e doses fixas de dabigatrana 110mg e 150mg duasx/dia, de maneira randomizada. Foi um estudo aberto, baseado na inten&#231;&#227;o de tratar, com seguimento m&#225;ximo de 3 anos. A m&#233;dia do escore de risco CHADS<sub>2</sub> da popula&#231;&#227;o avaliada foi de 2,3 e o tempo na faixa terap&#234;utica para os pacientes que fizeram uso da varfarina foi de 64%. O estudo RE-LY utilizou o crit&#233;rio de n&#227;o inferioridade do novo anticoagulante em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; varfarina, ou seja, que o novo agente tem efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a no m&#237;nimo iguais a varfarina<sup>28,29</sup>.</p>
    <p>No estudo RE-LY, a taxa anual de AVC ou embolia sist&#234;mica foi de 1,71% para a varfarina e 1,54% para a dabigatrana 110mg (risco relativo 0,90; IC 95% variando entre 0,74 e 1,10) e 1,11% para dose de 150mg (risco relativo 0,65; IC 95% 0,52-0,81). A taxa de AVC hemorr&#225;gico foi mais baixa com as duas doses da dabigatrana, 150mg (0,10%) e 110mg (0,12%) comparado com a varfarina (0,38%) (p&lt;0,001 para ambas as doses). A taxa de sangramento maior foi de 3,57% com a varfarina comparada a 2,8% com dabigatrana 110mg (p=0,003) e 3,22% com 150mg (p=0,31).</p>
    <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o aos efeitos colaterais, houve maior taxa de dispepsia no grupo que recebeu dabigatrana e aumento discreto no risco de sangramento gastrointestinal com a dose de 150mg. Houve uma tend&#234;ncia maior de risco de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio em pacientes em uso de dabigatrana (0,82% e 0,81%) em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo que recebeu varfarina (0,64% ao ano; p=0,09 e 0,12).</p>
    <p>Com estes achados, a dabigatrana se mostrou segura e eficaz para a preven&#231;&#227;o de tromboembolismo sist&#234;mico em pacientes com FA. A dose de 150mg superior &#224; varfarina e com taxa de sangramento semelhante, e a de 110mg, com efic&#225;cia similar e menor taxa de sangramento.</p>
    <p>O estudo ROCKET-AF<sup>30</sup> comparou a rivaroxabana &#224; varfarina na preven&#231;&#227;o de tromboembolismo sist&#234;mico em 14.264 pacientes com FA n&#227;o valvar e fatores de risco para tromboembolismo (CHADS<sub>2</sub> m&#233;dio = 3,47). Comparou-se a dose fixa de 20mg de rivaroxabana umax/dia (dose de 15mg para pacientes com depura&#231;&#227;o renal entre 30-49ml/min) com a varfarina, de maneira duplo-cega e com crit&#233;rio de n&#227;o inferioridade. Na an&#225;lise pelo protocolo, a taxa de AVC foi de 1,7% ao ano para a rivaroxabana e 2,2% ao ano para a varfarina (raz&#227;o de risco no grupo rivaroxabana de 0,79; IC 95% variou entre 0,66 e 0,96; p&lt;0,001 para n&#227;o inferioridade). Baseado na inten&#231;&#227;o de tratar, o acidente tromboemb&#243;lico ocorreu em 2,1% ao ano no grupo que recebeu rivaroxabana, e 2,4% no grupo da varfarina (raz&#227;o de risco 0,88; IC 95% variando entre 0,74 e 1,03; p&lt;0,001 para n&#227;o inferioridade; p=0,12 para superioridade). As taxas de sangramento maior e clinicamente n&#227;o maior foram similares em ambos os grupos (14,9% <italic>versus</italic> 14,5% ao ano; raz&#227;o de risco 1,03; 95% IC variou entre 0,96 e 1,11; p=0,44), mas as de AVC hemorr&#225;gico foram menores com a rivaroxabana em compara&#231;&#227;o com a varfarina (0,5% <italic>versus</italic> 0,7%; p=0,02), o mesmo acontecendo com sangramento fatal (0,2 com rivaroxabana e 0,5 com varfarina; p=0,003).</p>
    <p>No que diz respeito &#224; preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria, uma apresenta&#231;&#227;o recente confirmou a n&#227;o inferioridade da rivaroxabana em compara&#231;&#227;o a varfarina. Numa avalia&#231;&#227;o prospectiva de 7.468 pacientes com hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de AVC ou ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio (escore CHADS2 de 3,93), a taxa de recorr&#234;ncia de acidente vascular cerebral foi 13% menor no grupo que recebeu rivaroxabana, em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;queles que tomaram varfarina (2,26% no grupo rivaroxabana e de 2,60% no grupo varfarina - risco relativo 0,87; IC 95% vari&#225;vel entre 0,69 e 1,10)<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>A apixabana foi avaliada em dois grandes estudos. O AVERROES<sup>32</sup> comparou de forma duplo-cega a apixabana na dose de 5mg duasx/dia com a aspirina em 5.599 pacientes com FA e com risco para AVC, mas que por alguma raz&#227;o n&#227;o poderiam fazer uso de varfarina<sup>32</sup>. O estudo foi interrompido precocemente pela observa&#231;&#227;o da clara redu&#231;&#227;o de tromboembolismo sist&#234;mico e AVC com a apixabana (1,6% <italic>versus</italic> 3,7% com aspirina; risco relativo 0,45; IC 95% vari&#225;vel entre 0,32 e 0,62) com taxas similares de hemorragia maiores (1,4% para a apixabana e 1,2% para a aspirina; risco relativo 1,13; IC 95% vari&#225;vel entre 0,74 e 1,75). A taxa de &#243;bito foi de 3,5% no grupo apixabana e de 4,4% no grupo que recebeu aspirina (risco relativo 0,79; IC 95% vari&#225;vel entre 0,62 e 1,02; p&lt;0,07).</p>
    <p>O ARISTOTLE<sup>33,34</sup> comparou apixabana, na dose de 5mg duasx/dia, com a varfarina (RNI entre 2 e 3), de maneira duplo-cega e com crit&#233;rio de n&#227;o inferioridade em 18.201 pacientes com FA, com pelo menos um fator de risco adicional para acidente vascular cerebral. No seguimento de 1,8 anos, a taxa de eventos prim&#225;rios foi de 1,27% ao ano no grupo apixabana comparado com 1,60% no grupo varfarina (raz&#227;o de risco com apixabana 0,79; IC 95% variando entre 0,66 e 0,95; p&lt;0,001 para n&#227;o inferioridade; p&lt;0,01 para superioridade). A taxa de sangramento maior no grupo apixabana foi de 2,13% e 3,09% para o grupo varfarina (raz&#227;o de risco 0,69; IC 95% variando entre 0,60 e 0,80; p&lt;0,001). A taxa de mortalidade por qualquer causa foi de 3,52% e 3,94% ao ano respectivamente para a apixabana e varfarina (raz&#227;o de risco 0,89; IC 95% variando entre 0,80 e 0,99; p=0,047). A taxa de AVC hemorr&#225;gico foi de 0,24% para o grupo apixabana e 0,47% para o grupo varfarina (raz&#227;o de risco 0,51; IC 95% variando entre 0,35 e 0,75; p&lt;0,001). A taxa de AVC isqu&#234;mico ou de causa indeterminada foi de 0,97% ao ano para o grupo apixabana e de 1,05% para o grupo varfarina (raz&#227;o de risco 0,92; IC 95% variando entre 0,74 e 1,13; p=0,42). Portanto, a apixabana se mostrou superior &#224; varfarina na redu&#231;&#227;o de AVC e tromboembolismo sist&#234;mico, com menor risco de hemorragia e de mortalidade<sup>34</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>5.5. Considera&#231;&#245;es sobre cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica com os novos anticoagulantes orais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Com a incorpora&#231;&#227;o dos novos anticoagulantes orais na indica&#231;&#227;o para preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos nos pacientes com FA, um t&#243;pico importante que deve ser revisto seria a estrat&#233;gia, caso esses pacientes precisem ser submetidos &#224; cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica. Os dados ainda s&#227;o em pequeno n&#250;mero na literatura, mas em uma an&#225;lise de subgrupo feita a partir do estudo RE-LY, demonstrou-se que a cardiovers&#227;o pode ser realizada sem riscos maiores de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos, desde que os pacientes estivessem sob uso cr&#244;nico de dabigatrana<sup>35</sup>. Contudo, ainda n&#227;o h&#225; dados relativos &#224; rivaroxabana e &#225; apixabana.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>5.6. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o uso dos novos anticoagulantes orais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os resultados dos estudos com os novos anticoagulantes refor&#231;am as novas indica&#231;&#245;es do uso dos mesmos (dabigatrana, rivaroxabana e apixabana) nos pacientes com FA e fatores de risco para fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos. Contudo, limitaremos as recomenda&#231;&#245;es aos f&#225;rmacos atualmente dispon&#237;veis no Brasil: a dabigatrana e a rivaroxabana.</p>
    <p>Por&#233;m &#233; de suma import&#226;ncia a farmacovigil&#226;ncia que se seguir&#225; &#224; medida que o uso no "mundo real" com estes novos f&#225;rmacos aumente. N&#227;o h&#225; at&#233; o momento ant&#237;doto espec&#237;fico para a dabigatrana, cuja meia-vida &#233; curta, entre 12 e 17 horas. Em caso de sangramento, o tratamento pode variar de simples suporte (sangramento menor), at&#233; em caso de sangramento importante a transfus&#227;o de hemoderivados, administra&#231;&#227;o oral de carv&#227;o ativado, hemodi&#225;lise e interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica. No caso de sangramentos menores, a simples interrup&#231;&#227;o da dose por 12 a 24 horas pode ser suficiente, bem como, se pertinente, a redu&#231;&#227;o da dose subsequente (por exemplo, 150mg para 110mg). Embora n&#227;o seja ant&#237;doto espec&#237;fico, o complexo protromb&#237;nico pode ser utilizado para reverter a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o dos agentes inibidores do fator Xa<sup>36</sup>. As recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o uso de dabigatrana e rivaroxabana em FA encontram-se nas <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_5tab04">Tabelas 4</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_5tab05">5</xref>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_5tab04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt12.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_5tab05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt13.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>5.7. Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de heparina em pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A heparina n&#227;o fracionada &#233; principalmente utilizada na preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos em pacientes submetidos &#224; cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica ou qu&#237;mica da FA, contudo tem perdido espa&#231;o para as heparinas de baixo peso molecular nessa indica&#231;&#227;o. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o da heparina como droga de manuten&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com FA &#233; preferencialmente feita com a apresenta&#231;&#227;o de baixo peso molecular durante os per&#237;odos em que o ajuste ideal da ACO ainda n&#227;o foi alcan&#231;ado ou quando o seu uso deve ser interrompido temporariamente em raz&#227;o de procedimentos diagn&#243;sticos ou terap&#234;uticos com risco de hemorragia. Embora haja tr&#234;s tipos de heparinas de baixo peso molecular (dalteparina, enoxaparina e nadroparina), na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica a enoxaparina tem sido mais utilizada. As indica&#231;&#245;es para o uso da heparina na FA encontram-se nas <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_5tab06">Tabelas 6</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_5tab07">7</xref><sup>37</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_5tab06">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt14.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_5tab07">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt15.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>5.8. Resumo das diretrizes internacionais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Al&#233;m das pr&#243;prias Diretrizes Brasileiras de Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial<sup>38</sup>, diversas diretrizes internacionais t&#234;m sido publicadas a respeito de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em FA, havendo nessas uma tend&#234;ncia clara a se indicar os novos anticoagulantes como prefer&#234;ncia na anticoagula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com FA n&#227;o valvar<sup>39-42</sup>. Em outros t&#243;picos, no entanto, h&#225; mais controv&#233;rsias, n&#227;o havendo consenso em recomenda&#231;&#245;es, como at&#233; quando e qual agente usar em pacientes ap&#243;s a abla&#231;&#227;o de FA.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>6. Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes na valvopatia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>6.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Est&#225; bem documentado pela literatura que as disfun&#231;&#245;es valvares, independentemente do ritmo card&#237;aco, mas principalmente na presen&#231;a de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA), exp&#245;em a riscos de eventos emb&#243;licos<sup>1</sup>. O tromboembolismo (TE) sist&#234;mico &#233; apontado como uma das graves complica&#231;&#245;es da forma&#231;&#227;o do trombo em c&#226;mara atrial.</p>
    <p>O fen&#244;meno tromboemb&#243;lico pode modificar de forma expressiva a hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a valvar e sua preven&#231;&#227;o deve ser considerada durante o acompanhamento da patologia valvar<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na pr&#225;tica di&#225;ria, disp&#245;e-se de dois grupos de antitromb&#243;ticos:</p>
    <disp-quote>
      <p>&#149; Anticoagulantes de administra&#231;&#227;o oral. Neste grupo s&#227;o conhecidos: fenprocumona (Marcoumar<sup>&#174;</sup>), acenocumanol (Sintron<sup>&#174;</sup>), fenindiona (Dindevan<sup>&#174;</sup>), varfarina s&#243;dica cristalina (Cumadin<sup>&#174;</sup>) e varfarina s&#243;dica (Marevan<sup>&#174;</sup>). Dos quatro compostos, o &#250;ltimo &#233; o mais utilizado na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
      <p>&#149; Anticoagulantes de uso parenteral: heparinas. Neste grupo s&#227;o conhecidas as heparinas n&#227;o fracionadas (Liquemine<sup>&#174;</sup>) e as heparinas de baixo peso molecular (HBPM): dalteparina (Fragmin<sup>&#174;</sup>), nadroparina (Fraxiparina<sup>&#174;</sup>) e enoxaparina (Clexane<sup>&#174;</sup>).</p>
    </disp-quote>
    <p>O tratamento com anticoagulante oral nas disfun&#231;&#245;es valvares, quando indicado, &#233; por tempo prolongado, o que torna a escolha da via oral a melhor op&#231;&#227;o, ficando a indica&#231;&#227;o das heparinas (de aplica&#231;&#227;o endovenosa ou subcut&#226;nea) para situa&#231;&#245;es especiais de tratamento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>6.2. Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral com varfarina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Dos compostos utilizados por via oral com a&#231;&#227;o anticoagulante, a varfarina, tanto na composi&#231;&#227;o s&#243;dica como na s&#243;dica cristalina, &#233; a mais utilizada por causa de suas propriedades favor&#225;veis: boa biodisponibilidade, e in&#237;cio e dura&#231;&#227;o e a&#231;&#227;o previs&#237;veis<sup>3,4</sup>.</p>
    <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o da varfarina na cl&#237;nica m&#233;dica existe h&#225; mais de meio s&#233;culo. Apesar do longo per&#237;odo de uso, continua sendo subutilizada em raz&#227;o das dificuldades do controle da coagula&#231;&#227;o, da intera&#231;&#227;o medicamentosa e da falta de ader&#234;ncia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>6.3. Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o injet&#225;vel</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Dos compostos anticoagulantes injet&#225;veis, a heparina de baixo peso molecular torna-se a droga de escolha, pela efic&#225;cia na atua&#231;&#227;o como anticoagulante e praticidade na aplica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>O uso isolado ou combinado das duas formas de apresenta&#231;&#227;o dos anticoagulantes se prende &#224; vida m&#233;dia de cada um deles. Quando desejamos alcan&#231;ar a prote&#231;&#227;o antitromb&#243;tica de forma r&#225;pida, a heparina &#233; utilizada concomitante &#224; varfarina oral<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>As heparinas, particularmente as de baixo peso modecular, podem ser utilizadas no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de implante de pr&#243;tese valvar mec&#226;nica, assim que se considerar seguro o risco de sangramento, at&#233; que seja poss&#237;vel a introdu&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral e o RNI (rela&#231;&#227;o normatizada internacional) esteja dentro do intervalo adequado<sup>5-15</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, seu uso faz-se &#250;til tamb&#233;m na transi&#231;&#227;o entre a suspens&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral e a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um procedimento cir&#250;rgico/intervencionista ("ponte de heparina") em pacientes valvopatas com indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o permanente<sup>16-18</sup>, e em gestantes, do diagn&#243;stico da gravidez at&#233; a 12&#170; semana de gesta&#231;&#227;o, e a partir da 36&#170; semana de gesta&#231;&#227;o, em mulheres valvopatas com indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o permanente<sup>16,19,20</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>6.4. Dose inicial e de manuten&#231;&#227;o do anticoagulante oral</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A dose inicial, bem como a de manuten&#231;&#227;o, deve ser orientada pelos valores do RNI. Para pacientes com idade superior a 65 anos a dose inicial &#233; de 2,5mg/dia, e para os demais, 5mg/dia. O controle laboratorial do RNI deve ser feito ap&#243;s cinco dias. Ap&#243;s ajustes das doses, consideramos conhecer a dose adequada quando conseguirmos, sempre com intervalos de cinco dias, tr&#234;s amostras de sangue com valores dentro dos desejados. Especula-se que aqueles acima de 65 anos s&#227;o mais sens&#237;veis &#224; varfarina, em fun&#231;&#227;o do menor metabolismo hep&#225;tico. H&#225; menor secre&#231;&#227;o de enzimas pelas c&#233;lulas hep&#225;ticas que formam o ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico que comp&#245;e o sistema P450, local da metaboliza&#231;&#227;o da varfarina<sup>18</sup>. Ao longo do tempo de tratamento, em fun&#231;&#227;o dos in&#250;meros fatores externos como flutua&#231;&#227;o da dose de vitamina K, ingerida gra&#231;as a card&#225;pios frequentemente modificados, polimedica&#231;&#227;o com a&#231;&#227;o agonista ou antagonista, edema da mucosa g&#225;strica resultando em menor absor&#231;&#227;o do f&#225;rmaco, torna-se dif&#237;cil a manuten&#231;&#227;o dos valores alvo do RNI. Recomenda-se que o paciente mantenha uma dieta equilibrada, sem grandes restri&#231;&#245;es, e quando houver necessidade de introdu&#231;&#227;o de outros medicamentos antecipe a coleta de sangue para controle de RNI. Uma vez encontrada a dose adequada, os controles do RNI podem ser feitos a cada 30 dias<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>Discute-se qual o melhor momento para a administra&#231;&#227;o da varfarina. Alguns autores descrevem que a absor&#231;&#227;o &#233; maior no n&#237;vel proximal (est&#244;mago e duodeno) do trato gastrointestinal<sup>19</sup>, enquanto outros acrescentam que a taxa de absor&#231;&#227;o &#233; influenciada pela presen&#231;a de alimentos<sup>20</sup>. Diante dessas afirmativas, sugere-se que a tomada do comprimido seja pela manh&#227; e em jejum, evitando-se a influ&#234;ncia da a&#231;&#227;o do pH g&#225;strico, modificado por alimentos ingeridos. Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica n&#227;o se observam altera&#231;&#245;es da medica&#231;&#227;o com o hor&#225;rio da ingest&#227;o do mesmo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>6.5. Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o na doen&#231;a valvar com valva nativa</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A doen&#231;a valvar mitral reumatismal (DVMR) &#233; mais trombog&#234;ncia que a les&#227;o a&#243;rtica, o que aumenta a incid&#234;ncia de fen&#244;menos emb&#243;licos em cinco vezes. Entre aqueles com doen&#231;a valvar a&#243;rtica, principalmente a estenose por calcifica&#231;&#227;o, e ritmo sinusal, o TE n&#227;o &#233; frequente. Holley e cols.<sup>21</sup> atribuem &#224; degenera&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica a presen&#231;a de micro&#234;mbolos, principalmente renais.</p>
    <p>A FA &#233; a arritmia mais frequente nas disfun&#231;&#245;es mitrais, ocorrendo em 26% dos pacientes com estenose mitral e em 16% dos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia mitral. Na disfun&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica, a FA tamb&#233;m &#233; mais comum nas les&#245;es esten&#243;ticas (5%). A presen&#231;a de FA aumenta em 17,5 vezes a incid&#234;ncia de TE<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>V&#225;rios estudos n&#227;o conseguiram demonstrar que a dilata&#231;&#227;o atrial esquerda (55mm), <italic>per si</italic>, esteja associada a maior risco de TE. Por&#233;m, pacientes com di&#226;metro de &#225;trio esquerdo igual ou superior a 55mm, e com fatores de risco associados, como idade avan&#231;ada, presen&#231;a de trombo intracavit&#225;rio ou mesmo contraste espont&#226;neo preconizam a preven&#231;&#227;o do tromboembolismo<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em estudo antigo, Coulshed e cols.<sup>22</sup> demonstraram que, na disfun&#231;&#227;o valvar mitral, quer seja por insufici&#234;ncia como por estenose, mesmo em ritmo sinusal, a incid&#234;ncia de TE varia de 7,7% a 8%, respectivamente. Na presen&#231;a de FA, a incid&#234;ncia torna-se de 3 a 4 vezes maior (21,1% <italic>versus</italic> 31,5%), respectivamente.</p>
    <p>Nos pacientes que apresentam calcifica&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica, ritmo sinusal, sem antecedentes de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos, n&#227;o se recomenda anticoagula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Os pacientes com estenose ou insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica, que desenvolvem FA, devem ser submetidos &#224; anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral<sup>5,6</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nos pacientes com condi&#231;&#227;o socioecon&#244;mica desfavor&#225;vel, pode-se utilizar aspirina na dose de 200 a 300mg/dia como alternativa na profilaxia de TE<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_6tab01">Tabela 1</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_6tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt16.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>6.6. Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em portadores de pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>&#201; consenso geral que as pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas exp&#245;em os pacientes a riscos elevados de TE, independentemente do ritmo card&#237;aco. Estima-se em 12% ao ano para as pr&#243;teses na posi&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica e 22% na posi&#231;&#227;o mitral na aus&#234;ncia do anticoagulante oral<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os pacientes com pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas, independentemente de sua implanta&#231;&#227;o mitral/a&#243;rtica e do ritmo card&#237;aco, necessitam da preven&#231;&#227;o antitromb&#243;tica. Quando implantadas na posi&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica e o ritmo card&#237;aco &#233; o sinusal, sem outros fatores de risco para TE, o RNI deve ficar entre 2,0 e 3,0<sup>3</sup>. As pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas em posi&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica s&#227;o menos trombog&#234;nicas, por se tratar de local de alto fluxo e press&#227;o, reduzindo o dep&#243;sito de fibrina. Entretanto, mesmo na posi&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica, se o paciente tiver ritmo de FA, recomenda-se manter o RNI entre 2,5 e 3,5. Como o sangramento em pacientes idosos &#233; uma complica&#231;&#227;o relativamente comum<sup>8</sup>, recomenda-se manter o RNI entre 2,0 e 2,5 e fazer o controle mais frequente<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para pacientes com pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica implantada na posi&#231;&#227;o mitral, independentemente do ritmo card&#237;aco, os cuidados profil&#225;ticos contra o tromboembolismo devem ser maiores, preconizando-se RNI m&#233;dio de 3,0 (2,5-3,5).</p>
    <p>Para pacientes com pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica, na presen&#231;a de algum fator de risco para TE, como hipercoagulabilidade do sangue, tromboembolismo pr&#233;vio na presen&#231;a de adequada anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, ou fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular comprometida, recomenda-se acrescentar &#224; anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral aspirina na dose de 50 a 100mg/dia. S&#227;o exce&#231;&#245;es: idosos com mais de 80 anos ou aqueles com tend&#234;ncia a sangramento gastrointestinal<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_6tab02">Tabela 2</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_6tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt17.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>6.7. Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em portadores de pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As biopr&#243;teses s&#227;o consideradas menos trombog&#234;nicas. Entretanto, alguns autores consideram os tr&#234;s primeiros meses ap&#243;s a implanta&#231;&#227;o da pr&#243;tese como os de maior risco para TE. A trombogenicidade estaria ligada aos pontos de sutura e tecidos perivalvares traumatizados ainda n&#227;o endotelizados<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para pacientes com pr&#243;tese biol&#243;gica implantada na posi&#231;&#227;o mitral e a&#243;rtica, mesmo em ritmo sinusal, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral nos tr&#234;s primeiros meses p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio &#233; classe IIb (<xref ref-type="undefined" rid="s03_6tab03">vide Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <undefined id="s03_6tab03">
        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/BHqJP3FZGGSSf6Lcnqw6JRH/2c7630acec3193ce257f71e5b202e0781e044e83.jpg"/>
      </undefined>
    </p>
    <p>Independentemente da posi&#231;&#227;o de implante da biopr&#243;tese, na presen&#231;a de FA ou quadro cl&#237;nico de hipercoagulabilidade, a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral deve ser prolongada e o RNI mantido em torno de 2,5.</p>
    <p>A presen&#231;a de trombo intracavit&#225;rio observado durante o ato cir&#250;rgico implica em anticoagula&#231;&#227;o por per&#237;odo m&#237;nimo de tr&#234;s meses ap&#243;s cirurgia. Mesmo que retirado durante o ato cir&#250;rgico, deve-se manter RNI em torno de 2,5 (2,0-3,0).</p>
    <p>Estas recomenda&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o baseadas em trabalhos<sup>13,14</sup> onde os autores encontraram incid&#234;ncia elevada de eventos emb&#243;licos (6,9%) entre aqueles que n&#227;o receberam a preven&#231;&#227;o antitromb&#243;tica nos tr&#234;s primeiros meses de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>7. Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes no tromboembolismo venoso</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tromboembolismo venoso (TEV) tem um grande impacto na morbidade e na mortalidade da popula&#231;&#227;o geral, e pode ser prevenido na maioria dos casos. Assim, torna-se muito importante o seu tratamento e preven&#231;&#227;o, atrav&#233;s do uso de medica&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas. At&#233; recentemente os anticoagulantes utilizados na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica eram a heparina fracionada e n&#227;o fracionada (HNF), o fondaparinux e a varfarina. Contudo, as maiores limita&#231;&#245;es desses medicamentos s&#227;o o uso injet&#225;vel (no caso da heparina e fondaparinux), e a estreita janela terap&#234;utica associada a uma grande intera&#231;&#227;o com diversos medicamentos e alimentos (no caso da varfarina). Dessa forma, os novos anticoagulantes foram desenvolvidos com o intuito de resolver essas limita&#231;&#245;es, permitindo um tratamento oral, com doses fixas, sem a necessidade de controle laboratorial rotineira.</p>
    <p>Esses medicamentos t&#234;m sido avaliados em estudos controlados randomizados com a inclus&#227;o de um grande n&#250;mero de pacientes. Contudo &#233; importante ressaltar que os estudos cl&#237;nicos n&#227;o representam o "mundo real", uma vez que os pacientes com maior risco hemorr&#225;gico ou com maiores complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas geralmente s&#227;o exclu&#237;dos. Didaticamente, consideramos como TEV a trombose venosa profunda (TVP) e o tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP).</p>
    <p>A maioria dos estudos que compararam a enoxaparina e os novos anticoagulantes na profilaxia prim&#225;ria de cirurgias de pr&#243;tese de joelho e quadril, considera a ocorr&#234;ncia de TVP assintom&#225;tica, quando para a an&#225;lise do custo/benef&#237;cio deve-se avaliar a ocorr&#234;ncia de TEV sintom&#225;tico e de sangramento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco de tromboembolismo venoso e profilaxia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A profilaxia do TEV &#233; indicada em pacientes cl&#237;nicos internados com mais de 40 anos, com expectativa de mobilidade limitada por tr&#234;s ou mais dias, que apresentam pelo menos um fator de risco para TEV e que n&#227;o tenham risco aumentado de sangramento, devendo ser mantida pelo menos at&#233; a alta hospitalar. Todos os pacientes internados em unidades de terapia intensiva s&#227;o considerados de alto risco para TEV.</p>
    <p>S&#227;o considerados fatores de risco para TEV: TEV pr&#233;vio, idade avan&#231;ada (especialmente &gt;55 anos), cirurgia, trauma maior ou les&#227;o de membro inferior, imobilidade, paresia de membros inferiores, veias varicosas, c&#226;ncer, terapia oncol&#243;gica (hormonioterapia, quimioterapia, radioterapia, inibidores de angiog&#234;nese), desordens mieloproliferativas, compress&#227;o venosa (hematoma, tumor, anormalidade arterial), gravidez e puerp&#233;rio, terapia com estrog&#234;nio, moduladores do receptor de estrog&#234;nio, agentes estimuladores de eritropoiese, enfermidade aguda, doen&#231;a infecciosa aguda, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva classe III ou IV, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, doen&#231;a respirat&#243;ria aguda, acidente vascular cerebral, doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica, doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria intestinal, s&#237;ndrome nefr&#243;tica, insufici&#234;ncia renal, hemoglobin&#250;ria parox&#237;stica noturna, obesidade, cateter venoso central, trombofilias herdadas ou adquiridas<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
    <p>A indica&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia com uso de anticoagulantes deve levar em conta a rela&#231;&#227;o custo/benef&#237;cio de se utilizar esses medicamentos com potencial risco de sangramento. &#201; dif&#237;cil estabelecer, do ponto vista pr&#225;tico, quando os pacientes em tratamento cl&#237;nico s&#227;o de alto ou baixo risco de desenvolverem TVP, tendo como base estudos de popula&#231;&#245;es muito heterog&#234;neas.</p>
    <p>Em estudo prospectivo observacional que reuniu 1.180 pacientes internados em hospital para tratamento cl&#237;nico, considerou-se 11 fatores de risco para TVP com pesos diferentes e definiu-se escores para risco de TVP com base no n&#250;mero total de pontos considerados para a presen&#231;a de cada um destes fatores; veja na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">Tabela 1</xref> o escore de risco de Padua)<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt18.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Os pacientes foram considerados de alto risco quando atingiram 4 ou mais pontos (39,7% deles), e de baixo risco com menos de 4 pontos (60,3%). No acompanhamento de 90 dias, ocorreu TVP em 11% dos pacientes de alto risco e 0,3% entre os de baixo risco. Apesar das limita&#231;&#245;es deste estudo, o escore de risco de Padua &#233; uma boa ferramenta para estabelecer o risco de TVP em pacientes hospitalizados. Em pacientes cir&#250;rgicos, recomenda-se a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o profil&#225;tica em pacientes considerados de risco moderado (pacientes submetidos a cirurgias ginecol&#243;gicas, urol&#243;gicas, tor&#225;cicas ou neurocirurgias, pacientes submetidos a procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos pequenos que apresentam um fator de risco adicional, pacientes entre 40-60 anos que ser&#227;o submetidos a anestesia geral por mais de 30 minutos sem outros fatores de risco adicionais) ou alto (pacientes com idade &gt;60 anos submetidos a procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos maiores, pacientes de 40-60 anos com fatores de risco adicionais, pacientes submetidos a artroplastia de quadril ou joelho, cirurgia por fratura p&#233;lvica ou de quadril, cirurgia colorretal, trauma maior, les&#227;o medular, cirurgia oncol&#243;gica). Fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento de TEV em pacientes cir&#250;rgicos incluem tamb&#233;m o tipo e a extens&#227;o da cirurgia ou trauma e a dura&#231;&#227;o do internamento. A profilaxia deve ser continuada at&#233; a alta hospitalar. Em alguns subgrupos de pacientes deve-se considerar mant&#234;-la por um per&#237;odo de tempo estendido ap&#243;s a alta, como nos casos de grande cirurgia oncol&#243;gica ou evento tromboemb&#243;lico pr&#233;vio (at&#233; 28 dias), pr&#243;tese de quadril, pr&#243;tese de joelho ou cirurgia por fratura de quadril (at&#233; 35 dias)<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.3. Risco de sangramento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>At&#233; o momento n&#227;o existe um modelo validado prospectivamente para avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de sangramento em pacientes cl&#237;nicos hospitalizados. Um estudo de an&#225;lise retrospectiva com mais de 15.000 pacientes encontrou como fatores de risco para sangramento: &#250;lcera gastroduodenal ativa, sangramento nos &#250;ltimos 3 meses, contagem plaquet&#225;ria &lt;50.000/&#181;l, idade, insufici&#234;ncia hep&#225;tica ou renal, perman&#234;ncia na unidade de terapia intensiva, presen&#231;a de cateter venoso central, doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica, c&#226;ncer e sexo masculino<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.4. Terapia anticoagulante no TEV</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.4.1. Heparina n&#227;o fracionada</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.1.1. Profilaxia</italic>
    </p>
    <p>O uso de HNF em baixas doses (5.000UI SC a cada 8 ou 12 horas) na preven&#231;&#227;o do tromboembolismo em pacientes cl&#237;nicos e cir&#250;rgicos de risco &#233; eficaz e seguro, reduzindo o risco de TEV e de embolia pulmonar fatal (em 60-70%)<sup>6</sup>. Por outro lado, seu uso est&#225; associado a aumento discreto na incid&#234;ncia de hematoma de ferida e aumento sem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica em sangramento maior (sem aumento de sangramento fatal).</p>
    <p>Em pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia de quadril, como a incid&#234;ncia de TVP continua alta (20-30%)<sup>7</sup> mesmo com a administra&#231;&#227;o de baixas doses de HNF, aconselha-se o ajuste de dose da heparina pelo controle do TTPA ou o uso de dose fixa de heparina de baixo peso molecular<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>Pacientes internados por acidente vascular cerebral que apresentam mobilidade reduzida devem receber profilaxia com anticoagulantes em baixa dose, com a ressalva de que estes n&#227;o devem ser utilizados por 24 horas ap&#243;s a administra&#231;&#227;o de trombol&#237;ticos<sup>9,10</sup>. Pacientes internados por acidente vascular cerebral hemorr&#225;gico devem receber profilaxia mec&#226;nica com o uso de dispositivos de compress&#227;o pneum&#225;tica intermitente<sup>11</sup>. O uso de heparina em baixas doses deve ser considerado em pacientes de alto risco, principalmente pacientes restritos ao leito, ap&#243;s a documenta&#231;&#227;o da cessa&#231;&#227;o do sangramento, t&#227;o precocemente quanto no segundo ao quarto dia ap&#243;s a instala&#231;&#227;o do acidente vascular cerebral hemorr&#225;gico<sup>12</sup>.</p>
    <p>Deve-se realizar exame de contagem plaquet&#225;ria nos pacientes que est&#227;o recebendo HNF profil&#225;tica a cada 2-3 dias dos dias 4-14 ou at&#233; o fim do tratamento com a heparina, o que acontecer antes e em dias alternados nos pacientes que est&#227;o recebendo HNF profil&#225;tica no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, j&#225; que estes representam o grupo de maior risco para trombocitopenia induzida por heparina. Nos pacientes que iniciar&#227;o heparina n&#227;o fracionada ou de baixo peso molecular e que tenham recebido heparina n&#227;o fracionada nos &#250;ltimos 100 dias, deve-se obter uma contagem de plaquetas de base e repeti-la 24 horas ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio da heparina. A dosagem das plaquetas s&#243; n&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;ria nos pacientes cl&#237;nicos que estejam recebendo apenas <italic>flush</italic> de cateter com HNF<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab02">Tabela 2</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt19.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.1.2. Tratamento</italic>
    </p>
    <p>A HNF &#233; droga eficaz no tratamento da TVP. Deve ser iniciada assim que o diagn&#243;stico for confirmado, ou em caso de alta suspei&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica at&#233; que os exames diagn&#243;sticos possam ser realizados, j&#225; que a embolia pulmonar ocorre em aproximadamente 50% dos pacientes com TVP sintom&#225;tica de membros inferiores n&#227;o tratados<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>H&#225; tr&#234;s possibilidades de uso da HNF no tratamento inicial da TVP: administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa com monitoramento da coagula&#231;&#227;o, administra&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea com monitoramento da coagula&#231;&#227;o e administra&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea ajustada para o peso sem monitoramento da coagula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p><italic>Administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa com monitoramento da coagula&#231;&#227;o</italic>. Dois regimes de administra&#231;&#227;o de HNF intravenosa s&#227;o recomendados para o tratamento da TVP: bolus de 5.000UI seguido de infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua de pelo menos 30.000UI nas primeiras 24 horas (1.250UI/hora) ou bolus de 80UI/kg seguido de 18UI/kg/hora (protocolos espec&#237;ficos est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis para se alcan&#231;ar e manter TTPa em n&#237;veis adequados - 1,5 a 2,5 vezes o valor de controle)<sup>15</sup>. A administra&#231;&#227;o endovenosa de heparina &#233; dif&#237;cil e pode resultar com frequ&#234;ncia em um tratamento inadequado, com at&#233; 60% dos pacientes n&#227;o alcan&#231;ando um TTPa adequado nas primeiras 24 horas<sup>16</sup>. A cria&#231;&#227;o de protocolos, como na administra&#231;&#227;o de dose corrigida pelo peso, procura evitar estas dosagens inadequadas.</p>
    <p><italic>Administra&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea com monitoramento da coagula&#231;&#227;o.</italic> Uma meta-an&#225;lise de oito estudos cl&#237;nicos sobre o tratamento inicial de pacientes com TVP encontrou que a administra&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea de HNF duasx/dia &#233; mais eficaz (RR de extens&#227;o ou recorr&#234;ncia do tromboembolismo 0,62, 95% IC, 0,39-0,98) e pelo menos t&#227;o segura (RR de sangramento maior 0,79; 95% IC, 0,42-1,48) quanto a administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa cont&#237;nua<sup>17</sup>, o que facilita a posologia e possibilita inclusive o tratamento domiciliar. O regime usual nestes estudos incluiu um bolus IV inicial de aproximadamente 5.000UI seguido de uma dose SC de 17.500UI duasx/dia no primeiro dia, com ajustes subsequentes para alcan&#231;ar um prolongamento do TTPa de 1,5 a 2,5 vezes o valor de controle laboratorial.</p>
    <p>A administra&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea da HNF com ajuste de TTPa tamb&#233;m se mostrou t&#227;o eficaz e segura quanto uma dose fixa de heparina de baixo peso molecular (HBPM) no tratamento inicial de pacientes com TEV, incluindo pacientes com embolia pulmonar<sup>18</sup>. Neste caso, iniciou-se uma dose de heparina de acordo com o peso (&lt;50kg, 4.000UI IV + 12.500UI SC; 50-70kg, 5.000UI IV + 15.000UI SC; &gt;70kg, 6.000UI IV + 17.500UI SC) e realizados ajustes de dose conforme o resultado do TTPa a cada 6 horas.</p>
    <p><italic>Administra&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea ajustada para o peso sem monitoramento da coagula&#231;&#227;o.</italic> A administra&#231;&#227;o de HNF subcut&#226;nea em uma dose inicial de 333UI/kg seguida de uma dose fixa de 250UI/kg 2x/dia sem monitoramento da coagula&#231;&#227;o apresentou taxas semelhantes de TEV recorrente, sangramento maior e morte em compara&#231;&#227;o com o uso de HBPM<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>A efic&#225;cia do tratamento com a HNF depende de se atingir um n&#237;vel terap&#234;utico cr&#237;tico de heparina nas primeiras 24 horas (TTPa 1,5 vezes o valor de controle ou o limite superior da varia&#231;&#227;o normal do TTPa)<sup>20</sup>, pelo risco aumentado de recorr&#234;ncia de tromboembolismo nos pacientes que n&#227;o alcan&#231;am este n&#237;vel. O uso de uma dose ajustada ao peso (bolus inicial de 80UI/kg seguido de uma infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua de 18UI/kg/h) resulta em um maior n&#250;mero de pacientes (97% x 77%) alcan&#231;ando um TTPa na faixa terap&#234;utica nas primeiras 24 horas e em uma menor incid&#234;ncia de recorr&#234;ncia de tromboembolismo<sup>15</sup>. No caso da administra&#231;&#227;o subcut&#226;nea, a dose inicial utilizada deve ser alta, para que se alcance esta resposta adequada nas primeira 24 horas<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>Atualmente recomenda-se o in&#237;cio simult&#226;neo da heparina e do antagonista da vitamina K, com suspens&#227;o da heparina ap&#243;s 5 dias, desde que a rela&#231;&#227;o normatizada internacional (RNI) esteja <underline>&gt;</underline>2,0 por pelo menos 24 horas. Al&#233;m de redu&#231;&#227;o no risco de trombocitopenia induzida por heparina, dois estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados em pacientes com TVP proximal mostraram efic&#225;cia similar no uso de HNF intravenosa por 5-7 dias ou 10-14 dias<sup>22,23</sup>. Contagens plaquet&#225;rias devem ser obtidas regularmente para monitoramento de trombocitopenia induzida por heparina, que deve ser suspensa caso ocorra queda abrupta ou sustentada das plaquetas, ou uma contagem plaquet&#225;ria &lt;100.000.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab03">Tabela 3</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt20.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.4.2. Heparina de baixo peso molecular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.2.1. Profilaxia</italic>
    </p>
    <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o da heparina de baixo peso molecular (HBPM) para a preven&#231;&#227;o da TVP &#233; determinada pelo risco de o paciente apresentar o evento cl&#237;nico. Dentro desta estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco, certas situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas s&#227;o avaliadas de forma distinta. Neste contexto os pacientes s&#227;o separados em tr&#234;s grupos: pacientes n&#227;o cir&#250;rgicos, pacientes submetidos a cirurgias ortop&#233;dicas e pacientes submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o ortop&#233;dicas. Nesta parte ser&#227;o considerados os pacientes n&#227;o cir&#250;rgicos.</p>
    <p>O uso das heparinas reduz de forma significativa a incid&#234;ncia de TEV, com uma tend&#234;ncia de maior efic&#225;cia para as HBPM, que podem ser administradas umax/dia e apresentam menor tend&#234;ncia de trombocitopenia<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>Dados de tr&#234;s revis&#245;es sistem&#225;ticas da literatura foram utilizados para determinar a indica&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia para fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos em pacientes hospitalizados por doen&#231;as agudas. Os resultados encontrados demonstram que a tromboprofilaxia est&#225; associada com redu&#231;&#227;o significativa no risco de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos, especialmente nos pacientes considerados de maior risco para estes eventos. Associado a este dado, o risco de sangramentos maiores n&#227;o foi significativo<sup>25,26</sup>.</p>
    <p>Com isso recomenda-se a tromboprofilaxia com HBPM para indiv&#237;duos de alto risco, at&#233; a recupera&#231;&#227;o da mobilidade ou at&#233; a alta hospitalar (qual situa&#231;&#227;o ocorrer primeiro). Nos indiv&#237;duos de baixo risco a incid&#234;ncia de eventos &#233; muito baixa para se justificar a profilaxia<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>Interessantemente, no estudo LIFENOX<sup>28</sup>, uma investiga&#231;&#227;o duplo-cego, placebo-controlado, randomizada para avaliar o efeito de enoxaparina subcut&#226;nea (40mg/dia) em compara&#231;&#227;o com o placebo - ambos administrados por 10&#177;4 dias em pacientes que estavam usando meias el&#225;sticas com compress&#227;o graduada -, e a taxa de morte por qualquer causa entre pacientes hospitalizados, agudamente doentes. Mostrou-se que o uso de enoxaparina mais meias el&#225;sticas com compress&#227;o graduada, em compara&#231;&#227;o com meias el&#225;sticas com compress&#227;o graduada isolada, n&#227;o foi associado com uma redu&#231;&#227;o da taxa de mortalidade por qualquer causa entre pacientes hospitalizados.</p>
    <p><italic>Preven&#231;&#227;o de TVP em viagens de longa dist&#226;ncia.</italic> Outra situa&#231;&#227;o cotidiana em que a indica&#231;&#227;o de profilaxia com HBPM ou AAS (&#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico, aspirina) vem sendo discutida e muitas vezes indicada, &#233; naqueles indiv&#237;duos que retornam de viagens de longa dist&#226;ncia. O TEV sintom&#225;tico &#233; raro neste grupo particular de pacientes.</p>
    <p>Para pacientes de risco mais alto, a orienta&#231;&#227;o &#233; para que fa&#231;am frequentes deambula&#231;&#245;es, exerc&#237;cios e massagens musculares. Considera-se tamb&#233;m para esses pacientes o uso de meias el&#225;sticas abaixo dos joelhos com compress&#227;o de 15 a 30mmHg de press&#227;o.</p>
    <p>At&#233; o momento n&#227;o foram realizados estudos com uma metodologia adequada para testar a hip&#243;tese do benef&#237;cio do uso da HBPM neste grupo de pacientes. Nos indiv&#237;duos de maior risco, ou seja, aqueles com tromboembolismo pr&#233;vio, trombofilias conhecidas, &#237;ndice de massa corporal acima de 40kg/m<sup>2</sup> (obesidade grau 3), c&#226;ncer ativo, cirurgias de grande porte recente (menos de 1 m&#234;s), e que est&#227;o viajando a mais de 6 horas, o uso de tromboprofilaxia medicamentosa deve ser decidida de forma individual, considerando sempre que eventos adversos podem superar qualquer benef&#237;cio<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na pr&#225;tica, embora sem comprova&#231;&#227;o cient&#237;fica, o que se v&#234; &#233; o uso de enoxaparina 20-40mg SC 1 hora antes de embarcar em viagens de mais de 6 horas. Outras op&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas, tamb&#233;m n&#227;o testadas, incluem dabigatrana 110mg ou rivaroxabana 10mg.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab04">Tabela 4</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt21.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.2.2. Tratamento</italic>
    </p>
    <p>O uso da HBPM na anticoagula&#231;&#227;o inicial do paciente ap&#243;s diagn&#243;stico de TVP est&#225; associado a menor mortalidade, menor recorr&#234;ncia de TVP, e menor incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores. Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; menor incid&#234;ncia de trombocitopenia induzida por heparina e a forma de uso &#233; simples. A preocupa&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o ao seu uso deve existir nos indiv&#237;duos com redu&#231;&#227;o significativa da fun&#231;&#227;o renal (depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina inferior a 30ml/min). A dose &#233; corrigida pelo peso do paciente, com efeito terap&#234;utico previs&#237;vel. A monitoriza&#231;&#227;o do TTPa &#233; desnecess&#225;ria e apresenta melhor biodisponibilidade quando comparada &#224; heparina n&#227;o fracionada. A a&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica prolongada permite uma ou duas administra&#231;&#245;es di&#225;rias<sup>30,31</sup>.</p>
    <p>Com isso recomenda-se a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da heparina de baixo peso molecular concomitante &#224; utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um antagonista da vitamina K at&#233; que o paciente esteja adequadamente anticoagulado pela monitoriza&#231;&#227;o do valor do RNI<sup>32,33</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab05">Tabela 5</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt22.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.4.3. Varfarina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.3.1. Profilaxia</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Em pacientes submetidos a cirurgias ortop&#233;dicas de grande porte e que n&#227;o aceitam ou s&#227;o incapazes de colaborar com inje&#231;&#245;es, a varfarina pode ser usada como alternativa ao uso de apixabana ou dabigratana ou ainda dispositivos de compress&#227;o pneum&#225;tica intermitente para preven&#231;&#227;o de TVP<sup>34</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.3.2. Tratamento</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Em pacientes portadores de TVP aguda, a varfarina deve ser iniciada no mesmo dia de in&#237;cio de uso de HBPM ou HNF. A anticoagula&#231;&#227;o parenteral deve ser mantida at&#233; um m&#237;nimo de 5 dias ou at&#233; se atingir RNI de 2,0<sup>35</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes com TVP tratados com varfarina, a dose deve ser ajustada visando atingir um RNI entre 2,0 e 3,0 (RNI alvo de 2,5)<sup>36,37</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab06">Tabela 6</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab06">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt23.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>O per&#237;odo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o vai depender da exist&#234;ncia de um fator predisponente para trombose, que pode ser transit&#243;rio, como uma cirurgia, por exemplo, ou definitivo, como uma s&#237;ndrome trombof&#237;lica. A recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; de um tempo m&#237;nimo de 3 meses e, se h&#225; um fator causal, ela pode ser estendida. Em pacientes com TVP proximal de membros inferiores, provocada por cirurgia, o tempo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com varfarina recomendado tamb&#233;m &#233; de 3 meses<sup>38,39</sup>.Em pacientes com TVP proximal de membros inferiores, provocada por um fator de risco transit&#243;rio n&#227;o associado &#224; cirurgia, o tempo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com varfarina recomendado &#233; de 3 meses. Em pacientes com epis&#243;dio isolado de TVP e em por&#231;&#227;o distal de membros inferiores, provocada por um fator de risco transit&#243;rio ou associado &#224; cirurgia, o tempo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com varfarina recomendado &#233; de 3 meses<sup>40</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes com TVP espont&#226;nea (sem fator desencadeante conhecido) de membros inferiores, o per&#237;odo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o recomendado com varfarina &#233; de no m&#237;nimo 3 meses. Ap&#243;s esse per&#237;odo, os pacientes devem ser avaliados quanto a risco/benef&#237;cio de se estender o per&#237;odo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o. Em pacientes que apresentam um primeiro epis&#243;dio de TVP proximal de membros inferiores, sem fator de risco conhecido, com risco de sangramento baixo a moderado, recomenda-se anticoagula&#231;&#227;o por mais de 3 meses. Aqueles que apresentam um primeiro epis&#243;dio de TVP proximal de membros inferiores, sem fator de risco conhecido, com risco de sangramento alto, recomenda-se anticoagula&#231;&#227;o por 3 meses. Pacientes que apresentam um primeiro epis&#243;dio de TVP distal de membros inferiores, sem fator de risco conhecido, independentemente do risco de sangramento, recomenda-se anticoagula&#231;&#227;o por 3 meses<sup>41,42</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outro fator a ser considerado em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tempo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o &#233; o fato de um primeiro epis&#243;dio de TVP ou de epis&#243;dios de repeti&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, deve-se avaliar o risco de sangramento.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes com um epis&#243;dio de TVP de repeti&#231;&#227;o, sem fator de risco conhecido, o tempo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com varfarina deve ser estendido para al&#233;m de 3 meses, naqueles com baixo risco de sangramento<sup>43,44</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes com um epis&#243;dio de TVP de repeti&#231;&#227;o, sem fator de risco conhecido, sugere-se que o tempo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com varfarina deva ser estendido para al&#233;m de 3 meses, naqueles com moderado risco de sangramento. Em pacientes com um epis&#243;dio de TVP de repeti&#231;&#227;o, sem fator de risco conhecido, o tempo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com varfarina deve ser de 3 meses, naqueles com alto risco de sangramento<sup>45,46</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes portadores de c&#226;ncer em atividade, o tratamento anticoagulante com varfarina de TVP de membros inferirores deve ser estendido para al&#233;m de 3 meses, naqueles que n&#227;o possuem alto risco de sangramento. Em pacientes portadores de c&#226;ncer em atividade, o tratamento anticoagulante com varfarina de TVP de membros inferiores deve ser de 3 meses, naqueles que possuem alto risco de sangramento. O tratamento para TVP de membros inferiores assintom&#225;tica com varfarina deve seguir as mesmas orienta&#231;&#245;es quanto a n&#237;vel terap&#234;utico de RNI e dura&#231;&#227;o<sup>47</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab07">Tabela 7</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab07">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt24.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.4.4. Fondaparinux</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.4.1. Profilaxia</italic>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo ARTEMIS, duplo-cego, randomizado, placebo-controlado foi desenhado para avaliar a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a no uso de fondaparinux na preven&#231;&#227;o de TVP em 849 pacientes com idade maior ou igual a 60 anos, hospitalizados por doen&#231;as agudas card&#237;acas, respirat&#243;rias, infecciosas ou inflamat&#243;rias, que precisaram ficar acamados por pelo menos 4 dias e considerados de risco moderado para TVP. O uso de fondaparinux 2,5mg ao dia, via subcut&#226;nea (iniciado nas primeiras 48 horas da admiss&#227;o hospitalar e continuado por 6 a 14 dias), reduziu significantemente o risco de TVP de 10,5% no grupo placebo para 5,6% (redu&#231;&#227;o de RR de 47%, IC 95% 8-69). Sangramentos maiores ocorreram em um paciente de cada grupo (0,2%)<sup>48</sup>.</p>
    <p>No estudo PEGASUS, pacientes submetidos a cirurgias abdominais eletivas foram randomizados para receber fondaparinux 2,5mg, diariamente por 5 a 9 dias, com in&#237;cio 6 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia ou dalteparina 2.500 unidades, via subcut&#226;nea, 2 horas antes e 12 horas ap&#243;s a dose pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria, seguido de 5.000UI diariamente por 5 a 9 dias. Dentre os 2.048 pacientes, a taxa de TVP foi de 4,6% no grupo fondaparinux e de 6,1% no grupo que recebeu dalteparina, mostrando uma redu&#231;&#227;o de RR de 25% IC 95% -9 &#224; +48. O objetivo de n&#227;o inferioridade do fondaparinux foi atingido e a taxa de sangramentos maiores foi similar (3,4% no grupo fondaparinux contra 2,4% no dalteparina)<sup>49</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos randomizados de fase III demonstraram que fondaparinux, quando iniciado de 4 a 8 horas no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, tem efic&#225;cia superior em prevenir TEV profundo (TVP), comparado a HBPM (enoxaparina), em pacientes submetidos a cirurgias ortop&#233;dicas como pr&#243;teses totais de quadril, de joelhos e cirurgia de fratura de quadril, baseado em um desfecho composto de venografia ascendente bilateral e eventos sintom&#225;ticos objetivamente documentados<sup>50</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em uma meta-an&#225;lise de quatro estudos multic&#234;ntricos duplo-cegos e randomizados de preven&#231;&#227;o de TVP, comparando fondaparinux com enoxaparina em pacientes submetidos a cirurgias ortop&#233;dicas de grande porte, esses achados se confirmaram em favor do fondaparinux<sup>51</sup>.</p>
    <p>A tromboprofilaxia estendida foi avaliada em um estudo de fase 3 chamado PENTPHIRA-Plus, em que pacientes submetidos a cirurgia para tratamento de fratura de quadril. Prolongando a dura&#231;&#227;o da profilaxia com fondaparinux, 2,5mg 1x/dia, via subcut&#226;nea a partir de 1 a 4 semanas ap&#243;s a fratura, diminuiu-se consideravelmente a frequ&#234;ncia de TVP venograficamente documentada de 35 para 1,4% (p=0,0001) e de TVP sintom&#225;tica de 2,7 para 0,3% (p=0,021)<sup>52</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab08">Tabela 8</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab08">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt25.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.4.2. Tratamento</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Estudos que avaliaram o tratamento de TVP mostraram que fondaparinux foi igualmente efetivo e seguro comparado a enoxaparina e HNF no tratamento de TVP e TEP.</p>
    <p>O estudo duplo-cego MATISSE randomizou 2.205 pacientes portadores de TVP aguda e sintom&#225;tica para tratamento inicial com fondaparinux (5, 7,5 ou 10mg ao dia) para pacientes com peso abaixo de 50, 50 a 100 e maior que 100kg, respectivamente, ou enoxaparina 1mg/kg 2x/dia, por um per&#237;odo de ao menos 5 dias ou at&#233; os inibidores de vitamina K induzirem um RNI maior que 2,0. O desfecho principal, a recorr&#234;ncia de TVP sintom&#225;tica em 3 meses, foi de 3,9% para o grupo fondaparinux e 4,1% para enoxaparina. A incid&#234;ncia de sangramentos maiores durante o per&#237;odo inicial (1,1 e 1,2%, respectivamente) tamb&#233;m foi similar, assim como a mortalidade global (3,8 e 3,0%, respectivamente). Concluiu-se que fondaparinux, usado umax/dia, foi pelo menos t&#227;o efetivo e seguro quanto &#224; enoxaparina para o tratamento inicial de TVP sintom&#225;tica<sup>53</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo CALISTO, um estudo randomizado que incluiu mais de 3.000 pacientes com trombose venosa superficial de membros inferiores, comparou fondaparinux na dose de 2,5mg, via subcut&#226;nea, umax/dia por 45 dias, com placebo. O estudo demonstrou que o tratamento ativo reduziu a incid&#234;ncia de desfechos compostos de TVP sintom&#225;tica, TEP, extens&#227;o da trombose para a jun&#231;&#227;o safeno-femoral, recorr&#234;ncia de trombose venosa superficial e morte (0,9% no grupo de tratamento ativo contra 5,9% no placebo) com uma redu&#231;&#227;o de risco relativo de 85% em favor do fondaparinux (p&lt;0,001). N&#227;o foi observada diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa em rela&#231;&#227;o a complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas entre os dois grupos<sup>54</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab09">Tabela 9</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab09">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt26.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.4.5. Dabigatrana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.5.1. Profilaxia</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Quatro estudos randomizados, controlados e duplo-cegos, avaliaram a efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a da dabigatrana na profilaxia de TEV na cirurgia para pr&#243;tese de joelho ou quadril. O evento prim&#225;rio foi TEV total (incluindo TEP, TVP proximal e distal, sintom&#225;tica e assintom&#225;tica (por venografia) e a mortalidade por qualquer causa.</p>
    <p>O estudo RE-NOVATE incluiu 3.494 pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia de pr&#243;tese de quadril e avaliou a dose de dabigatrana de 150mg ou 220mg 1x/dia em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; enoxaparina 40mg/dia, com dura&#231;&#227;o de 28 a 35 dias. O evento prim&#225;rio com 220mg de dabigatrana, 150mg de dabigatrana ou enoxaparina foi de 6%, 8,6% e 6,7%, respectivamente. Esses resultados demonstraram que a dabigatrana n&#227;o &#233; inferior &#224; enoxaparina. Nesses mesmos grupos, a incid&#234;ncia de sangramento maior foi que 2%, 1,3% e 1,6%, respectivamente. Portanto, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos<sup>55</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo RE-NOVATE II avaliou apenas a dose de 220mg da dabigatrana em pacientes submetidos &#224; pr&#243;tese de quadril, e incluiu 2.055 pacientes. O evento prim&#225;rio com dabigatrana ou enoxaparina ocorreu em 7,7% e 8,8%, e o sangramento maior em 1,4 e 0,9%, respectivamente. Portanto, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos tanto em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; seguran&#231;a como &#224; efic&#225;cia<sup>56</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo RE-MOBILIZE incluiu 2.615 pacientes e comparou dabigatrana 150mg ou 220mg 1x/dia com enoxaparina 30mg 2x/dia, por um per&#237;odo de 12 a 15 dias, em cirurgia de pr&#243;tese de joelho. O evento prim&#225;rio ocorreu em 33,7%, 31,1% e 25,3%, respectivamente. O sangramento maior ocorreu em 0,6%, 0,6% e 1,4%, respectivamente. Portanto, os resultados demonstram que, apesar da mesma seguran&#231;a, a efic&#225;cia foi menor com o uso da dabigatrana<sup>57</sup>.</p>
    <p>No estudo RE-MODEL, foram inclu&#237;dos 2.076 pacientes que receberam dabigatrana 150mg ou 220mg 1x/dia, ou enoxaparina 40mg 1x/dia, por 6 a 10 dias. O evento prim&#225;rio ocorreu em 40,5%, 36,4% e 37,7%, respectivamente. O sangramento maior ocorreu em 1,3%, 1,5% e 1,3%, respectivamente. Portanto, o dabigatrana n&#227;o foi inferior &#224; enoxaparina, com a mesma seguran&#231;a<sup>58</sup>.</p>
    <p>Uma meta-an&#225;lise que avaliou apenas a dose de 220mg de dabigatrana, nos estudos RE-MODEL, RE-NOVATE e RE-MOBILIZE demonstrou n&#227;o inferioridade e mesmo risco hemorr&#225;gico da dabigatrana em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; enoxaparina<sup>59</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outra meta-an&#225;lise incluindo os quatroestudos demonstrou que a ocorr&#234;ncia de TEV e mortalidade decorrente de TEV foi 3%, 3,8% e 3,3% nos grupos dabigatrana 220mg, dabigatrana 150mg e enoxaparina, respectivamente. O sangramento maior ocorreu em 1,4%, 1,1% e 1,4%, respectivamente. Portanto, a dabigatrana foi t&#227;o eficaz quanto a enoxaparina, com o mesmo risco hemorr&#225;gico<sup>60</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nenhum estudo comparou a tromboprofilaxia com a dabigatrana <italic>versus</italic> n&#227;o tromboprofilaxia nas cirurgias de pr&#243;tese de joelho e quadril.</p>
    <p>O NICE Guidance considera que a dabigatrana &#233; segura e adequada para a profilaxia prim&#225;ria em pr&#243;tese de joelho e quadril, tendo custo/efetividade adequada, ressaltando a falta de um ant&#237;doto, e que a dose de 150mg/dia seria mais adequada nos pacientes com altera&#231;&#227;o renal ou em idosos. A dabigatrana pode ser considerada uma alternativa nas situa&#231;&#245;es em que a enoxaparina &#233; indicada<sup>61</sup>.</p>
    <p>O 9th ACCP Guidelines empregando os dados obtidos nesses quatroestudos descritos anteriormente, considerou que a dabigatrana na dose de 220mg foi similar &#224; enoxaparina em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de TEV sintom&#225;tico (TEP: RR, 1.22; 95% CI, 0.52-2.85; TVP: RR, 0.7; 95% CI, 0.12-3.91) e de sangramento maior (RR, 1.06; 95% CI, 0.66-1.72). O risco absoluto de sangramento e TEV foi semelhante, com umevento para cada 1.000 pacientes. Na dose de 150mg, a dabigatrana falhou em demonstrar ou excluir um efeito ben&#233;fico de preven&#231;&#227;o de TEV em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; enoxaparina (TEP: RR, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.04-2.48; TVP sintom&#225;tica: RR, 1.52; 95% CI, 0.45-5.05). Portanto, baseando-se em evid&#234;ncia de moderada qualidade, a dabigatrana pode ser considerada similar &#224; enoxaparina em efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a, mas pela maior experi&#234;ncia com enoxaparina indica-se esse medicamento com primeira escolha<sup>62</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para a profilaxia de TEV em cirurgias de pr&#243;tese de quadril e joelho, recomenda-se a dose de 150mg ou 220mg 1x/dia, por um per&#237;odo de 28 a 35 dias ou 14 dias, respectivamente. O medicamento deve ser iniciado de 1 a 4 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento cir&#250;rgico, e com a hemostasia restabelecida com metade da dose. A escolha da dose fica a crit&#233;rio m&#233;dico, considerando-se a idade, depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina e uso de outros medicamentos que interagem com a dabigatrana.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab10">Tabela 10</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab10">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt27.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.5.2. Tratamento</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Os estudos realizados em pacientes com TVP aguda ou cr&#244;nica foram analisados com o objetivo de avaliar a n&#227;o inferioridade e seguran&#231;a da dabigatrana em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; varfarina, sempre considerando a ocorr&#234;ncia de TEV sintom&#225;tico.</p>
    <p>O estudo RE-COVER foi um estudo fase III duplo-cego, randomizado e controlado, de tratamento de TEV agudo. Um total de 2.539 pacientes, ap&#243;s o tratamento convencional com enoxaparina por um m&#237;nimo de 5 dias, receberam 150mg de dabigatrana 2x/dia, ou varfarina com ajuste de dose para um RNI (raz&#227;o normatizada internacional) entre 2,0-3,0, por 6 meses. Os resultados mostraram que a recorr&#234;ncia de TEV (2,4% <italic>versus</italic> 2,1%, RR 1,10; 95% CI; 0,65-1,84) e de sangramento maior (1,6% <italic>versus</italic> 1,9%, RR 0,83; 95% CI; 0,46-1,49) foram semelhantes. No per&#237;odo de inclus&#227;o do estudo, 786 pacientes (31%) apresentavam sintomas de TEP. Os resultados n&#227;o mostraram diferen&#231;a na resposta &#224; dabigatrana, em rela&#231;&#227;o a recorr&#234;ncia de TEV ou sangramento, nesse subgrupo de pacientes<sup>63</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo RE-MEDY comparou o uso de 150mg de dabigatrana 2x/dia, e varfarina com ajuste de dose para um RNI entre 2,0-3,0, por 6 a 36 meses, ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo de tratamento convencional de TEV por 3 a 12 meses. Foram inclu&#237;dos 2.856 pacientes; a recorr&#234;ncia de TEV ocorreu em 1,8% e 1,3% (RR 1,44; 95% CI; 0,79-2,62), e de sangramento maior em 0,9% e 1,8% (RR 0,56; 95% CI; 0,27-1,01), respectivamente. Esses resultados demonstram que a efic&#225;cia da dabigatrana &#233; semelhante &#224; da varfarina, com o mesmo risco hemorr&#225;gico. Observou-se uma incid&#234;ncia aumentada de eventos coron&#225;rios agudos. Os resultados deste estudo ainda n&#227;o foram publicados.</p>
    <p>O RE-SONATE &#233; um estudo que se iniciou em 2011 e tem o objetivo de avaliar a n&#227;o inferioridade da dabigatrana em rela&#231;&#227;o ao placebo quanto &#224; recorr&#234;ncia de TEV sintom&#225;tica. Ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo de tratamento convencional de 6 a 18 meses, os pacientes ser&#227;o inclu&#237;dos no estudo para um tratamento adicional de 6 meses.</p>
    <p>O 9&#186; ACCP, j&#225; citado, considera que a indica&#231;&#227;o da dabigatrana para o tratamento do TEV agudo tem uma evid&#234;ncia de qualidade moderada provocada por graves imprecis&#245;es relativas &#224;s diversas ocorr&#234;ncias e pela falta de dados em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; seguran&#231;a de longo prazo. Como foram inclu&#237;dos muito poucos pacientes com c&#226;ncer, esses resultados n&#227;o podem ser extrapolados para esse grupo de pacientes.</p>
    <p>Alguns aspectos que devem ser avaliados na escolha do anticoagulante &#233; a toler&#226;ncia do paciente a inje&#231;&#245;es di&#225;rias, hist&#243;rico de plaquetopenia induzida pela heparina, fun&#231;&#227;o renal, necessidade de controle laboratorial, custo do tratamento e disponibilidade de ant&#237;doto para o tratamento das intoxica&#231;&#245;es. A dabigatrana pode ser muito menos inc&#244;moda ao paciente, mas ainda h&#225; falta de estudos na fase IV, para melhor embasar a seguran&#231;a do uso desse medicamento, particularmente em rela&#231;&#227;o a sangramento e complica&#231;&#245;es hep&#225;ticas. Tamb&#233;m h&#225; a limita&#231;&#227;o de uso em pacientes com altera&#231;&#227;o renal e n&#227;o existe nenhum ant&#237;doto. Em pacientes com depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina entre 30 e 50ml/min ou idade superior a 75 anos, a dose pode ser reduzida para 150mg ao dia. Da mesma forma, como mencionado no estudo RE-COVER, a dose dever&#225; ser reduzida para 150mg ao dia quando houver concomitante administra&#231;&#227;o de inibidores potentes da glicoprote&#237;na P, tais como amiodarona ou verapamil.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab11">Tabela 11</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab11">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt28.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.4.6. Rivaroxabana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.6.1. Profilaxia</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Os estudos mais importantes para an&#225;lise da efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a da rivaroxabana para profilaxia prim&#225;ria de TEV em cirurgias de pr&#243;tese de joelho e quadril s&#227;o os estudos RECORD 1-4, controlados, randomizados, duplo-cego, fase III. O evento prim&#225;rio foi TEV total, incluindo TEP, TVP proximal e distal, sintom&#225;tica e assintom&#225;tica (por venografia), e mortalidade por qualquer causa.</p>
    <p>No estudo RECORD 1, que inclu&#237;u 4.541 pacientes submetidos &#224; pr&#243;tese de quadril, a rivaroxaban foi administrada na dose de 10mg 1x/dia com in&#237;cio no dia da cirurgia, e comparado &#224; enoxaparina 40mg 1x/dia iniciada 1 dia antes da cirurgia, por 35 dias. A rivaroxabana foi superior &#224; enoxaparina tanto em rela&#231;&#227;o ao evento prim&#225;rio (1,1%<italic> versus </italic>3,7%, RR, 0,3; 95% CI, 0,18-0,51, p&lt;0,001), como em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de TEV (0,2%<italic> versus </italic>2,0%, RR, 0,12, 95% CI, 0,04-0,34, p&lt;0,001). O sangramento maior foi semelhante nos doisgrupos (0,3% <italic>versus</italic> 0,1%, RR, 3,02 95% CI, 0,61-14,95, p=0,18). Esses resultados demonstram que a rivaroxabana foi mais eficaz que a enoxaparina, e com a mesma seguran&#231;a<sup>64</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo RECORD 2 comparou 2.509 pacientes, com 35 dias de profilaxia com rivaroxabana 10mg 1x/dia com 40mg de enoxaparina 1x/dia, por 15 dias. O evento prim&#225;rio teve menor incid&#234;ncia no grupo da rivaroxabana em compara&#231;&#227;o ao da enoxaparina (2,0% <italic>versus </italic>9,3%, RR 0,21, 95% CI 0,13-0,35, p&lt;0,001), assim como o TEV (0,6% <italic>versus</italic> 5,1%, RR, 0,12, 95% CI, 0,04-0,34, p&lt;0,001). A incid&#234;ncia de sangramento maior ou clinicamente significante foi semelhante nos dois grupos (0,1% <italic>versus</italic> 0,1%, RR, 1,0, 95% CI, 0,06-15,98 e 9,9% <italic>versus</italic> 8,21%, RR, 1,20, 95% CI, 0,93-1,54, respectivamente)<sup>65</sup>.Portanto, a rivaroxabana foi mais eficaz com a mesma seguran&#231;a que a enoxaparina. Contudo &#233; importante ressaltar que a enoxaparina foi utilizada apenas por 15 dias e a rivaroxabana por 35 dias.</p>
    <p>O RECORD 3 (n = 2.531) comparou em pacientes submetidos &#224; pr&#243;tese de joelho 10mg de rivaroxabana 1x/dia com 40mg de enoxaparina ao dia, por 10 a 14 dias. A rivaroxabana foi superior &#224; enoxaparina tanto em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; preven&#231;&#227;o do evento prim&#225;rio (1,1%<italic> versus </italic>3,7%, RR, 0,3; 95% CI, 0,18-0,51, p&lt;0,001), como do TEV (0,2% <italic>versus</italic> 2,0%, RR, 0,12, 95% CI, 0,04-0,34). O sangramento maior foi semelhante nos doisgrupos (0,3% <italic>versus</italic> 0,1%, RR, 3,02 95% CI, 0,61-14,95)<sup>66</sup>. Portanto, a rivaroxabana foi mais eficaz com a mesma seguran&#231;a que a enoxaparina.</p>
    <p>No estudo RECORD 4 (n = 3.148) a rivaroxabana foi empregada na dose de 10mg 1x/dia em compara&#231;&#227;o com a enoxaparina 30mg 2x/dia, para cirurgia de pr&#243;tese de joelho. O evento prim&#225;rio foi menos prevalente no grupo da rivaroxabana (6,9% <italic>versus</italic> 10,1%, RR 0,69, 95% CI, 0,51-0,92, p&lt;0,001) assim como o TEV (1,2% <italic>versus</italic> 2,0%, RR 0,59, 95% CI, 0,30-1,16). O sangramento foi semelhante entre os dois grupos (0,7% <italic>versus</italic> 0,3%, RR, 2,47, 95% CI, 0,78-7,86)<sup>67</sup>. Portanto esses resultados confirmam aqueles observados no estudo RECORD 3.</p>
    <p>A incid&#234;ncia de sangramento clinicamente significativo tamb&#233;m foi baixa em todos os estudos: RECORD 1: 5,8% <italic>versus</italic> 5,8%; RECORD 2: 6,5% <italic>versus</italic> 5,5%; RECORD 3: 4,3% <italic>versus</italic> 4,4%; e RECORD 4: 10,2% <italic>versus</italic> 9,2%.</p>
    <p>Uma meta-an&#225;lise de 8 estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados, com a inclus&#227;o de 15.586 pacientes submetidos &#224; pr&#243;tese de joelho ou quadril, mostrou que o uso da rivaroxabana estava associado a menor incid&#234;ncia de TEV e todas as causas de &#243;bito (9.244 pacientes, RR 0,56, 95% CI, 0,39-0,80), e sangramento semelhante (sangramento maior: 13.384 pacientes, RR 1,65, 95% CI 0,93-2,93; sangramento clinicamente significante: 13.384 pacientes, RR 1,21, 95% CI 0,98-1,50; eventos hemorr&#225;gicos totais: 13.384 pacientes, RR 1,10, 95% CI 0,97-1,24)<sup>68</sup>.</p>
    <p>Contudo, uma cr&#237;tica ao m&#233;todo de avalia&#231;&#227;o do sangramento nesses estudos &#233; que somente se considerou o sangramento que necessitou de reopera&#231;&#227;o e n&#227;o o sangramento no local cir&#250;rgico, e a queda de hemoglobina foi comparada com o primeiro dia do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio e n&#227;o com o pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disso, aproximadamente 30 a 39% dos pacientes dos estudos RECORD foram exclu&#237;dos da an&#225;lise de inten&#231;&#227;o de tratamento, por causa de uma avalia&#231;&#227;o inadequada da TVP, e o RECORD 4 foi totalmente exclu&#237;do da decis&#227;o de aprova&#231;&#227;o pelo FDA. A monitoriza&#231;&#227;o inadequada e perda de dados compromete as an&#225;lises e n&#227;o confirmam a superioridade da rivaroxabana sobre a enoxaparina e o sangramento foi considerado semelhante.</p>
    <p>O NICE Guidance considera que a rivaroxabana &#233; mais eficaz que a enoxaparina na preven&#231;&#227;o do TEV, mas o risco de sangramento maior &#233; mais elevado (considerando-se o RR dos estudos), e que o mesmo pode ser considerado uma alternativa nas situa&#231;&#245;es em que a enoxaparina &#233; indicada. Quanto &#224; compara&#231;&#227;o indireta entre a rivaroxabana e a dabigatrana, a primeira reduziu significativamente o risco de TEV, mas o risco de sangramento favoreceu a dabigatrana, considerando-os medicamentos similares.</p>
    <p>O 9&#186; ACCP Guidelines incluiu 7 estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados, com mais de 10.000 pacientes, para avaliar a indica&#231;&#227;o da rivaroxabana na tromboprofilaxia de pr&#243;tese de joelho e quadril. O rivaroxaban reduziu a TVP sintom&#225;tica em 50% (RR, 0.41; 95% CI, 0,20-0,83) com um aumento do sangramento maior ou que necessitou de reopera&#231;&#227;o (sangramento maior: RR, 1,58; 95% CI, 0,84-2,97; sangramento com necessidade de reopera&#231;&#227;o: RR, 2.0; 95% CI, 0,86-4,83; ambos: RR, 1.73; 95% CI, 0,94-3,17). O risco absoluto de sangramento maior foi baixo, mas os crit&#233;rios de avalia&#231;&#227;o de sangramento citados anteriormente n&#227;o foram adequados. A estimativa &#233; que, em 1.000 pacientes, para a redu&#231;&#227;o de 5 TVP sintom&#225;ticas, ocorreriam 9 sangramentos maiores.</p>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; tromboprofilaxia estendida na pr&#243;tese de quadril, que incluiu mais de 2.400 pacientes, a rivaroxabana reduziu significativamente o TEV sintom&#225;tico (TVP sintom&#225;tica: RR, 0,18; 95 % CI, 0,04-0,82; TEP: RR, 0,25; 95 % CI, 0,02-2,2). Contudo &#233; importante ressaltar que a enoxaparina foi utilizada somente nos primeiros 12 dias. A an&#225;lise de sangramento tamb&#233;m teve as mesmas limita&#231;&#245;es dos estudos anteriores e houve apenas 1 sangramento em ambos os grupos. Espera-se que em 1.000 pacientes ocorram 12 TVP sintom&#225;ticas a menos no grupo da rivaroxabana. Contudo, gra&#231;as aos resultados incertos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao sangramento, fica a d&#250;vida se os efeitos ben&#233;ficos n&#227;o seriam suplantados pelo aumento do risco hemorr&#225;gico.</p>
    <p>Baseando-se nesses estudos, considerados de evid&#234;ncia de moderada qualidade, o maior risco hemorr&#225;gico e falta de dados de seguran&#231;a de longo prazo, o ACCP ainda indica como primeira escolha na tromboprofilaxia de pr&#243;tese de joelho e quadril a enoxaparina, mesmo com o inconveniente de inje&#231;&#245;es subcut&#226;neas.</p>
    <p>O estudo MAGELLAN<sup>69</sup>, randomizado, duplo-cego, avaliou a rivaroxabana na profilaxia de TEV em pacientes cl&#237;nicos hospitalizados. Foram inclu&#237;dos 5.932 pacientes que utilizaram 10mg de rivaroxabana ao dia por 35 dias, ou enoxaparina 40mg ao dia por 10 dias. Os pacientes tamb&#233;m utilizaram 35 dias de placebo via oral ou 10 dias de placebo subcut&#226;neo. Os fatores de risco foram doen&#231;a infecciosa, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva, insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria, c&#226;ncer, acidente vascular cerebral isqu&#234;mico, e doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria ou reumatol&#243;gica. Os resultados mostraram que a rivaroxabana reduziu a incid&#234;ncia de TEV aos 35 dias (4,4% <italic>versus</italic> 5,7%, RR, 0,77, 95% CI, 0,62-0,96; p=0.02), mas com aumento significativo de sangramento (1,9% <italic>versus</italic> 0,6%, RR, 0,77, 95% CI, 0,62-0,96; p=0,02), o que suplantou o benef&#237;cio de seu uso. Uma das discuss&#245;es sobre o estudo &#233; que a heterogeneidade dos pacientes e a compara&#231;&#227;o com placebo justificam esses achados, e que uma avalia&#231;&#227;o em subgrupos e compara&#231;&#227;o com enoxaparina de longo prazo pode ser importante, uma vez que o TEV tamb&#233;m &#233; comum em pacientes cl&#237;nicos hospitalizados. Os resultados deste estudo ainda n&#227;o foram publicados. Para profilaxia de TEV em cirurgias de pr&#243;tese de quadril e joelho, recomenda-se a dose de 10mg 1x/dia, por um per&#237;odo de 35 dias e 14 dias, respectivamente. O medicamento deve ser iniciado de 6 a 8 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento cir&#250;rgico e com a hemostasia restabelecida.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab12">Tabela 12</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab12">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt29.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.6.2. Tratamento</italic>
    </p>
    <p>A efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a da rivaroxabana no tratamento agudo e de longo prazo da TEV foram avaliadas em mais de 4.600 pacientes em dois estudos cl&#237;nicos controlados randomizados de fase III, EINSTEIN DVT<sup>70</sup> e EINSTEIN EXTENSION<sup>71</sup>. Ambos os estudos utilizaram os mesmos objetivos prim&#225;rios (TEV sintom&#225;tico recorrente, definido como TVP recorrente ou TEP fatal ou n&#227;o fatal) e secund&#225;rios (TVP recorrente, TEP n&#227;o fatal e mortalidade por todas as causas) de avalia&#231;&#227;o da efic&#225;cia. Nesses estudos, os doentes com comprometimento renal moderado (depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina entre 30-49ml/min) foram tratados com a mesma dose que os doentes com taxa de depura&#231;&#227;o da creatinina superior a 50ml/min.</p>
    <p>Uma diferen&#231;a do EINSTEIN DVT e do RE-COVER, &#233; que a rivaroxabana foi iniciado logo ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico de TEV e n&#227;o ap&#243;s o uso de enoxaparina.</p>
    <p>No estudo EINSTEIN (n = 3.449), a rivaroxabana foi utilizada na dose de 15mg 2x/dia, por 3 semanas, seguida de 20mg ao dia por 3, 6 ou 12 meses, e comparada &#224; enoxaparina por um m&#237;nimo de 5 dias e varfarina com ajuste de dose para um RNI entre 2,0-3,0. Foram inclu&#237;dos apenas pacientes com TVP proximal sintom&#225;tica e exclu&#237;dos aqueles com TEP sintom&#225;tico. Os resultados mostraram que a recorr&#234;ncia de TEV (2,1% <italic>versus</italic> 3,0%, RR 0,70; 95% CI; 0,46-1,07) e de sangramento maior (0,8%<italic> versus </italic>1,2%, RR 0,70; 95% CI; 0.35-1.38, P=0,21) foram semelhantes a enoxaparina e varfarina para o tratamento da TEV na fase aguda.</p>
    <p>No estudo EINSTEIN EXTENSION (n = 1.196), pacientes com TVP proximal previamente tratados com rivaroxabana ou com enoxaparina e varfarina, por 6 a 12 meses, utilizaram a rivaroxabana 20mg ao dia ou placebo para tratamento adicional de 6 a 12 meses. Os resultados mostraram que a rivaroxabana foi superior ao placebo em rela&#231;&#227;o aos objetivos prim&#225;rios e secund&#225;rios de efic&#225;cia (1,3% <italic>versus</italic> 7,1%, RR 0,19; 95% CI; 0,09-0,40, p&lt;0,001) com um aumento n&#227;o significativo no sangramento (0,7% <italic>versus</italic> 0%, RR 7,89; 95% CI; 0,42-148,99).</p>
    <p>O 9&#186; ACCP considera que a indica&#231;&#227;o da rivaroxabana para o tratamento da TVP aguda e de longo prazo tem uma evid&#234;ncia de qualidade moderada proocada por graves imprecis&#245;es relativas &#224;s diversas ocorr&#234;ncias e pela falta de dados em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; seguran&#231;a de longo prazo. Como foram inclu&#237;dos muito poucos pacientes com c&#226;ncer, esses resultados n&#227;o podem ser extrapolados para esse grupo de pacientes.</p>
    <p>Alguns aspectos que devem ser avaliados na escolha do anticoagulante &#233; a toler&#226;ncia do paciente a inje&#231;&#245;es di&#225;rias, hist&#243;rico de plaquetopenia induzida pela heparina, fun&#231;&#227;o renal, necessidade de controle laboratorial, custo do tratamento e disponibilidade de ant&#237;doto para o tratamento das intoxica&#231;&#245;es. A rivaroxabana pode ser muito menos inc&#244;moda ao paciente, mas esteve associada a um maior sangramento nos estudos de tromboprofilaxia prim&#225;ria. Ainda h&#225; falta de estudos na fase IV, para melhor embasar a seguran&#231;a do uso desse medicamento, particularmente em rela&#231;&#227;o ao sangramento e complica&#231;&#245;es hep&#225;ticas. Tamb&#233;m h&#225; a limita&#231;&#227;o de uso em pacientes com altera&#231;&#227;o renal e n&#227;o existe nenhum ant&#237;doto. Apesar de ainda n&#227;o bem estabelecido, deve-se ter precau&#231;&#245;es na administra&#231;&#227;o de rivaroxabana em pacientes com depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina entre 15 e 30ml/min, doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica (Child-Pugh classes B e C), uso concomitante de inibidores/indutores de CYP3A4 ou glicoprote&#237;na P (amiodarona, verapamil, macrol&#237;deos, rifampicina, fenito&#237;na, carbamazepina, fenobrabital) e uso de anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o hormonais e inibidores plaquet&#225;rios.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab13">Tabela 13</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab13">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt30.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.4.7. Apixabana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.7.1. Profilaxia</italic>
    </p>
    <p>A efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a da apixabana para profilaxia prim&#225;ria de TEV em pacientes submetidos &#224; pr&#243;tese de quadril e joelho foram avaliadas em tr&#234;s estudos cl&#237;nicos controlados, randomizados, duplo-cego, fase III, ADVANCE 1-3. O evento prim&#225;rio foi considerado o TEV total (incluindo TEP, TVP proximal e distal, sintom&#225;tica e assintom&#225;tica por venografia) e mortalidade por qualquer causa.</p>
    <p>No estudo ADVANCE 1, 3.195 pacientes submetidos &#224; pr&#243;tese de joelho utilizaram apixabana na dose de 2,5mg 2x/dia com in&#237;cio no dia da cirurgia, ou enoxaparina 30mg 2x/dia iniciada 1 dia antes da cirurgia, por 10 a 14 dias. A apixabana foi semelhante &#224; enoxaparina em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; incid&#234;ncia de TEV total e &#243;bito (9,9%<italic> versus </italic>8,8%, RR 1,02; 95% CI, 0,78-1,32, p=0,06). O sangramento maior ou clinicamente significante foi menor no grupo da apixabana (2,9%<italic> versus </italic>4,3%, RR, 0,67 95% CI, 0,47-0,97, p=0,03)<sup>72</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo ADVANCE 2<sup>73</sup> comparou 3.057 pacientes submetidos &#224; artroplastia de joelho que receberam 2,5mg de apixabana 2x/dia ou 40mg de enoxaparina 1x/dia, por 10 a 14 dias. A primeira dose de apixabana foi administrada de 12 a 24 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia, enquanto a enoxaparina foi iniciada de 9 a 15 horas antes da cirurgia. Houve menor incid&#234;ncia do evento prim&#225;rio no grupo do apixabana (15,06% <italic>versus </italic>24,37%, RR 0,62, 95% CI 0,51-0,34, p&lt;0,0001), com sangramento maior ou clinicamente significante semelhante nos dois grupos (4%<italic> versus </italic>5%, RR 0,74, 95% CI, 0,52-1,05, p=0,08).</p>
    <p>O estudo ADVANCE 3<sup>74</sup> (n = 5.407) comparou 2,5mg de apixabana 2x/dia com 40mg de enoxaparina, por 35 dias, em cirurgia para pr&#243;tese de quadril. A apixabana foi superior a enoxaparina em rela&#231;&#227;o ao evento prim&#225;rio (1,4% <italic>versus </italic>3,9%, RR, 0,36; 95% CI, 0,22-0,54, p&lt;0,001). O sangramento maior ou clinicamente significante foi semelhante nos dois grupos (4,8%<italic> versus </italic>5,0%, RR, 0,96, 95% CI, 0,76-1,21, p=0,68).</p>
    <p>Uma meta-an&#225;lise<sup>75</sup> incluiu os tr&#234;s estudos (n = 7.337) que avaliaram o uso da apixabana 2,5mg 2x/dia em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; enoxaparina (40mg ao dia ou 30mg 2x/dia) para profilaxia de TEV em cirurgias de pr&#243;tese de joelho. O risco de TEV para o apixabana e enoxaparina foi de 0,47 (95% CI, 0,27-0,82, 0,6% <italic>versus</italic> 1,2%) e 2,09 (95% CI: 0,99-4,45, 0,6% <italic>versus</italic> 0,3%), respectivamente. Os &#243;bitos ocorreram em 0,2% no grupo da apixabana e 0,09% no grupo da enoxaparina (OR=1,74; 95% CI, 0,51-5,95). A apixabana esteve associada a um menor risco hemorr&#225;gico (OR=0,55, 95% CI: 0,32-0,96). Esses dados demonstraram que nas cirurgias de pr&#243;tese de joelho a apixabana &#233; mais eficaz e segura que a enoxaparina.</p>
    <p>O NICE Guidance considerou o apixabana com efic&#225;cia superior &#224; enoxaparina e menor risco hemorr&#225;gico, apesar de n&#227;o estatisticamente significativo. Contudo tamb&#233;m alerta para o pequeno per&#237;odo de observa&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o aos eventos adversos.</p>
    <p>O 9 &#186; ACCP avaliou quatro estudos que inclu&#237;ram mais de 12.000 pacientes sob uso de apixabana para profilaxia de pr&#243;tese de joelho ou quadril. A apixabana reduziu a ocorr&#234;ncia de TVP sintom&#225;tica em 59% (RR, 0,41; 95% CI, 0,18-0,95) e teve pouco ou nenhum efeito sobre a ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramento maior (RR, 0,76; 95% CI, 0,44-1,32) ou sangramento que necessitou de reopera&#231;&#227;o (RR, 0,82; 95% CI, 0,15-4,58), em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; enoxaparina. Contudo, a mesma cr&#237;tica em rela&#231;&#227;o aos dois estudos com rivaroxabana tamb&#233;m pode ser feita aos estudos ADVANCE 2 e 3, pois a queda de hemoglobina foi calculada em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; hemoglobina do primeiro dia p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio e n&#227;o ao pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, podendo subestimar a taxa de sangramento maior. Os resultados falharam em demonstrar um efeito ben&#233;fico ou delet&#233;rio do apixabana em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; TEP n&#227;o fatal (RR, 1,09; 95% CI, 0,31-3,88) e a mortalidade total (RR, 1,87; 95% CI, 0,61-5,74). Os 5 &#243;bitos observados foram no grupo da apixabana. As melhores estimativas sugerem que a apixabana previne 7 TVP sintom&#225;ticas em 1.000 pacientes, sem aumento importante de sangramento maior (menos 8 a mais em 5 casos). Contudo, os resultados falharam em demonstrar uma diferen&#231;a quando todos os TEVs fatais e n&#227;o fatais foram inclu&#237;dos. Portanto, baseado em evid&#234;ncia de moderada qualidade, a apixabana foi considerada semelhante &#224; enoxaparina em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; seguran&#231;a quanto &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de TEV sintom&#225;tico e ao risco hemorr&#225;gico, que foi pouco frequente. Contudo, gra&#231;as &#224; falta de resultados de seguran&#231;a de longa dura&#231;&#227;o em estudos na fase IV, ainda h&#225; indica&#231;&#227;o preferencial de enoxaparina.</p>
    <p>O estudo ADOPT<sup>76</sup> foi o estudo que avaliou a apixabana na preven&#231;&#227;o do TEV em pacientes com doen&#231;a aguda, hospitalizados, com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva, insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria ou outro quadro cl&#237;nico agudo e pelo menos mais um fator de risco para TEV. Foram inclu&#237;dos 6.528 pacientes, que utilizaram apixabana 2,5mg 2x/dia por 30 dias ou enoxaparina 40mg 1x/dia por 6 a 14 dias. A ocorr&#234;ncia de TEV foi semelhante entre os grupos (2,71% <italic>versus </italic>3,06%%; RR, 0,87; 95% CI, 0,62-1,23), com maior sangramento no grupo da apixabana (2,7%<italic> versus </italic>2,1%, RR, 1,28; 95% CI, 0,93-1,76). Portanto, esses resultados evidenciam que a apixabana para a profilaxia de TEV em pacientes cl&#237;nicos hospitalizados n&#227;o foi superior &#224; enoxaparina e esteve associado a um maior sangramento, n&#227;o sendo indicado o seu uso nessa situa&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Para profilaxia de TEV em cirurgias de pr&#243;tese de quadril e joelho, recomenda-se a dose de 2,5mg 2x/dia, por um per&#237;odo de 32 a 38 dias e 10 a 14 dias, respectivamente. O medicamento deve ser iniciado de 12 a 24 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento cir&#250;rgico e com a hemostasia restabelecida.</p>
    <p>Alguns aspectos que devem ser avaliados na escolha do anticoagulante &#233; a toler&#226;ncia do paciente a inje&#231;&#245;es di&#225;rias, hist&#243;rico de plaquetopenia induzida pela heparina, fun&#231;&#227;o renal, necessidade de controle laboratorial, custo do tratamento e disponibilidade de ant&#237;doto para o tratamento das intoxica&#231;&#245;es. A apixabana pode ser muito menos inc&#244;moda ao paciente, e semelhante ou superior &#224; enoxaparina em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a na tromboprofilaxia de cirurgias de pr&#243;tese de joelho e quadril. Ainda h&#225; falta de estudos na fase IV, para melhor embasar a seguran&#231;a do uso desse medicamento, particularmente em rela&#231;&#227;o ao sangramento e complica&#231;&#245;es hep&#225;ticas. H&#225; uma menor limita&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com altera&#231;&#227;o renal, quando comparada a dabigatrana e rivaroxabana, e n&#227;o existe nenhum ant&#237;doto. Apesar de ainda n&#227;o bem estabelecido, deve haver precau&#231;&#245;es na administra&#231;&#227;o de apixabana em pacientes com depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina entre 15 e 30ml/minuto, doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica (Child-Pugh classes A e B), uso concomitante de inibidores/indutores de CYP3A4 ou glicoprote&#237;na P (amiodarona, verapamil, macrol&#237;deos, rifampicina, fenito&#237;na, carbamazepina, fenobrabital), uso de anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o hormonais e inibidores plaquet&#225;rios e pacientes com aumento de transaminase hep&#225;tica.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab14">Tabela 14</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab14">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt31.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>7.4.7.2. Tratamento</italic>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o existem at&#233; o momento recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o uso da apixabana no tratamento de TEV. Estudos est&#227;o em andamento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.5. Compara&#231;&#227;o entre os novos anticoagulantes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A compara&#231;&#227;o de apixabana, dabigatrana e rivaroxabana na profilaxia de TEV em pr&#243;tese de joelho ou quadril &#233; indireta, e realizada atrav&#233;s dos v&#225;rios estudos que compararam esses novos anticoagulantes com a enoxaparina. Uma das cr&#237;ticas a esse tipo de compara&#231;&#227;o &#233; que pode haver diferen&#231;a no desenho dos estudos, al&#233;m dos centros onde os mesmos foram desenvolvidos.</p>
    <p>Uma revis&#227;o<sup>77</sup> incluindo apenas estudos randomizados na compara&#231;&#227;o entre a seguran&#231;a e a efic&#225;cia do apixabana em rela&#231;&#227;o aos outros anticoagulantes na profilaxia de TEV em cirurgias de pr&#243;tese de joelho e quadril revelou que TEV e &#243;bitos s&#227;o mais frequentes com a dabigatrana quando comparada &#224; apixabana na cirurgia de quadril (OR, 2,51; 95% CI, 1,50-4,21) e joelho (OR, 1,72; 95% CI, 1,22-2,42). A rivaroxabana foi semelhante &#224; apixabana em cirurgias de quadril e joelho (OR, 0,69; 95% CI, 0,38-1,25 e OR, 0,83; 95% CI, 0,57-1,19, respectivamente). N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a em rela&#231;&#227;o ao sangramento maior.</p>
    <p>Outra meta-an&#225;lise<sup>78</sup> que incluiu 12 estudos com uso de rivaroxabana ou apixabana em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; enoxaparina demonstrou que a apixabana est&#225; associada a uma menor incid&#234;ncia de sangramento em cirurgias de pr&#243;tese de joelho (6.496 pacientes, RR 0,56, 95% CI 0,32-0,96) com o mesmo n&#250;mero de casos de sangramento maior (5.699 pacientes, RR 1,40, 95% CI, 0,56-3,52). N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a no sangramento nas pr&#243;teses de quadril.</p>
    <p>Maratea e cols.<sup>79</sup> avaliaram oito estudos comparando os novos anticoagulantes na profilaxia de TEV para pr&#243;tese de joelho e quadril. A dabigatrana 150mg ao dia foi menos eficaz que a apixabana 2,5mg 2x/dia (RR 2,0, 95% CI, 1,61 - 2,50) e a rivaroxabana 10mg ao dia (RR 2,38, 95% CI, 1,85-3,03). A dabigatrana 220mg ao dia tamb&#233;m foi menos eficaz que a apixabana 2,5mg 2x/dia (RR 1,66, 95% CI, 1,33-2,08) e a rivaroxabana 10mg ao dia (RR 2,38, 95% CI, 1,85-3,03). N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a na efic&#225;cia da dabigatrana nas doses de 150mg e 220mg ao dia (RR 0,83, 95% CI, 0,67-1,02). A rivaroxabana 10mg ao dia foi superior ao apixabana 2,5mg 2x/dia (RR 0,70, 95% CI, 0,53-0,90). A compara&#231;&#227;o indireta entre a rivaroxabana e a dabigatrana para a tromboprofilaxia prim&#225;ria na pr&#243;tese de joelho e quadril demonstrou que a rivaroxabana foi superior &#224; dabigatrana na preven&#231;&#227;o do TEV RR 0,50 (95% CI, 0,37-0,68), mas com maior risco hemorr&#225;gico RR 1,14 (95% CI, 0,80-1,64).</p>
    <p>Recentemente, houve a publica&#231;&#227;o de uma meta-an&#225;lise<sup>80 </sup>em que se demonstrou que o uso de potentes anticoagulantes, incluindo dabigatrana e rivaroxabana, est&#227;o associados &#224; maior mortalidade, quando comparadas a m&#233;todos mec&#226;nicos e varfarina. Contudo, como pontuado por Eriksson e cols.<sup>81</sup>, esse estudo apresenta in&#250;meras falhas, desde a inclus&#227;o de estudos com desenhos diferentes, generalizando o resultado observado com um anticoagulante para o grupo total, diferentes dura&#231;&#245;es de profilaxia, falta de corre&#231;&#227;o dos resultados por fatores intervenientes, entre outros.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.6. Bivalirudina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Identificamos um &#250;nico estudo<sup>82</sup> aberto de fase II, com 222 pacientes, que avaliou efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a de diferentes doses de bivalirudina na profilaxia de TEV em pacientes submetidos a grandes cirurgias ortop&#233;dicas de quadril e joelho. Foram avaliados seis diferentes regimes que variaram de 0,3mg/kg a cada 12h at&#233; 1,0mg/kg a cada 8h por via subcut&#226;nea. No momento da alta os pacientes eram submetidos &#224; venografia bilateral e a dose mais alta foi a que apresentou as menores taxas de TVP total (17%) e TVP proximal (2%), que foram significativamente diferentes das doses menores, cujas incid&#234;ncias agrupadas foram de 43% de TVP total e 20% de TVP proximal (p=0,01 e p=0,023, respectivamente). Gra&#231;as &#224; falta de estudos, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel fazer recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o uso de bivalirudina no tratamento e profilaxia da TVP.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>7.7. Terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria no TEV</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Fisiopatologicamente, trombose arterial e venosa s&#227;o consideradas entidades distintas, com a trombose arterial envolvendo principalmente plaquetas (co&#225;gulo branco) e a trombose venosa sendo causada pela forma&#231;&#227;o de fibrina e deposi&#231;&#227;o de hem&#225;cias (trombo vermelho). Todavia, algumas caracter&#237;sticas s&#227;o comuns tanto aos eventos arteriais como venosos. Na realidade, plaquetas, fibrina e hem&#225;cias est&#227;o presentes tanto em trombos arteriais quanto venosos, embora em propor&#231;&#245;es diferentes. Tamb&#233;m h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que ocorre ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria em trombos venosos e que a inibi&#231;&#227;o da P-selectina, uma prote&#237;na encontrada na superf&#237;cie de plaquetas ativadas, pode levar &#224; resolu&#231;&#227;o de trombose venosa<sup>83</sup>. Tais fatos podem justificar algum efeito dos antiplaquet&#225;rios na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos venosos.</p>
    <p>Embora haja muitas evid&#234;ncias no que diz respeito ao efeito ben&#233;fico dos antiplaquet&#225;rios na profilaxia secund&#225;ria de eventos arteriais, estas medica&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o foram estudadas no tratamento da TVP ou do TEP e os dados relacionados &#224; profilaxia de TEV s&#227;o pouco consistentes. H&#225; estudos que sugerem uma redu&#231;&#227;o no risco de TEV de cerca de 25% ap&#243;s procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos, mas n&#227;o h&#225; indica&#231;&#227;o de que este seja um m&#233;todo ideal de profilaxia, nem estudos bem desenhados de compara&#231;&#227;o direta com heparinas ou com cumar&#237;nicos<sup>84</sup>.</p>
    <p>Duas meta-an&#225;lises, uma em pacientes de cirurgia geral publicada em 1988<sup>6</sup> e outra em pacientes submetidos &#224; artroplastia total de quadril, publicada em 1994<sup>85</sup>, n&#227;o demonstraram efeito ben&#233;fico da aspirina na redu&#231;&#227;o de TEV. Por outro lado, em uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica publicada tamb&#233;m em 1994, e que incluiu dados de 9.623 pacientes, sendo 814 cl&#237;nicos e 8.809 cir&#250;rgicos, os autores concluem que as medica&#231;&#245;es antiplaquet&#225;rias diminu&#237;ram em 39% a incid&#234;ncia de TVP e em 64% a incid&#234;ncia de TEP, e que o efeito foi detectado tanto nos diversos grupos de pacientes cir&#250;rgicos como nos pacientes cl&#237;nicos de alto risco<sup>86</sup>. A validade de tais conclus&#245;es, entretanto, tem sido amplamente questionada. A maioria dos estudos inclu&#237;dos nesta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica apresentava N inferior a 200, n&#227;o era cego e havia sido publicada nas d&#233;cadas de 1970 e 80. Houve ainda uma ampla gama de medica&#231;&#245;es utilizadas, incluindo AAS (&#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico, aspirina) em doses variadas, dipiridamol, suloctidil, hidroxicloroquina, ticlopidina e sulfinopirizone isolados ou em associa&#231;&#227;o. O m&#233;todo de detec&#231;&#227;o de TEV foi bastante variado e, em cinco estudos, houve utiliza&#231;&#227;o concomitante de HNF. Por fim, a an&#225;lise dos diversos subgrupos n&#227;o demonstrou redu&#231;&#227;o no risco de TEV nos pacientes cl&#237;nicos de alto risco.</p>
    <p>Um grande estudo<sup>87</sup> prospectivo, randomizado, com 17.444 pacientes, comparou o efeito da aspirina com placebo na incid&#234;ncia de TEV ap&#243;s cirurgia ortop&#233;dica, sendo 13.356 fraturas de quadril, 2.648 artroplastias de quadril e 1.440 artroplastias de joelho. Utilizou-se AAS 160mg ou placebo durante 35 dias, e o objetivo foi avaliar morbidade e mortalidade intra-hospitalar at&#233; o final dos 35 dias. Vale ressaltar que foi utilizada HNF em 18% dos pacientes, HBPM em 26% e meias el&#225;sticas de compress&#227;o gradual (MECG) em 30%. No grupo que utilizou AAS, houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na incid&#234;ncia de TEV total, HR= 0,71 (IC 95% 0,54-0,94); TVP, HR= 0,71 (IC 95% 0,52-0,97) e TEP fatal HR=0,42 (IC 95% 0,24-0,73). Esta redu&#231;&#227;o do risco manteve-se naqueles pacientes sem uso de heparina ou em uso de HNF, mas n&#227;o foi observada naqueles em uso concomitante de HBPM. Nos pacientes submetidos &#224; artroplastia de quadril ou joelho, o uso de AAS n&#227;o reduziu a incid&#234;ncia de TVP ou TEP.</p>
    <p>Identificamos apenas tr&#234;s pequenos estudos de compara&#231;&#227;o direta de AAS com medica&#231;&#245;es habitualmente utilizadas para profilaxia de TEV. Um deles comparou a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a do AAS com a do danaparoide em 251 pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia por fratura de quadril. Trata-se de um estudo cego e randomizado, e a dose de AAS utilizada foi de 100mg 2x/dia, durante 14 dias. Todos os pacientes realizavam fibrinog&#234;nio marcado ou pletismografia e os casos suspeitos de TVP foram confirmados com venografia. A incid&#234;ncia de TEV foi significativamente menor no grupo danaparoide [27,8% <italic>versus</italic> 44,3% no grupo AAS, RRR=37,3 (IC 95% 3,7-59,7] e a incid&#234;ncia de hemorragias foi de 1,6% no grupo danaparoide <italic>versus</italic> 6,4% nos pacientes que receberam placebo (p=NS)<sup>88</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em outro estudo, 312 pacientes submetidos &#224; artroplastia de quadril ou joelho foram randomizados para AAS 325mg 2x/dia ou varfarin. A incid&#234;ncia de TEV foi de 33,1% no grupo da aspirina e de 24,7% no grupo varfarin (p=NS)<sup>89</sup>. Em um &#250;ltimo estudo em artroplastia de joelho, Westrich e cols.<sup>90</sup> randomizaram 275 pacientes para receber AAS 325mg, iniciando no dia da cirurgia, ou enoxaparina 30mg 2x/dia, mas iniciada apenas 48h ap&#243;s a cirurgia. As medica&#231;&#245;es foram mantidas por 3 semanas, sendo a dose de enoxaparina reduzida para 40mg 1x/dia ap&#243;s a alta. A incid&#234;ncia de TEV foi de 17,8% no grupo AAS <italic>versus</italic> 14,1% no grupo enoxaparina (p=NS). Em ambos os estudos o tamanho da amostra foi pequeno e a falta de poder do estudo pode explicar porque as diferen&#231;as detectadas entre AAS e o grupo controle n&#227;o foram estatisticamente significativas. Al&#233;m disso, o inicio tardio da enoxaparina no estudo de Westrich pode ter colaborado para os eventos de TEV detectados nesse grupo.</p>
    <p>A an&#225;lise de dados conjuntados de dois estudos recentes<sup>91,92</sup> sugerem um efeito ben&#233;fico do AAS 100mg por dia, nos pacientes que suspendem a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral ap&#243;s 3 a 6 meses do tratamento da TVP. Verifica-se uma redu&#231;&#227;o de pelo menos 30% na recorr&#234;ncia de epis&#243;dios de TEV al&#233;m de redu&#231;&#227;o de 42% na recorr&#234;ncia de outros eventos vasculares nestes pacientes.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_7tab15">Tabela 15</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_7tab15">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt32.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>8. Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>8.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A anticoagula&#231;&#227;o plena em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) tem sido alvo de diferentes estudos ao longo dos &#250;ltimos anos. Ainda hoje seu emprego de forma ampla &#233; alvo de cr&#237;ticas, sendo indicada somente em situa&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas. Novas medica&#231;&#245;es t&#234;m sido desenvolvidas recentemente, por&#233;m ainda sem fun&#231;&#227;o estabelecida e nem de forma definitiva neste meio. Abaixo, esta diretriz concentra-se em relatar as indica&#231;&#245;es de antitrombose especificamente em IC, atentando para os principais estudos j&#225; desenvolvidos na &#225;rea.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>8.2. Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A redu&#231;&#227;o de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) n&#227;o reum&#225;tica s&#227;o preditores independentes de acidente vascular cerebral (AVC)<sup>1,2</sup>. Entretanto, os dados s&#227;o conflitantes quanto ao valor preditor de hist&#243;ria de IC, uma vez que a preven&#231;&#227;o antitromb&#243;tica est&#225; associada a aumento do risco de sangramento<sup>3-5</sup>. Adicionalmente, o AAS (&#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico) pode teoricamente interagir com inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina diminuindo o benef&#237;cio dos mesmos<sup>4</sup>. As recomenda&#231;&#245;es de profilaxia est&#227;o baseadas no efeito clinico considerando-se o risco de AVC <italic>versus</italic> risco de sangramento<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>8.2.1. Aplica&#231;&#227;o de escores de risco de tromboembolismo na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para orienta&#231;&#227;o de uso de medica&#231;&#245;es visando diminuir a incid&#234;ncia de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos usualmente se utiliza de escores de risco. Entretanto, todos os escores publicados tem somente modesta habilidade de prever AVC em FA (estat&#237;stica entre 0,55 e 0,70)<sup>6</sup>. O mais validado &#233; o CHADS<sub>2</sub> para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco (C, piora da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; H, hist&#243;ria de hipertens&#227;o; A, idade <underline>&gt;</underline>75 anos; D, diabetes; S, AVC ou epis&#243;dio isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio)<sup>7</sup>. Cada fator de risco tem peso de 1 ponto, exceto o S que tem peso 2, sendo preconizada a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com varfarina caso o escore seja <underline>&gt;</underline>2. Recentemente, tem-se utilizado o CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc incorporando novos fatores de risco<sup>8</sup>. A idade <underline>&gt;</underline>75 anos passa a valer 2 pontos; al&#233;m disso, V significa infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio pr&#233;vio, doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica ou placa na aorta e tem valor de 1 ponto; A, idade entre 65-74 soma mais 1 ponto; assim como sexo feminino representado pelas letras Sc. Consideram-se os valores da vers&#227;o anterior do escore, sendo baixo risco para FA na aus&#234;ncia de fator de risco e risco intermedi&#225;rio com escore de 1. J&#225; o alto risco &#233; considerado quando escore <underline>&gt;</underline>2. N&#227;o existem estudos prospectivos espec&#237;ficos para IC. (A Se&#231;&#227;o 4, intitulada Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, tamb&#233;m aborda os escores CHADS<sub>2</sub> e CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc.)</p>
    <p>Toda a indica&#231;&#227;o de medicamentos deve ser tamb&#233;m avaliada diante do escore de risco de sangramento HAS-BLED (H, hipertens&#227;o arterial com sist&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline>160mmHg com peso de 1 ponto; A, fun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica ou renal alteradas com 1 ponto cada; S, AVC, 1 ponto; B, sangramento, 1 ponto; L, RNI l&#225;bil, 1 ponto; E, idoso (&gt;75 anos), 1 ponto; D, droga ou &#225;lcool com 1 ponto cada)<sup>9</sup>. Tr&#234;s ou mais pontos indicam alto risco de sangramento em um ano e o uso de medica&#231;&#245;es na preven&#231;&#227;o de tromboembolismo tem que ser balanceado frente ao risco. Para justificar medica&#231;&#245;es que n&#227;o est&#227;o associadas &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade, o n&#250;mero de AVCs n&#227;o fatais evitados deve ser maior que 1/3 do n&#250;mero de epis&#243;dios de sangramento maiores extracranianos<sup>6</sup>. (A Se&#231;&#227;o 4, intitulada Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, tamb&#233;m aborda os escores HAS-BLED.)</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_8tab01">Tabela 1</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_8tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt33.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>8.3. Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em pacientes em ritmo sinusal</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em pacientes com IC em ritmo sinusal, o estudo WATCH avaliou, em 23 meses, pacientes em uso de antagonista de vitamina K com dose ajustada de acordo com o RNI, apresentando incid&#234;ncia de AVC de 0,7% em compara&#231;&#227;o com 2,1%, sob o uso de 162mg de AAS e 2,5% sob o uso de clopidogrel 75mg (p&lt;0,05)<sup>10</sup>. Hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es foram maiores no grupo AAS (22,2%) <italic>versus</italic> grupo antagonista da vitamina K. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a quanto &#224; mortalidade. Entretanto, n&#227;o houve grupo placebo. O estudo WASH com n&#250;mero limitado de pacientes com IC e ritmo sinusal n&#227;o demonstrou beneficio do antagonista de vitamina K quanto &#224; mortalidade, mas reduziu a incid&#234;ncia de AVC em compara&#231;&#227;o com placebo e AAS. Hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o foi mais frequente no grupo AAS 300mg (58%) <italic>versus</italic> 42% do grupo antagonista da vitamina K, e 48% sem profilaxia (p=0,05)<sup>11</sup>. No estudo WARCEF<sup>12</sup>, rec&#233;m-publicado, avaliou-se 2.305 pacientes de 176 centros em 11 pa&#237;ses, com FEVE inferior a 35%, em ritmo sinusal. Este estudo duplo-cego comparou o tratamento com varfarina com INR alvo de 2-3,5 <italic>versus</italic> aspirina numa dose de 325mg diariamente. O acompanhamento m&#233;dio do estudo foi de 3,5 anos, e em compara&#231;&#227;o com a aspirina, a varfarina n&#227;o reduziu significativamente a taxa de desfecho prim&#225;rio (7,47 eventos por 100 pacientes-anos no bra&#231;o varfarina e 7,93 no grupo de aspirina).</p>
    <p>Atualmente, portanto, a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o plena &#233; indicada para pacientes com IC em ritmo sinusal, somente como profilaxia secund&#225;ria para eventos tromboemb&#243;licos.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_8tab02">Tabela 2</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_8tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt34.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>8.4. Novos anticoagulantes na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No cen&#225;rio da FA, novos anticoagulantes t&#234;m sido propostos recentemente. Os ensaios cl&#237;nicos RE-LY, ROCKET AF, e ARISTOTLE foram publicados recentemente e compararam varfarina com dabigatrana, rivaroxabana e apixabana para preven&#231;&#227;o do desfecho prim&#225;rio de AVC ou embolia sist&#234;mica. No RE-LY que testou a dabigatrana, um inibidor competitivo da trombina, de 18.113 pacientes com FA, 5.793 eram portadores de IC (32%)<sup>13</sup>. Na an&#225;lise de subgrupos pr&#233;-especificada de pacientes sintom&#225;ticos para IC, dabigatrana nas doses de 110mg e 150mg utilizado 2x/dia n&#227;o foi inferior ou superior &#224; varfarina para preven&#231;&#227;o do desfecho prim&#225;rio, embora no grupo total na dose de 150mg tenha reduzido o desfecho prim&#225;rio de 1,53% para 1,11% (p&lt;0.001 para superioridade). N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a quanto &#224; mortalidade. Pacientes com depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina &lt;30ml/min n&#227;o devem receber dabigatrana e pacientes com algum grau de insufici&#234;ncia renal ou de baixo peso devem receber dose menor<sup>14</sup>. No estudo ROCKET, avaliou-se a rivaroxabana, um inibidor direto do fator X ativado, com inclus&#227;o de 14.264 pacientes sendo 8.851 portadores de IC (62%). A rivaroxabana n&#227;o foi inferior &#224; varfarina no grupo total e em portadores de IC na preven&#231;&#227;o de AVC ou embolia sist&#234;mica<sup>15</sup>. J&#225; o estudo ARISTOTLE testou a apixabana, inibidor do fator X ativado, em 18.201 pacientes sendo 6.451 com IC<sup>16</sup>. No grupo total em compara&#231;&#227;o com a varfarina, a apixabana reduziu o desfecho prim&#225;rio de 1,6% para 1,27% (p=0,01 para superioridade) e sangramento importante de 3,09% para 2,13% (p&lt;0,001), mas a redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade foi de 3,95% para 3,52% com p=0,047, ou seja, pr&#243;ximo de 0,05 apesar da inclus&#227;o de um n&#250;mero elevado de pacientes. Entretanto, na an&#225;lise de subgrupo em pacientes com IC, a apixabana n&#227;o foi superior &#224; varfarina. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o destes novos anticoagulantes tem as desvantagens do custo superior e das limita&#231;&#245;es do tratamento de epis&#243;dios de sangramento, mas com a vantagem da n&#227;o necessidade de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o do RNI, importante em pacientes n&#227;o aderentes a um protocolo de controle adequado. Mas as limita&#231;&#245;es mais importantes s&#227;o a falta de estudos de fase IV para avaliar seguran&#231;a na popula&#231;&#227;o sob mundo real de utiliza&#231;&#227;o, e de estudos espec&#237;ficos para IC. Tamb&#233;m n&#227;o existem publica&#231;&#245;es com inclus&#227;o de pacientes com IC causada pela doen&#231;a de chagas, o que seria importante porque existe sugest&#227;o de que microembolismo seria mais frequente nesta doen&#231;a<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_8tab03">Tabela 3</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_8tab03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt35.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>8.5. Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca por doen&#231;a de chagas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A doen&#231;a de chagas permanece sendo um grave problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica no Brasil com um contingente de cerca de 5 milh&#245;es de infectados. Sabe-se que 30% desses pacientes desenvolver&#227;o a forma cl&#237;nica sintom&#225;tica que &#233; a cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica (CCC), sendo o est&#225;gio de maior gravidade da doen&#231;a. Suas manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas mais comuns s&#227;o taquicardias, bradiarritmias, fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos e IC<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos s&#227;o complica&#231;&#245;es frequentes por causa da presen&#231;a de discinesias e aneurismas ventriculares, dilata&#231;&#227;o das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas, estase venosa e presen&#231;a de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>A presen&#231;a destes fatores favorece a forma&#231;&#227;o de trombos intracavit&#225;rios com consequente emboliza&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica ou pulmonar. A doen&#231;a de chagas &#233; a terceira causa de IC no Brasil<sup>20</sup>. A incid&#234;ncia anual de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos &#233; de 1 a 2% na CCC, estando associados com aneurisma da ponta do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e trombose mural.</p>
    <p>Diante das peculiaridades da doen&#231;a de chagas, a &#250;ltima atualiza&#231;&#227;o da diretriz brasileira de IC cr&#244;nica considera que o tratamento da IC de origem chag&#225;sica &#233; semelhante ao de outras etiologias, diferindo apenas no n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>8.5.1. Aplica&#231;&#227;o de escores de risco de tromboembolismo na doen&#231;a de chagas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para o tratamento com a finalidade de reduzir os fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos na IC, na presen&#231;a de FA, utiliza-se o CHADS<sub>2</sub> como estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e mais recentemente o CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASC. Segue-se, dessa forma, a mesma recomenda&#231;&#227;o de outras formas de IC para o uso de varfarina.</p>
    <p>Um trabalho brasileiro publicado em 2008<sup>21</sup> mostrou o desenvolvimento de um escore (IPEC/FIOCRUZ - Instituto de Pesquisa Cl&#237;nica Evandro Chagas/Funda&#231;&#227;o Osvaldo Cruz), para avaliar o risco e prevenir o acidente vascular encef&#225;lico especificamente em doen&#231;a de chagas. A presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo contribuiu com 2 pontos, e aneurisma apical, altera&#231;&#227;o da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular e idade &gt;48 anos com 1 ponto cada. Analisando o risco/benef&#237;cio, a varfarina estaria indicada para pacientes com 4 a 5 pontos (neste subgrupo h&#225; incid&#234;ncia de 4,4% de AVC <italic>versus</italic> 2% de sangramento grave ao ano). No subgrupo com escore de 3 pontos, as taxas de eventos e sangramento com anticoagulante se equivalem, podendo ser indicados varfarina ou AAS. Em pacientes que perfazem 2 pontos, gra&#231;as &#224; baixa incid&#234;ncia de AVC, recomenda-se AAS ou nenhuma profilaxia.</p>
    <p>Ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_8tab04">Tabelas 4</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_8tab05">5</xref>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_8tab04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt36.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_8tab05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt37.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>8.5.2. Anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com heparina em pacientes com doen&#231;a de chagas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Anticoagulantes como heparina n&#227;o fracionada de baixo peso molecular podem ser utilizados neste grupo de pacientes. Outros antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes n&#227;o foram testados na popula&#231;&#227;o chag&#225;sica, n&#227;o havendo portanto recomenda&#231;&#227;o na sua indica&#231;&#227;o. As recomenda&#231;&#245;es seguem a mesma linha de pacientes com IC de outra etiologia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>8.5.3. Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de novos anticoagulantes orais em pacientes com doen&#231;a de chagas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Ensaios cl&#237;nicos recentes como RE-LY, ROCKET AF e ARISTOTLE compararam dabigatrana, rivaroxabana e apixabana contra varfarina para preven&#231;&#227;o de tromboembolismo sist&#234;mico. No entanto, n&#227;o houve inclus&#227;o de pacientes chag&#225;sicos nestes estudos, n&#227;o havendo evid&#234;ncia para sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o nesse grupo de pacientes<sup>13,15,16</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>9. Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca e n&#227;o card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Na fisiopatogenia de certas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares frequentemente encontramos algumas complica&#231;&#245;es tromboemb&#243;licas, motivo pelo qual sua terap&#234;utica contempla a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de drogas que inibem a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e outras que retardam a coagula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea. No entanto, no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio esta a&#231;&#227;o pode ser inconveniente, porque a coagula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea ter&#225; que estar parcialmente ou totalmente &#237;ntegra para o sucesso do procedimento cir&#250;rgico. Isto cria um paradoxo que ter&#225; que ser enfrentado pelos profissionais envolvidos nos procedimentos perioperat&#243;rios que dever&#227;o usar as evid&#234;ncias para pender a balan&#231;a: risco de sangramento/risco de evento tromboemb&#243;lico para o lado de maior seguran&#231;a do paciente. Esperamos que as recomenda&#231;&#245;es a seguir ajudem os consultores a encontrar o menor risco.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.2. Indica&#231;&#245;es de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios em cirurgia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.2.1. AAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O efeito do AAS (&#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico) est&#225; plenamente demonstrado em redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e tromboembolismo cerebral em pacientes de risco para eventos tromboemb&#243;licos, ao pre&#231;o de maior risco de sangramentos<sup>1</sup>. Doses de 75-100mg s&#227;o igualmente eficazes que doses de mais de 300mg, com menor risco de sangramento<sup>2</sup>. Por outro lado, &#233; reconhecida a variabilidade de resposta individual &#224; administra&#231;&#227;o de AAS, como dos demais antiplaquet&#225;rios. Entretanto, n&#227;o h&#225; meios cl&#237;nicos pr&#225;ticos de personalizar sua administra&#231;&#227;o e dosagem.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes que v&#227;o para cirurgia card&#237;aca, a rela&#231;&#227;o risco/benef&#237;cio da manuten&#231;&#227;o do AAS no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio depende da urg&#234;ncia, do risco cardiovascular do paciente, das medica&#231;&#245;es antitromb&#243;ticas associadas e do risco de sangramento<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Embora no passado tenha havido recomenda&#231;&#227;o para interrup&#231;&#227;o do uso de AAS por 3 a 5 dias previamente &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca, isto n&#227;o &#233; mais recomendado h&#225; alguns anos pela maioria dos centros<sup>4</sup>. As diretrizes atuais da American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology para cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o inclusive recomendam a administra&#231;&#227;o de AAS previamente ao procedimento cir&#250;rgico, como Classe I, pois h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de sua rela&#231;&#227;o com melhores desfechos p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios<sup>5</sup>. No manejo perioperat&#243;rio moderno, eventuais sangramentos s&#227;o raramente associados &#224; administra&#231;&#227;o mantida de AAS (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab01">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_9tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt38.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.2.2. Tienopirid&#237;nicos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O agente de primeira gera&#231;&#227;o desta classe empregada em cl&#237;nica foi a ticlopidina. Na segunda gera&#231;&#227;o, foi introduzido o clopidogrel, que passou a ser preferido pela menor incid&#234;ncia de discrasias sangu&#237;neas e toxicidade &#224; medula &#243;ssea<sup>6</sup>. Mais recentemente, foi introduzido o prasugrel. Medicamentos antiplaquet&#225;rios desta classe est&#227;o relacionados &#224; importante sangramento no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio e devem ser evitados, ou requerem medidas espec&#237;ficas no manejo perioperat&#243;rio. Todos eles bloqueiam irreversivelmente a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, sem disponibilidade de ant&#237;dotos. Desta forma, para restaurar a fun&#231;&#227;o das plaquetas, &#233; necess&#225;rio interromp&#234;-los e aguardar um intervalo de tempo suficiente para se renovar a popula&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria circulante, em geral ap&#243;s 5 a 7 dias.</p>
    <p>Por causa de algumas caracter&#237;sticas diferentes, espec&#237;ficas de cada agente, elas devem ser comentadas separadamente (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab02">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_9tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt39.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>9.2.2.1. Ticlopidina</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Este tienopirid&#237;nico de primeira gera&#231;&#227;o reduz a incid&#234;ncia de acidente vascular cerebral (AVC), infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e morte de causa vascular, com efeito superior ao AAS. O efeito m&#225;ximo ocorre ap&#243;s 3 a 5 dias e perdura por at&#233; 10 dias ap&#243;s sua interrup&#231;&#227;o. Os efeitos adversos incluem diarreia, rea&#231;&#245;es al&#233;rgicas, urtic&#225;ria e eritema, al&#233;m de dist&#250;rbios hemorr&#225;gicos (epistaxes, equimoses, menorragia) e hematol&#243;gicos (leucopenia, trombocitopenia, pancitopenia)<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em revis&#245;es sistem&#225;ticas de grandes ensaios cl&#237;nicos, considerou-se pelo menos t&#227;o eficaz ou melhor que AAS na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares. Por&#233;m, com o advento do clopidogrel, droga da mesma classe e com menos efeitos colaterais, passou a ter papel secund&#225;rio na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, principalmente por causa das ocorr&#234;ncias de diarreia e neutropenia<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <italic>9.2.2.2. Clopidogrel</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Esse tienopirid&#237;nico, inibidor do receptor ADP P2Y12 &#233; o mais largamente utilizado. Bloqueia irreversivelmente a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e por isto deve ter sua administra&#231;&#227;o interrompida por 5 a 7 dias antes do procedimento cir&#250;rgico, para que seja provido tempo suficiente para a renova&#231;&#227;o da popula&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria.</p>
    <p>Recente an&#225;lise multic&#234;ntrica avaliou o impacto da exposi&#231;&#227;o a clopidogrel por tempo igual ou inferior a 5 dias antes de cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em pacientes com s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas (SCA), para os desfechos de reopera&#231;&#227;o, sangramento maior e tempo de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Encontrou-se risco ajustado de reopera&#231;&#227;o (odds ratio, OR) de 9,80, 95% CI 2,18 a 43,95 (p=0,01) no grupo em uso de clopidogrel, no qual o &#237;ndice de reopera&#231;&#245;es foi 6,4%, comparado com 1,7% no grupo sem clopidogrel (p=0,004)<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por outro lado, outra an&#225;lise recente, que inclui tr&#234;s diferentes d&#233;cadas, com resultados comparados, mostra, de forma muito interessante, que o manejo de pacientes cir&#250;rgicos sob uso de clopidogrel vem melhorando, pela redu&#231;&#227;o significativa da ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramentos e da mortalidade nos anos mais recentes<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>Existe variabilidade individual na resposta ao clopidogrel, gra&#231;as a caracter&#237;sticas gen&#233;ticas de cada paciente. Por esta raz&#227;o, h&#225; recomenda&#231;&#227;o para se realizar avalia&#231;&#227;o laboratorial (<italic>point of caretesting</italic>) a fim de verificar sua a&#231;&#227;o do paciente espec&#237;fico<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda (SCA) recente, estabilizados com tratamento medicamentoso, a estrat&#233;gia preferida &#233; a descontinua&#231;&#227;o do mesmo por 5 dias antes da cirurgia, como citado acima. Durante esse per&#237;odo, recomenda-se administra&#231;&#227;o de AAS 100mg/dia e heparina. Para pacientes em alto risco de eventos isqu&#234;micos graves (pr&#233;via cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, em procedimentos complexos ou com comorbidades n&#227;o card&#237;acas), embora pouco praticada, existe a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de fazer a antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria como "ponte para cirurgia" com as drogas de curta dura&#231;&#227;o, inibidoras da glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIa, como eptifibatide e tirofiban<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>9.2.3. Inibidores de glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa</p>
    <p>F&#225;rmacos desta classe bloqueiam a rota final da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, impedindo a liga&#231;&#227;o do fibrinog&#234;nio aos receptores glicoprote&#237;na (GP) IIb/IIIa e sua convers&#227;o em fibrina. As drogas dispon&#237;veis em cl&#237;nica s&#227;o tirofiban, abciximab e eptifibatide, todas para administra&#231;&#227;o endovenosa. Seu r&#225;pido in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o, que ocorre minutos ap&#243;s a administra&#231;&#227;o e sua pot&#234;ncia, tornam-nas particularmente eficazes para uso em angioplastias coron&#225;rias percut&#226;neas e SCA, mas ao custo de maior risco de sangramento<sup>11</sup>. Existem varia&#231;&#245;es quanto ao mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o e dura&#231;&#227;o do efeito entre elas:</p>
    <disp-quote>
      <p>&#149; <italic>Tirofiban e eptifibatide</italic>. S&#227;o agentes com efeito de curta dura&#231;&#227;o e revers&#237;vel. O tirofiban &#233; um pept&#237;deo-mim&#233;tico com sequ&#234;ncia de amino&#225;cidos similar ao fibrinog&#234;nio e o eptifibatide &#233; um hexapept&#237;dio que inclui 3 amino&#225;cidos em sequ&#234;ncia similar ao veneno of&#237;dico botr&#243;pico<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p>&#149; <italic>Abciximab</italic>. &#201; um anticorpo monoclonal de longa a&#231;&#227;o que inibe a gera&#231;&#227;o da trombina. Tem meia-vida curta no plasma e demonstra reatividade cruzada com receptores de leuc&#243;citos. Tem a&#231;&#227;o potente na inibi&#231;&#227;o das plaquetas, com recupera&#231;&#227;o gradual ap&#243;s 24 a 48 horas da cessa&#231;&#227;o da administra&#231;&#227;o<sup>12</sup>.</p>
    </disp-quote>
    <p>H&#225; recomenda&#231;&#227;o de uso desses agentes, juntamente com a heparina n&#227;o fracionada, por curto per&#237;odo de tempo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, como ponte para a cirurgia, em pacientes com SCA que vinham em uso de clopidogrel. Este deve ser retirado ao menos 5 dias antes da cirurgia. Durante esse per&#237;odo, recomenda-se continuar com AAS em dose baixa (at&#233; 100mg) e heparina. Uma alternativa, embora pouco praticada na cl&#237;nica, seria a administra&#231;&#227;o de inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa, para prevenir eventos isqu&#234;micos na fase de espera para a cirurgia, mas ao custo de maior risco de sangramento. Em pacientes de alto risco para sangramento, existe a alternativa de fazer esta ponte com emprego de bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico por 48-72 horas pr&#233;vias ao procedimento cir&#250;rgico<sup>4</sup>. No Brasil, a ponte p&#243;s-clopidogrel tem sido mais praticada com heparina n&#227;o fracionada e manuten&#231;&#227;o do AAS.</p>
    <p>Pacientes que v&#227;o &#224; cirurgia em uso de inibidores da GP IIb/IIIa requerem medidas especiais e suspens&#227;o da medica&#231;&#227;o, se n&#227;o for poss&#237;vel antes, no momento do procedimento. Eptifibatide e tirofiban t&#234;m meia-vida curta, de cerca de 2 horas, e poder&#225; haver recupera&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria j&#225; ao final da cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o. J&#225; com abciximab, embora tenha meia-vida curta no plasma (10 min), a dissocia&#231;&#227;o das plaquetas ocorre gradualmente e com meia-vida de 4 horas, de maneira que a fun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria retornar&#225; ao normal ap&#243;s 24-48 horas, podendo haver efeito rebote posterior. Caso ocorra sangramento excessivo, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es incluem transfus&#227;o de plaquetas frescas, bem como suplementa&#231;&#227;o de fibrinog&#234;nio com plasma fresco ou crioprecipitado, todas estas medidas isoladamente ou em combina&#231;&#227;o<sup>13</sup> (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab03">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_9tab03">
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    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.2.4. Inibidores do receptor P2Y12</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para que ocorra a completa agrega&#231;&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;rio o bloqueio de ambos os receptores (P2Y1 e P2Y12), entretanto, o P2Y12 predomina, e sua liga&#231;&#227;o com a adenosina resulta em um aumento na produ&#231;&#227;o de tromboxano e agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria prolongada<sup>14-18</sup>.</p>
    <p>A terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria recomendada para pacientes com SCA e para aqueles que ir&#227;o se submeter a implante de stent<italic>s</italic> coron&#225;rios &#233; composta pelo uso de &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico e um inibidor do receptor P2Y12<sup>19,20</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os novos inibidores do receptor P2Y12 alteram a conforma&#231;&#227;o deste receptor, resultando em inibi&#231;&#227;o revers&#237;vel do mesmo, ao contr&#225;rio do que ocorria com o uso dos antigos inibidores plaquet&#225;rios como a ticlopidina e o clopidogrel, que se uniam irreversivelmente &#224; plaqueta<sup>21,22</sup>. A inibi&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria obtida pelos novos inibidores, prasugrel e ticagrelor, tem in&#237;cio mais cedo, em m&#233;dia de 15 a 30 minutos ap&#243;s a dose inicial contra 1 a 2 horas ap&#243;s a dose inicial de clopidogrel, que tem um efeito maior, de 60 a 70% de inibi&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s 2 a 4 horas da dose inicial contra 30% ap&#243;s 5 horas da dose inicial de clopidogrel, e ainda apresenta uma durabilidade de a&#231;&#227;o maior, de at&#233; 10 dias contra 7 do clopidogrel<sup>23-30</sup>. Pacientes portadores de SCA tratados com prasugrel est&#227;o mais protegidos contra eventos isqu&#234;micos quando comparados aos pacientes tratados com clopidogrel. Entretanto, apresentam um risco maior de sangramento<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na literatura, alguns fatores s&#227;o relacionados com um risco aumentado de sangramento p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio como idade avan&#231;ada, anemia pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria, opera&#231;&#245;es de emerg&#234;ncia, cirurgias com longo tempo de circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea, e algumas outras comorbidades como insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva, doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica e insufici&#234;ncia renal. Al&#233;m destas, um fator importante associado a sangramento &#233; a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio. Este tipo de medicamento &#233; comum em pacientes portadores de doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria, especialmente os com SCA. Uma s&#233;rie de trabalhos evidenciou que o uso do inibidor do receptor P2Y12 est&#225; associado a um sangramento maior e que nem mesmo as opera&#231;&#245;es sem circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea (CEC) parecem prevenir isto<sup>9,32-34</sup>. Tr&#234;s estudos sugerem que o uso de bloqueadores do receptor P2Y12 associado ao AAS diminui a incid&#234;ncia de eventos isqu&#234;micos e n&#227;o aumenta o &#237;ndice de sangramento desde que as drogas bloqueadoras do receptor P2Y12 sejam interrompidas com pelo menos 5 dias antes da opera&#231;&#227;o<sup>35-37</sup>. Dois estudos recentes mostram que a interrup&#231;&#227;o 3 dias antes da cirurgia coron&#225;ria j&#225; seria suficiente<sup>38,39</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os dois novos agentes bloqueadores do receptor P2Y12, prasugrel e ticagrelor, quando comparados ao clopidogrel, n&#227;o apresentaram em algumas s&#233;ries um aumento excessivo no sangramento<sup>40,41</sup>. Entretanto, este fato n&#227;o est&#225; associado a opera&#231;&#245;es coron&#225;rias, ou seja, mesmo que n&#227;o seja demonstrado um aumento na incid&#234;ncia de sangramento com o uso destas medica&#231;&#245;es, o sangramento associado &#224; revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica do mioc&#225;rdio em pacientes fazendo uso destes novos agentes antiplaquet&#225;rios continua aumentado<sup>41</sup>. H&#225; trabalhos que demonstram uma chance de sangramento at&#233; 4 vezes maior do prasugrel quando comparado ao clopidogrel e, quando comparamos o ticagrelor com o clopidogrel, ambos apresentam o mesmo risco de sangramento durante a cirurgia se a medica&#231;&#227;o foi ingerida at&#233; 72 horas antes da opera&#231;&#227;o<sup>31,42</sup>.</p>
    <p>A Society of Thoracic Surgery (STS), em diretriz publicada em 2011<sup>3</sup>, recomenda a interrup&#231;&#227;o dos agentes bloqueadores dos receptores P2Y12 por pelo menos 3 dias antes da realiza&#231;&#227;o do procedimento cir&#250;rgico. A recomenda&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via era de que se esperasse de 5 a 7 dias ap&#243;s a interrup&#231;&#227;o destes medicamentos para se realizar a opera&#231;&#227;o. Muitos cirurgi&#245;es, entretanto, n&#227;o esperavam por este per&#237;odo de tempo<sup>37</sup> e, como alguns estudos<sup>38,39</sup> sugerem que 3 dias s&#227;o suficientes, esta &#233; a recomenda&#231;&#227;o atual da STS.</p>
    <p>O AAS diminui a incid&#234;ncia de oclus&#227;o de enxertos venosos no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. A literatura apresenta uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da expans&#227;o deste conceito para as drogas antiplaquet&#225;rias<sup>43</sup>. O seu uso sistem&#225;tico ap&#243;s a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio aumenta a incid&#234;ncia de reopera&#231;&#227;o causada pelo sangramento e n&#227;o est&#225; indicado diante das evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis no momento. O uso dos bloqueadores do receptor P2Y12 est&#225; indicado nos pacientes com alguma contraindica&#231;&#227;o para o uso do AAS no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio<sup>44</sup>. Nos casos em que seu uso &#233; mandat&#243;rio, a sua reintrodu&#231;&#227;o deve ser feita 48 horas ap&#243;s o t&#233;rmino da cirurgia.</p>
    <p>A American Heart Association, em conjunto com a American Association for Thoracic Surgery e com a STS, em sua diretriz para cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio de 2011, em rela&#231;&#227;o ao manejo de drogas antiplaquet&#225;rias, recomendam a suspens&#227;o do ticagrelor por 5 dias antes da cirurgia, e do prasugrel por 7 dias antes do procedimento. Nos casos de opera&#231;&#245;es de urg&#234;ncia, recomenda-se que, quando poss&#237;vel, estes medicamentos sejam suspensos por pelo menos 24 horas<sup>5</sup> (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab04">Tabela 4</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_9tab04">
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    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.2.5. Cilostazol</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Droga inibidora da cAMP, tem fun&#231;&#227;o antiplaquet&#225;ria e vasodilatadora. Tem sido utilizada com bons resultados em pacientes com doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica grave e claudica&#231;&#227;o intermitente<sup>45</sup>, na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria de AVC<sup>46</sup> e, nas doen&#231;as coron&#225;rias, ajuda a reduzir a reestenose intrastent<sup>47,48</sup>. Utilizada como parte da terapia tripla associada ao AAS e clopidogrel, diminui a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria em pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio que v&#227;o para angioplastia prim&#225;ria<sup>49</sup>. Alguns estudos mostram que sua associa&#231;&#227;o com o AAS n&#227;o aumenta o tempo de sangramento<sup>50</sup>.</p>
    <p>O cilostazol tem tamb&#233;m um efeito sobre a musculatura lisa dos vasos que impediria a ocorr&#234;ncia de hiperplasia<sup>51,52</sup>. Este efeito, al&#233;m de prevenir a reestenose intrastent, pode diminuir uma poss&#237;vel hiperplasia intimal que ocorre nos pontos de anastomoses coron&#225;rias<sup>53</sup>.</p>
    <p>Onoda K e cols.<sup>54</sup> demonstraram os benef&#237;cios da associa&#231;&#227;o do cilostazol com o AAS nos pacientes submetidos &#224; revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio sem CEC. Os autores citam que nas opera&#231;&#245;es sem circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea ocorre um estado de hipercoagulabilidade<sup>55,56</sup>, e que o cilostazol &#233; ben&#233;fico no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio imediato. Neste estudo, tanto o cilostazol quanto o AAS foram suspensos 7 dias antes da opera&#231;&#227;o (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab01">Tabela 5</xref>).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.2.6. Dipiridamol e terapia tripla</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os artigos referentes ao dipiridamol s&#227;o antigos, sendo as &#250;ltimas publica&#231;&#245;es de aproximadamente 20 anos atr&#225;s. Teoh KH e cols.<sup>57</sup>, em 1988, publicaram um artigo prospectivo e randomizado em 58 pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca com circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea em que 40 pacientes receberam dipiridamol pr&#233; e transoperat&#243;rio, comparado com um grupo controle de 18 pacientes. A administra&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria do dipiridamol resultou em menor perda sangu&#237;nea e menor necessidade de transfus&#227;o de hemoconcentrados, ambas com signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica. Os autores conclu&#237;ram dizendo que o dipiridamol resulta em aumento no n&#250;mero de plaquetas e reduz o risco de sangramento p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>Em 1975, outro estudo<sup>58</sup> avaliou 12 pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas com circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea que receberam dipiridamol no pr&#233; e transoperat&#243;rio, comparados com um grupo controle de 38 pacientes. Como o primeiro estudo, relatou aumento no n&#250;mero de plaquetas e n&#227;o detectou a presen&#231;a de sangramento aumentado no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>Chesebro e Fuster, em 1986<sup>59</sup>, publicaram um estudo avaliando a efic&#225;cia do dipiridamol em prevenir oclus&#227;o precoce de ponte de veia safena. Os autores relataram que o agente diminui a deposi&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria no enxerto durante a cirurgia e a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o j&#225; no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio &#233; importante. Como os demais, tamb&#233;m n&#227;o referiram aumento no sangramento p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>Em 1978, outro estudo<sup>60</sup> avaliou terapia antitromb&#243;tica em pacientes submetidos &#224; revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio com ponte de safena e art&#233;ria tor&#225;cica interna. Nesta s&#233;rie, os autores relataram que h&#225; um beneficio evidente em termos de redu&#231;&#227;o na taxa de oclus&#227;o de enxertos em um ano de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio nos pacientes que receberam dipiridamol, sem apresentar um aumento na incid&#234;ncia de sangramento imediatamente ap&#243;s a cirurgia<sup>60,61</sup>.</p>
    <p>O artigo mais recente &#233; de 1993, referindo um benef&#237;cio em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o na taxa de oclus&#227;o de enxertos no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio tardio nos pacientes que usaram dipiridamol, sem relatar aumento no sangramento no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio imediato. Na diretriz de 2011 da STS<sup>62,63</sup> e da Sociedade Americana de Anestesiologia<sup>3</sup>, o dipiridamol n&#227;o &#233; citado como agente respons&#225;vel por aumento de sangramento p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; terapia tripla n&#227;o existe nenhuma evid&#234;ncia segura a ser considerada, motivo pelo qual devemos levar em considera&#231;&#227;o as evid&#234;ncias que temos das drogas isoladamente (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab06">Tabela 6</xref>).</p>
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    <p>
      <bold>9.3. Indica&#231;&#245;es de anticoagulantes em cirurgia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.3.1. Heparina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Pacientes com SCA podem necessitar de tratamento cir&#250;rgico para revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. Quando em uso de heparina, apresentam maior risco de sangramento p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio com maior necessidade de revis&#227;o cir&#250;rgica e de transfus&#227;o sangu&#237;nea<sup>64-73</sup>. Portanto, o potencial benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico do uso da heparina no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, at&#233; o momento cir&#250;rgico, deve ser balanceado com o risco de maior sangramento no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio e maior necessidade de transfus&#227;o sangu&#237;nea que pode levar ao aumento das complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e morte em 30 dias<sup>74,75</sup>. Ambos, a transfus&#227;o de hemoderivados ou a re-explora&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, acarretam piora da evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do paciente, al&#233;m dos preju&#237;zos econ&#244;micos como aumento dos custos e prolongamento do tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab07">Tabela 7</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
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    <p>
      <bold>9.3.2. Varfarina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O manejo de pacientes em uso de anticoagulantes no perioperat&#243;rio depende do risco de o paciente apresentar eventos tromboemb&#243;licos quando descontinuar o uso do anticoagulante e do risco de sangramento, caso a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o seja suspensa. A anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio est&#225; associada a um aumento de 3,0% de sangramentos graves. Est&#225; demonstrado que RNI &lt;1,5 n&#227;o est&#225; associado a maior sangramento no perioperat&#243;rio<sup>76-78</sup>. &#201; importante um ajuste adequado da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o para minimizar os eventos tromb&#243;ticos e hemorr&#225;gicos.</p>
    <p>A suspens&#227;o do anticoagulante aumenta o risco de fen&#244;menos emb&#243;licos como AVC e trombose de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas, e este risco varia de acordo com a presen&#231;a de outras comorbidades. Estes eventos podem trazer consequ&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas devastadoras: o AVC pode levar a uma grande incapacidade ou morte em 70% dos pacientes; trombose de pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica pode ser fatal em 15% dos pacientes<sup>76</sup>.</p>
    <p>De acordo com os riscos para eventos emb&#243;licos no perioperat&#243;rio e das comorbidades associadas, ser&#225; utilizada uma estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco em alto, moderado e baixo risco<sup>78</sup> (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab08">Tabelas 8</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab09">9</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_9tab08">
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    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_9tab09">
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    <p>Quando a normaliza&#231;&#227;o do RNI deve ser r&#225;pida, faz-se a reposi&#231;&#227;o dos fatores deficientes: o plasma fresco congelado (PFC) e o concentrado de complexo protromb&#237;nico (Resolu&#231;&#227;o RDC n&#186; 10, de 23 de janeiro de 2004, da Ag&#234;ncia de Vigil&#226;ncia Sanit&#225;ria [ANVISA] determina que para a "corre&#231;&#227;o de hemorragias por uso de anticoagulantes cumar&#237;nicos, ou revers&#227;o r&#225;pida dos efeitos dos cumar&#237;nicos, o produto de escolha &#233; o complexo protromb&#237;nico. Como a disponibilidade desse tipo de concentrado ainda n&#227;o &#233; suficientemente ampla nos hospitais brasileiros, o uso de PFC &#233; uma alternativa aceit&#225;vel")<sup>79</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para o concentrado de complexo protromb&#237;nico ainda n&#227;o existe padroniza&#231;&#227;o da dose a ser empregada, no entanto sugere-se sua administra&#231;&#227;o de acordo com o valor do RNI do paciente em quest&#227;o (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab10">Tabelas 10</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab11">11</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_9tab10">
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    <p content-type="asset">
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    <p>
      <bold>9.3.3. Fondaparinux</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O fondaparinux &#233; um pentassacar&#237;deo sint&#233;tico que inibe seletivamente o fator Xa atrav&#233;s da liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; antitrombina. O fondaparinux liga-se &#224; antitrombina com maior afinidade que o pentassacar&#237;deo nativo da heparina n&#227;o fracionada ou heparina de baixo peso molecular (HBPM). Essa liga&#231;&#227;o provoca altera&#231;&#227;o conformacional na antitrombina que potencializa (por um fator de 300) o efeito natural inibit&#243;rio da antitrombina contra o fator Xa. Esta &#233; a base da capacidade do fondaparinux para servir como anticoagulante<sup>80-85</sup>.</p>
    <p>O fondaparinux foi estudado nas doen&#231;as coron&#225;rias, incluindo angina inst&#225;vel, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, bem como em pacientes submetidos &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea<sup>86,87</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes que est&#227;o em uso de fondaparinux e necessitam de cirurgia eletiva, a atividade anticoagulante persiste por cerca de 3 a 5 meias-vidas ap&#243;s a suspens&#227;o do agente, ou por um per&#237;odo de 2 a 4 dias em pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal. Um per&#237;odo mais longo seria necess&#225;rio em pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal reduzida. N&#227;o h&#225; ant&#237;doto dispon&#237;vel para reduzir este per&#237;odo de espera. Alguns estudos mostram que doses elevadas de fator VIIa recombinante (90mcg/kg) t&#234;m sido capaz de normalizar, em at&#233; 6 horas, o TTPA parcialmente prolongado, o potencial de trombina end&#243;gena, e a ativa&#231;&#227;o de protrombina <italic>in vivo</italic> em volunt&#225;rios saud&#225;veis que receberam 10mg de fondaparinux<sup>85,88</sup>. Recentemente, para tornar o uso de fondaparinux mais seguro, desenvolveu-se uma variante antitrombina como um ant&#237;doto para derivados de heparina<sup>89</sup>. Entretanto, n&#227;o h&#225; estudos sistem&#225;ticos com pacientes com sangramento (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab12">Tabela 12</xref>).</p>
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    <p>
      <bold>9.3.4. Bivalirudina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia da bivalirudina foram investigadas em uma s&#233;rie de ensaios cl&#237;nicos em pacientes com SCA. Quando comparada em monoterapia com as heparinas, isoladas ou em combina&#231;&#227;o com antiplaquet&#225;rios, a bivalirudina reduziu os desfechos prim&#225;rios combinados (morte, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e revasculariza&#231;&#227;o urgente) assim como tamb&#233;m diminuiu significativamente as complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas<sup>87-96</sup>. Gra&#231;as aos resultados desses estudos e seus efeitos ben&#233;ficos, a bivalirudina tem sido recomendada pelas diretrizes internacionais para uso em pacientes com SCA tratados de forma invasiva<sup>91,92</sup>.</p>
    <p>A bivalirudina exibe um efeito anticoagulante linear dose-resposta. O tempo de protrombina, o tempo de tromboplastina parcial ativada (TTPA), o tempo de trombina e o tempo de coagula&#231;&#227;o ativado aumentam linearmente com o aumento da dose de bivalirudina<sup>97</sup>. Uma dose de 0,2mg de bivalirudina/kg/h aumentou o tempo de protrombina de 12 para 16 seg, TTPA de 27 para 62 segundos, e tempo de trombina de 15 para 73 segundos<sup>98</sup>. O aumento da taxa de infus&#227;o de bivalirudina para 1mg/kg/h resultou em um TTPA m&#233;dio de 98 segundos, que voltou para linha de base dentro de 4 horas de suspens&#227;o da infus&#227;o<sup>99</sup> (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab13">Tabela 13</xref>).</p>
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    <p>
      <bold>9.3.5. Dabigatrana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A dabigatrana &#233; um medicamento que age na inibi&#231;&#227;o direta da enzima trombina, respons&#225;vel pela convers&#227;o de fibrinog&#234;nio em fibrina. Seu uso foi aprovado pela Ag&#234;ncia Europeia de Medicamentos em 2008 e recentemente pela ANVISA no Brasil e pelo FDA americano. &#201; um agente de uso oral que pode ser utilizado em &#250;nica dose di&#225;ria, sem a necessidade de monitora&#231;&#227;o de seu efeito. Contudo, a dabigatrana n&#227;o possui ant&#237;dotos dispon&#237;veis<sup>78</sup>.</p>
    <p>A dabigatrana tem meia-vida entre 11 e 22 horas em pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal, podendo chegar at&#233; 35 horas em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal. Portanto, em procedimentos com maior risco de sangramento, a dabigatrana deve ser suspensa entre 2 e 6 dias antes da opera&#231;&#227;o<sup>100,101</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em caso de interven&#231;&#227;o aguda, a dabigatrana deve ser temporariamente suspensa e a cirurgia deve ser adiada at&#233;, pelo menos, 12 horas ap&#243;s a &#250;ltima dose. Se a cirurgia n&#227;o puder ser adiada, considerar os riscos de hemorragia. Este risco de hemorragia deve ser ponderado em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; urg&#234;ncia da interven&#231;&#227;o (ver Tabela 14).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.3.6. Rivaroxabana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>&#201; um anticoagulante com inibi&#231;&#227;o direta do fator X ativado<sup>102</sup>. Est&#225; indicado na preven&#231;&#227;o de tromboembolismo venoso, na preven&#231;&#227;o de acidente vascular cerebral e na preven&#231;&#227;o da embolia sist&#234;mica em pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial<sup>102,103</sup>. A rivaroxabana n&#227;o deve ser usada em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal, com doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica associada &#224; coagulopatia e em pacientes fazendo uso de antimic&#243;ticos e inibidores da protease para HIV. N&#227;o deve ser usada em menores de 18 anos e em gestantes por causa do risco de toxicidade, uma vez que passa pela placenta e, tamb&#233;m, durante a amamenta&#231;&#227;o, pois o agente &#233; excretado no leite materno<sup>100</sup>. A rivaroxabana tem meia-vida m&#233;dia de 12 horas e varia com a fun&#231;&#227;o renal<sup>100</sup>. Em situa&#231;&#245;es de emerg&#234;ncia, em que &#233; necess&#225;ria a revers&#227;o dos efeitos anticoagulantes da rivaroxabana, pode ser utilizado o concentrado de complexo de protrombina fator 4, na dose de 50UI/kg. Outros produtos, como plasma e crioprecipitados, n&#227;o revertem o efeito anticoagulante desse agente<sup>100</sup> (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab15">Tabela 15</xref>).</p>
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    <p>
      <bold>9.3.7. Apixabana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A apixabana &#233; um dos mais novos anticoagulantes orais e tamb&#233;m age por inibi&#231;&#227;o direta do fator X ativado. Tem mostrado efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a na preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento de tromboembolismos<sup>75,81,82,87</sup>. H&#225; poucos estudos cl&#237;nicos e o que se tem preconizado s&#227;o recomenda&#231;&#245;es semelhantes a outros inibidores diretos do fator X ativado como a dabigatrana.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.4. Indica&#231;&#245;es de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios em cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.4.1. AAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Uma grande meta-an&#225;lise envolvendo pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas demonstrou que aqueles em uso de AAS apresentavam um aumento de at&#233; 50% na taxa de sangramento perioperat&#243;rio. No entanto, &#224; exce&#231;&#227;o de neurocirurgia e ressec&#231;&#227;o transuretral de pr&#243;stata, n&#227;o houve aumento na ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramentos considerados graves<sup>104</sup>.</p>
    <p>At&#233; o momento, apenas um estudo randomizado, duplo-cego e placebo controlado foi publicado sobre o uso de AAS no perioperat&#243;rio de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas. Envolveu 220 pacientes vasculopatas que j&#225; faziam uso de AAS (ou seja, pacientes em preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria) e que seriam submetidos a interven&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas n&#227;o card&#237;acas. Esses pacientes foram randomizados para manter o AAS ou descontinu&#225;-lo no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio. A eleva&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria de troponina (objetivo prim&#225;rio) foi menor no grupo que manteve o AAS, mas n&#227;o alcan&#231;ou signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica, provavelmente pelo pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes do estudo. No entanto, houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa de eventos card&#237;acos maiores nos pacientes que mantiveram o AAS no perioperat&#243;rio em rela&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes que tiveram o AAS suspenso (1,8% x 9,0%, p=0,02). Apesar de n&#227;o ter sido desenhado para esse objetivo, o estudo tamb&#233;m n&#227;o demonstrou diferen&#231;a na taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas entre os grupos<sup>105</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para a maioria das situa&#231;&#245;es, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da rela&#231;&#227;o risco/benef&#237;cio da terapia antiagregante no coronariopata que vai ser submetido &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; favor&#225;vel &#224; manuten&#231;&#227;o do AAS. Situa&#231;&#245;es de exce&#231;&#227;o consistem em opera&#231;&#245;es neurol&#243;gicas (onde mesmo pequenos sangramentos podem ser catastr&#243;ficos), prostatectomias transuretrais (exemplo de procedimento sem hemostasia prim&#225;ria) e outras circunst&#226;ncias em que o risco de sangramento seja proibitivo. Nesses casos, o per&#237;odo m&#237;nimo de 7 dias deve ser respeitado para a revers&#227;o dos efeitos antiplaquet&#225;rios do agente (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab16">Tabela 16</xref>).</p>
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    <p>
      <bold>9.4.2. Tienopirid&#237;nicos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica de 37 estudos sobre o uso de tienopirid&#237;nicos no perioperat&#243;rio, Au e cols.<sup>106</sup> conclu&#237;ram que o uso do tienopirid&#237;nico no perioperat&#243;rio aumenta a necessidade de reopera&#231;&#227;o por sangramento: 4,3% x 1,8% (OR 2,62; 95% IC 1,96-3,46) e a mortalidade: 3,7% x 2,6% (OR 1,38; 95% IC 1 1,3-1,69). Entretanto, apenas seis estudos avaliaram pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas e, nestes pacientes, a taxa de eventos foi baixa para permitir conclus&#245;es definitivas (6 sangramentos com necessidade de reopera&#231;&#227;o em 230 pacientes e 14 &#243;bitos em 492 pacientes)<sup>106</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es vasculares, apesar de existir um maior n&#250;mero de estudos, estes s&#227;o com pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes ou de eventos, ou observacionais e retrospectivos, tamb&#233;m n&#227;o permitindo uma conclus&#227;o definitiva. Burdess e cols.<sup>107</sup> avaliaram 113 pacientes com isquemia cr&#237;tica de membro inferior submetidos &#224; revasculariza&#231;&#227;o de membros inferiores, amputa&#231;&#227;o ou endarterectomia femoral que foram randomizados para receber clopidogrel 600mg de 4 a 28 horas antes da opera&#231;&#227;o ou placebo, mantendo 75mg por dia ap&#243;s a cirurgia. Todos os pacientes recebiam AAS. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre sangramentos maiores com risco de vida entre os grupos: 7 (14%) no grupo clopidogrel e 6 (10%) no grupo placebo (p=0,56). Entretanto, os pacientes do grupo clopidogrel apresentaram uma eleva&#231;&#227;o no n&#250;mero de sangramentos maiores sem risco de vida: 11 (22%) no grupo clopidogrel <italic>versus</italic> 4 (7%) no grupo placebo (p=0.024). Al&#233;m disso, 20 pacientes (40%) recebendo clopidogrel necessitaram de transfus&#227;o de concentrado de hem&#225;cias <italic>versus</italic> apenas 8 (14%) do grupo placebo (p=0,0019). N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos quando a presen&#231;a de sangramentos menores (p=0,12), dura&#231;&#227;o da opera&#231;&#227;o (p=0,6) ou da interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar (p=0,72)<sup>107</sup>. De Borst e cols.<sup>108</sup> avaliaram tr&#234;s diferentes estrat&#233;gias de antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria em 102 pacientes antes de endarterectomia de car&#243;tida. Os pacientes eram divididos em tr&#234;s grupos: dipiridamol + AAS, dipiridamol + AAS + clopidogrel e dipiridamol + AAS + dextran 40mg. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos quanto &#224; necessidade de reopera&#231;&#227;o por sangramento, que ocorreu em apenas 5 pacientes, limitando consideravelmente o poder o estudo<sup>108</sup>.</p>
    <p>Payne e cols.<sup>109</sup> randomizaram 100 pacientes para receber clopidogrel 75mg ou placebo, al&#233;m de AAS em pacientes que seriam submetidos &#224; endarterectomia de car&#243;tidas. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos quanto &#224; necessidade de transfus&#227;o sangu&#237;nea (p=1,0) e volume do dreno (p=0,65). Entretanto, houve um aumento no tempo necess&#225;rio at&#233; o fechamento da incis&#227;o cir&#250;rgica (p=0,004) e uma tend&#234;ncia a um aumento na presen&#231;a de hematoma cervical (13% x 6%; p=0,47) e necessidade de reexplora&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica (11% x 6%) no grupo clopidogrel sem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica<sup>109</sup>. Outros estudos observacionais que avaliaram o uso de clopidogrel associado ao AAS no perioperat&#243;rio de endarterectomia de car&#243;tidas tamb&#233;m tinham pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes estudados e poucos eventos, n&#227;o sendo poss&#237;vel encontrar diferen&#231;as significativas entre os grupos<sup>110</sup>. Stone e cols.<sup>111</sup> realizaram um estudo observacional com 10.406 pacientes submetidos a endarterectomia de car&#243;tidas, revasculariza&#231;&#227;o de membros inferiores, corre&#231;&#227;o de aneurisma de aorta abdominal convencional e endovascular. Destes pacientes, 2.010 (19,3%) n&#227;o receberam antiagregantes, 7.132 (68,5%) receberam AAS, 229 (2,2%) receberam clopidogrel e 1.017 (9,7%) receberam dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos quanto &#224; reopera&#231;&#227;o por sangramento (sem antiagregantes 1,5%, AAS 1,3%, clopidogrel 0,9%, AAS com clopidogrel 1,5%; p=0,74) ou necessidade de transfus&#227;o (sem antiagregantes 18%, AAS 17%, clopidogrel 0%, AAS com clopidogrel 24%; p=0,1). Entretanto, o n&#250;mero de pacientes que receberam clopidogrel nos grupos de corre&#231;&#227;o de aneurisma de aorta era pequeno para permitir conclus&#245;es sobre o uso de clopidogrel nesta popula&#231;&#227;o<sup>111</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para pacientes submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o vasculares, as evid&#234;ncias s&#227;o ainda mais escassas. Um estudo retrospectivo comparou 28 pacientes que tomaram clopidogrel at&#233; 6 dias antes de cirurgias gerais com 22 pacientes que suspenderam por 7 ou mais dias. Os pacientes em uso do clopidogrel apresentaram maior n&#250;mero de sangramentos com necessidade de transfus&#227;o que aqueles que suspenderam o clopidogrel 7 ou mais dias antes da opera&#231;&#227;o (21,4% x 9,5%, respectivamente), por&#233;m sem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica (p=0,53). Cerca de 32% dos pacientes do grupo clopidogrel e 40% do grupo suspens&#227;o do clopidogrel estavam em uso de AAS. Nenhum paciente apresentou sangramento necessitando de reopera&#231;&#227;o e n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos quanto &#224; mortalidade ou tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar<sup>112</sup>.</p>
    <p>Sim e cols.<sup>113</sup> avaliaram retrospectivamente 21 pacientes em uso de clopidogrel submetidos &#224; corre&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica de fratura de f&#234;mur e comparam com 114 pacientes controle, demonstrando que n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos quanto a necessidade de transfus&#227;o ou presen&#231;a de hematoma na ferida operat&#243;ria<sup>113</sup>. Recentemente, Chechik e cols.<sup>114</sup> avaliaram 60 pacientes com fratura de f&#234;mur que estavam em uso de clopidogrel, sendo que 30 pacientes operaram na vig&#234;ncia do agente e 30 pacientes operaram apenas 5 dias ap&#243;s sua suspens&#227;o. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos quanto &#224; necessidade de transfus&#227;o ou mortalidade, e houve uma tend&#234;ncia a um maior n&#250;mero de complica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas relacionadas &#224; imobilidade (tromboembolismo pulmonar, &#250;lceras de press&#227;o, edema pulmonar e sepse) no grupo que retardou a cirurgia por causa do uso do clopidogrel<sup>114</sup>. Estes dados s&#227;o importantes porque a opera&#231;&#227;o precoce em pacientes com fratura de f&#234;mur reduz a mortalidade, e retardar a opera&#231;&#227;o por causa do uso do clopidogrel pode trazer mais malef&#237;cio que benef&#237;cio. Al&#233;m disso, a suspens&#227;o do antiagregante em pacientes com doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria aumenta o risco de SCA<sup>115</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em outro estudo retrospectivo, comparou-se 142 pacientes que tomavam clopidogrel com 1.243 pacientes controle submetidos &#224; polipectomia colonosc&#243;pica quanto &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramento imediato e tardio. Setenta e sete pacientes (54%) do grupo clopidogrel tamb&#233;m recebiam AAS. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os grupos no sangramento imediato (2,1% x 2,1%), mas os pacientes recebendo clopidogrel apresentaram maior n&#250;mero de sangramentos tardios (3,5%x 1,0%; p=0,02) e maior necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o, transfus&#227;o ou interven&#231;&#227;o adicional (2,1% x 0,4%; p=0,04). Devemos considerar que os 8 pacientes do grupo clopidogrel que apresentaram sangramento estavam em uso de AAS. Na an&#225;lise multivariada, as vari&#225;veis independentemente relacionadas ao sangramento foram o uso de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o (OR 3,69; IC 95% 1,6-8,52; p=0,002) e o n&#250;mero de p&#243;lipos ressecados (OR 1,28; IC 95% 1,19-138; p&lt;0,001)<sup>116</sup>.</p>
    <p>Talvez a antiagrega&#231;&#227;o isolada com clopidogrel n&#227;o confira um risco t&#227;o grande de sangramento, por&#233;m n&#227;o existem evid&#234;ncias at&#233; o momento que comprovem esta afirma&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>A decis&#227;o sobre a manuten&#231;&#227;o ou suspens&#227;o do antiagregante deve sempre ser realizada ap&#243;s discuss&#227;o multidisciplinar entre o cardiologista/cl&#237;nico, anestesiologista e cirurgi&#227;o sobre os seus riscos e benef&#237;cios (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab17">Tabela 17</xref>).</p>
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    <p>
      <bold>9.4.3. Pacientes com stent coron&#225;rio</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Cerca de 5% dos pacientes submetidos a angioplastias coron&#225;rias com coloca&#231;&#227;o de stent far&#227;o opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas dentro de 1 ano<sup>117</sup>. A suspens&#227;o prematura da dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o &#233; o principal fator de risco para trombose do stent, sendo que a mortalidade relacionada &#224; trombose pode chegar a 45%<sup>118</sup>. Outros fatores de risco para trombose do stent farmacol&#243;gico s&#227;o: idade avan&#231;ada, stent colocado por causa de SCA, <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic>, fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo reduzida, insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica e caracter&#237;sticas angiogr&#225;ficas (les&#245;es ostiais, stent<italic>s</italic> longos, bifurca&#231;&#245;es, vasos pequenos)<sup>119</sup>. Pacientes submetidos &#224; angioplastia com stent devem manter o uso de AAS indefinidamente e o uso dos tienopirid&#237;nicos por no m&#237;nimo 1 m&#234;s para stent convencional e 12 meses para stent farmacol&#243;gico<sup>120</sup>. Em cerca de 30 a 40% dos pacientes que suspendem prematuramente a dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o, o motivo da suspens&#227;o &#233; uma interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica<sup>121</sup>.</p>
    <p>A realiza&#231;&#227;o de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas menos de 2 semanas ap&#243;s angioplastia com stent convencional apresenta taxas de complica&#231;&#245;es perioperat&#243;rias proibitivas (infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio ou complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas)<sup>122</sup>. Nuttall e cols.<sup>123</sup> avaliaram retrospectivamente 899 pacientes submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas at&#233; 1 ano ap&#243;s angioplastia com stent convencional. Quarenta e sete pacientes (5,2%) apresentaram evento cardiovascular (morte, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, necessidade de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o). A taxa de eventos cardiovasculares foi 10,5% quando a opera&#231;&#227;o se realizou menos de 30 dias ap&#243;s a angioplastia, 3,8% entre 31 e 90 dias e 2,8% ap&#243;s 91 dias. Portanto, o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares diminuiu significativamente a cada 30 dias passados entre a angioplastia e a opera&#231;&#227;o (p=0,003)<sup>123</sup>. Por outro lado, o mesmo desenho do estudo realizado com 520 pacientes submetidos &#224; angioplastia com stent farmacol&#243;gico revelou que a taxa de eventos cardiovasculares foi constante durante o primeiro ano ap&#243;s a angioplastia. Somente ap&#243;s 1 ano da angioplastia com stent farmacol&#243;gico houve redu&#231;&#227;o da taxa de eventos cardiovasculares<sup>124</sup>. Por isto, a opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca eletiva deve ser postergada por no m&#237;nimo 1 m&#234;s ap&#243;s angioplastia com stent convencional e 1 ano ap&#243;s angioplastia com stent farmacol&#243;gico<sup>78,121</sup>.</p>
    <p>Eisenberg e cols.<sup>125</sup> realizaram uma an&#225;lise retrospectiva em 161 casos de trombose de stent farmacol&#243;gico para determinar o tempo m&#233;dio entre a parada da dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o e a trombose. O tempo m&#233;dio para ocorr&#234;ncia da trombose do stent foi 7 dias ap&#243;s a parada simult&#226;nea ou sucessiva do AAS e clopidogrel, enquanto para pacientes que pararam somente o clopidogrel e mantiveram o AAS, este tempo foi de 122 dias. Al&#233;m disso, entre os 94 pacientes que mantiveram o AAS e descontinuaram o clopidogrel, em apenas 6 casos a trombose do stent ocorreu nos primeiros 10 dias<sup>125</sup>. Portanto, em pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o de suspens&#227;o do clopidogrel para o procedimento cir&#250;rgico, este deve ser reintroduzido o mais precocemente poss&#237;vel, de prefer&#234;ncia antes de 10 dias da sua suspens&#227;o, para evitar a trombose do stent<sup>78</sup> (<xref ref-type="undefined" rid="s03_9tab18">ver Tabela 18</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <undefined id="s03_9tab18">
        <inline-graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/BHqJP3FZGGSSf6Lcnqw6JRH/46c4fd30aaaf53bc7d673e368e436091bff736da.jpg"/>
      </undefined>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.4.4. Inibidores da glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Um estudo inicial avaliou a efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a do tirofiban como "ponte" no perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes com stent<italic>s</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos submetidos a opera&#231;&#245;es antes de um ano, necessitando de suspens&#227;o do clopidogrel. Foram inclu&#237;dos 30 pacientes que necessitavam de opera&#231;&#245;es de urg&#234;ncia com stent farmacol&#243;gico h&#225; menos de 6 meses ou h&#225; menos de 1 ano, mas com fatores de risco para trombose do stent. O clopidogrel foi suspenso 5 dias antes do procedimento e o tirofiban iniciado 4 dias antes. A infus&#227;o do tirofiban foi suspensa 4 horas antes do procedimento (8 horas se a depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina era menor que 30ml/min), reiniciada 2 horas ap&#243;s e suspensa 4 horas ap&#243;s a dose do clopidogrel. O clopidogrel foi reiniciado com dose de ataque de 300mg logo ap&#243;s a libera&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o via oral. N&#227;o houve nenhum evento cardiovascular durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. Um paciente apresentou sangramento maior (proctorragia no 7&#186; dia do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio) com necessidade de transfus&#227;o que reverteu ap&#243;s clipagem colonosc&#243;pica e dois pacientes apresentaram sangramentos menores com necessidade de transfus&#227;o<sup>126</sup>. Este foi um estudo piloto com poucos pacientes avaliados e nenhum evento isqu&#234;mico, o que n&#227;o permite a recomenda&#231;&#227;o da "ponte" com tirofiban como rotina, mas ela pode ser realizada em pacientes de muito alto risco para trombose do stent.</p>
    <p>Cabe ressaltar que o uso da heparina n&#227;o fracionada ou de baixo peso molecular como "ponte" para preven&#231;&#227;o da trombose do stent n&#227;o est&#225; indicado porque estes agentes n&#227;o apenas protegem da trombose do stent como tem um efeito protromb&#243;tico rebote ap&#243;s sua suspens&#227;o.</p>
    <p>O abciximab &#233; um inibidor irrevers&#237;vel das plaquetas com dura&#231;&#227;o de a&#231;&#227;o de 7 dias, portanto n&#227;o h&#225; nenhuma indica&#231;&#227;o para o seu uso no perioperat&#243;rio de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas em fun&#231;&#227;o do alto risco de hemorragia<sup>118</sup> (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab19">Tabela 19</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_9tab19">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt53.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.4.5. Cilostazol</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O cilostazol apresenta meia-vida de aproximadamente 10 horas. &#201; comumente descontinuado por uma elevada ocorr&#234;ncia de efeitos colaterais, como cefaleia e dist&#250;rbios gastrointestinais. Al&#233;m disso, &#233; contraindicado em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca pelo potencial de indu&#231;&#227;o de arritmias ventriculares<sup>127</sup>.</p>
    <p>N&#227;o existem estudos avaliando os benef&#237;cios ou potenciais malef&#237;cios do uso de cilostazol no perioperat&#243;rio de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas. Pelo potencial aumento do risco de sangramento e aus&#234;ncia de evid&#234;ncias comprovando o benef&#237;cio da sua manuten&#231;&#227;o nesse contexto, a recomenda&#231;&#227;o desta diretriz &#233; de suspender o seu uso no dia anterior &#224; opera&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o card&#237;aca planejada (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab20">Tabela 20</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_9tab20">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt54.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.4.6. Dipiridamol</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Da mesma forma que o cilostazol, o dipiridamol tem meia-vida de aproximadamente 10 horas. Apesar de apresentar efeitos revers&#237;veis na fun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, o dipiridamol proporciona um aumento do risco de sangramento, principalmente quando coadministrado com o AAS<sup>128-130</sup>.</p>
    <p>Um estudo realizado em 102 pacientes submetidos &#224; endarterectomia de car&#243;tida analisou a taxa de emboliza&#231;&#227;o cerebral p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria detectada por Doppler transcraniano, considerando tr&#234;s diferentes regimes de antiagrega&#231;&#227;o, todos eles incluindo a combina&#231;&#227;o AAS e dipiridamol. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a de eventos emb&#243;licos entre os grupos (apesar do reduzido n&#250;mero de pacientes), mas observou-se uma taxa de sangramento maior que a habitual nesse tipo de procedimento, em todos os grupos<sup>128-130</sup>. Pelo potencial de aumento no risco de sangramento, parece prudente a suspens&#227;o do dipiridamol no dia anterior &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas. A avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco/benef&#237;cio da manuten&#231;&#227;o do AAS deve ser feita de maneira individualizada (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab21">Tabela 21</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_9tab21">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt55.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.5. Indica&#231;&#245;es de anticoagulantes em cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.5.1. Heparina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>9.5.1.1. Terapia ponte de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Na aus&#234;ncia de estudos randomizados que avaliem os riscos e benef&#237;cios da terapia ponte de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, os esquemas de transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagulante oral no perioperat&#243;rio s&#227;o bastante variados em diferentes servi&#231;os. Desta forma, n&#227;o h&#225; um esquema estabelecido para o manejo da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio. O principal objetivo de realizar a terapia ponte de anticoagulante oral &#233; minimizar ao m&#225;ximo o risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos arteriais em pacientes portadores de pr&#243;teses valvares met&#225;licas, de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e evitar recorr&#234;ncia de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos pr&#233;vios. Dessa forma, a indica&#231;&#227;o de uma transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral para via parenteral ou subcut&#226;nea baseia-se em dois fatores principais: o risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos na suspens&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o e o risco de sangramento do paciente e da cirurgia proposta<sup>78</sup>.</p>
    <p>As diretrizes existentes preconizam a estimativa de risco de tromboembolismo e a avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de sangramento perioperat&#243;rio para defini&#231;&#227;o do manejo da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria<sup>78,131</sup>. A estimativa de risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos perioperat&#243;rios &#233; baseada principalmente nas tr&#234;s condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que resultam na indica&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral no paciente: presen&#231;a de pr&#243;tese valvar mec&#226;nica, portadores de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial ou hist&#243;ria de TEV pr&#233;via. Tanto a diretriz de Perioperat&#243;rio da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia como a &#250;ltima atualiza&#231;&#227;o de American College of Chest Physicians classificam de forma semelhante a estimativa de risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos no perioperat&#243;rio, conforme j&#225; apresentado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab08">Tabela 8</xref><sup>78,131</sup>.</p>
    <p>De forma geral, nos procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos com baixo risco de sangramento, n&#227;o h&#225; necessidade de suspens&#227;o de anticoagulante oral. Os procedimentos podem ser realizados com RNI terap&#234;utico<sup>78,131</sup>. Nos pacientes classificados como de baixo risco para eventos tromboemb&#243;licos, n&#227;o h&#225; necessidade de manter a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o plena em todo per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio gra&#231;as &#224; baixa incid&#234;ncia de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos arteriais nesta popula&#231;&#227;o. Indica-se a suspens&#227;o tempor&#225;ria de anticoagulante oral e uso de dose de heparina profil&#225;tica para preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos no perioperat&#243;rio. Nos pacientes considerados de alto risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos a serem submetidos a procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos com risco moderado a alto de sangramento, indica-se a terapia ponte de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral no perioperat&#243;rio. Nos pacientes de risco moderado, as duas condutas acima s&#227;o adotadas e aceitas. Normalmente, a indica&#231;&#227;o de transi&#231;&#227;o ou n&#227;o de anticoagulante oral fica a crit&#233;rio do julgamento m&#233;dico.</p>
    <p>
      <italic>9.5.1.2. Pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica valvar</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Os pacientes portadores de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas valvares s&#227;o considerados como um grupo de alto risco para eventos tromboemb&#243;licos, pois a taxa de eventos chega a cerca de 8% em pacientes sem uso de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o. A interrup&#231;&#227;o do uso de anticoagulante oral no perioperat&#243;rio pode levar a eventos tromboemb&#243;licos como AVC, emboliza&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica e/ou trombose de pr&#243;tese.</p>
    <p>N&#227;o existem estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados com metodologia adequada que tenham avaliado estrat&#233;gias de terapia ponte de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em portadores de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas valvares. Os estudos existentes que avaliaram anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em portadores de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas no perioperat&#243;rio s&#227;o bastante escassos e limitados. Os primeiros estudos s&#227;o s&#233;ries retrospectivas e um &#250;nico estudo prospectivo com pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes onde a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria era suspensa ou realizada com heparina n&#227;o fracionada<sup>132-134</sup>. Desta forma, a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria era suspensa (portadores de pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica valvar em posi&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica) ou realizada com uso de heparina n&#227;o fracionada em portadores de pr&#243;teses valvares em posi&#231;&#227;o mitral. Os resultados destes estudos s&#227;o bastante limitados, pois n&#227;o havia esquema estabelecido de manejo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o e os resultados de seguimento n&#227;o foram adequadamente registrados<sup>132-134</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na aus&#234;ncia de evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas da melhor estrat&#233;gia de manejo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio, nos pacientes com indica&#231;&#227;o de terapia ponte, a conduta padr&#227;o habitualmente mais adotada era a interna&#231;&#227;o do paciente e realiza&#231;&#227;o de transi&#231;&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o para heparina n&#227;o fracionada no perioperat&#243;rio. Esta prefer&#234;ncia de abordagem de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o foi confirmada de acordo com o estudo canadense que avaliou a prefer&#234;ncia do tipo de heparina utilizada como terapia ponte da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em portadores de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas valvares, onde os m&#233;dicos preferiram a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de heparina n&#227;o fracionada pela sua seguran&#231;a e efetividade<sup>135</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, essa pr&#225;tica vem sendo substitu&#237;da pela utiliza&#231;&#227;o de HBPM como forma de terapia ponte de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o pela possibilidade de realiza&#231;&#227;o em ambiente extra-hospitalar. Existem poucos estudos que avaliaram a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de HBPM como terapia ponte de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio que inclu&#237;ram pacientes portadores de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas valvares. Num estudo de revis&#227;o realizado por Spyropoulos e cols.<sup>136</sup>, onde cinco estudos avaliaram efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a de transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com HBPM, incluiu-se ao todo 749 pacientes portadores de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas valvares e a taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es cardioemb&#243;licas foi de 0,4% e de sangramento de 2,8%, mostrando a seguran&#231;a para utiliza&#231;&#227;o de HBPM em pacientes com pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas valvares<sup>136</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nos pacientes nos quais se indica a manuten&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria, habitualmente a terapia de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral com varfarina &#233; suspensa 5 dias antes do procedimento cir&#250;rgico e iniciada terapia ponte com heparina de curta dura&#231;&#227;o neste per&#237;odo. Esta transi&#231;&#227;o pode ser realizada tanto com heparina n&#227;o fracionada via endovenosa como com HBPM via subcut&#226;nea, na dose terap&#234;utica, sendo que as &#250;ltimas doses das heparinas suspensas antes da opera&#231;&#227;o devem respeitar a meia-vida da medica&#231;&#227;o utilizada. Entre as duas estrat&#233;gias dispon&#237;veis com uso de heparina, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de heparina n&#227;o fracionada como ponte da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral implica necessariamente na interna&#231;&#227;o do paciente antes do procedimento cir&#250;rgico para esta finalidade. O uso de heparina endovenosa necessita ainda de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o e controle de TTPA para ajuste da dose terap&#234;utica, com intuito de manter TTPA entre 1,5 a 2,5. Normalmente, a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o fica mais reservada para pacientes com contraindica&#231;&#227;o ao uso de HBPM, como nos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal grave ou pacientes em di&#225;lise. A transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com HBPM parece uma alternativa favor&#225;vel gra&#231;as &#224; possibilidade de sua administra&#231;&#227;o extra-hospitalar, sem necessidade de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o laboratorial do n&#237;vel terap&#234;utico. Entretanto, existem algumas situa&#231;&#245;es onde se deve evitar o seu uso, principalmente nos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal com depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina baixa (&lt;30ml/min).</p>
    <p>N&#227;o existem na literatura estudos randomizados que tenham comparado estrat&#233;gias diferentes de manejo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio e qual seria a conduta mais adequada de transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o. Os estudos existentes, na maioria dos casos, s&#227;o observacionais, alguns prospectivos e outros retrospectivos, que avaliaram diferentes formas de transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>O estudo REGIME procurou avaliar o manejo de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria com as duas formas de heparinas. Foi um estudo multic&#234;ntrico, prospectivo e observacional envolvendo 14 centros americanos e canadenses onde foram coletados informa&#231;&#245;es sobre a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o recebida no perioperat&#243;rio. A decis&#227;o sobre qual tipo de terapia ponte seria utilizada para transi&#231;&#227;o ficou a cargo do m&#233;dico cl&#237;nico respons&#225;vel. Foram inclu&#237;dos 901 pacientes divididos em dois grupos: grupo que recebeu heparina n&#227;o fracionada como ponte (180 pacientes) e grupo que recebeu HBPM administradas 2x/dia (721 pacientes). A porcentagem dos pacientes que recebeu a dose de heparina p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria foi semelhante nos dois grupos (91,1% heparina n&#227;o fracionada x 92,6% HBPM, p=0,49). A taxa de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos foi baixa nos dois grupos, 2,4% no grupo heparina n&#227;o fracionada x 0,9% no grupo HBPM. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa na taxa de sangramento maior entre os dois grupos: 5,5% heparina n&#227;o fracionada x 3,3% HBPM, p=0,25. O grupo de pacientes que recebeu ponte com HBPM teve mais procedimentos realizados em regime ambulatorial ou teve interna&#231;&#227;o &lt;24 horas (63,6% x 6,1%, p&lt;0,001). Entre os pacientes operados em regime hospitalar, o grupo de HBPM apresentou tamb&#233;m menor tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o quando comparado com heparina n&#227;o fracionada (4,6 x 10,3 dias, p&lt;0,001). Apesar de ser o primeiro estudo que comparou a terapia de transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, o estudo apresenta limita&#231;&#245;es importantes por n&#227;o ser randomizado e n&#227;o ter um grupo controle. Pelos resultados apresentados, as duas estrat&#233;gias se mostraram eficazes e seguras como terapia ponte de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral, entretanto a HBPM tem a facilidade de poder ser utilizada em ambiente extra-hospitalar<sup>137</sup>.</p>
    <p>Com o objetivo de avaliar a efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a de HBPM como terapia ponte de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, Douketis e cols.<sup>138</sup> realizaram um estudo consecutivo com 650 pacientes portadores de pr&#243;tese valvar mec&#226;nica, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e antecedente de acidente vascular encef&#225;lico. Os pacientes tiveram a suspens&#227;o de varfarina 5 dias do procedimento cir&#250;rgico e receberam transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com dalteparina 100UI/kg 2x/dia, iniciada em m&#233;dia 3 dias antes da cirurgia, sendo que a &#250;ltima dose de dalteparina pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria era administrada pelo menos 12 horas antes da cirurgia para evitar sangramentos. Nos pacientes submetidos a cirurgias classificadas como de alto risco de sangramento, a dose de dalteparina p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria n&#227;o era administrada. Os principais desfechos analisados foram: tromboembolismo, sangramento maior e mortalidade. A anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral era reiniciada no dia seguinte &#224; cirurgia. Num seguimento m&#233;dio de 13,8 dias, houve uma baixa incid&#234;ncia de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos 0,4% e de sangramento 0,7% a 1,8% neste grupo<sup>138</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outro estudo de coorte multic&#234;ntrico, prospectivo, publicado no mesmo ano, tamb&#233;m procurou avaliar a seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia de terapia ponte com HBPM. O estudo incluiu pacientes com alto risco de tromboembolismo arterial (portadores de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas valvares e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial). Foram inclu&#237;dos 224 pacientes sendo 112 com pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica valvar e 112 pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. O anticoagulante oral foi suspensa 5 dias antes da cirurgia e a transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o foi realizada com HBPM, iniciadas 3 dias do pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio e mantido por 4 dias do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. A dose pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria administrada foi de dalteparina 200UI/kg por dia, sendo que no dia anterior &#224; cirurgia os pacientes receberam dose de 100UI/kg. No p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, a varfarina era reiniciada no primeiro dia depois da cirurgia juntamente com dose de dalteparina 200UI/kg, ou nos pacientes com alto risco de sangramento, a dose administrada foi dose fixa de 5000UI. A taxa de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos foi de 3,6% e de sangramento de 6,7%. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que a transi&#231;&#227;o com HBPM &#233; poss&#237;vel, entretanto necessita de estudos randomizados e controlados para melhor defini&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gia<sup>139</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ainda avaliando a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de HBPM com terapia ponte de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, o estudo PROSPECT procurou avaliar a seguran&#231;a da transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral com enoxaparina 1,5mg/kg em dose di&#225;ria administrada em regime domiciliar. Foi uma coorte prospectiva multic&#234;ntrica de 260 pacientes, portadores de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial ou tromboembolismo venoso onde o desfecho prim&#225;rio do estudo foi a incid&#234;ncia de sangramento. A taxa de sangramento maior observada no estudo foi de 3,5%, entretanto os autores observaram que ao analisar o risco de sangramento conforme tipo de procedimento cir&#250;rgico, o grupo de pacientes submetidos a cirurgias maiores (ortop&#233;dicas, cardiovasculares e gerais) teve maior taxa de sangramento quando comparado com os pacientes submetidos a procedimentos menores, 20% x 0,7%<sup>140</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em 2009, publicou-se um estudo de coorte prospectivo onde foram estudados pacientes em uso cr&#244;nico de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral e submetidos a diferentes esquemas de ponte de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o para procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos. A varfarina era suspensa 5 dias antes da cirurgia, e iniciada HBPM (nadroparina ou enoxaparina) a partir de 4 dias antes da cirurgia. &#218;ltima dose de HBPM era administrada pelo menos 12 horas antes da cirurgia. Para transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o, duas estrat&#233;gias foram adotadas. Os pacientes classificados como de alto risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos receberam ponte com HBPM dose plena 2x/dia. Todos os outros pacientes classificados como de risco moderado ou de baixo risco receberam somente HBPM dose profil&#225;tica 1x/dia. Dos 1.262 pacientes inclu&#237;dos no estudo, 23,4% foram considerados como de alto risco de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos e receberam transi&#231;&#227;o com heparina dose plena, enquanto que 76,6% dos pacientes receberam somente a heparina dose profil&#225;tica. Em termo de efic&#225;cia, registrou-se apenas 5 casos de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos, com uma incid&#234;ncia de 0,4% (IC 95% 0,1~0,9), todos ocorridos no grupo de alto risco. A incid&#234;ncia de sangramento maior foi de 1,2% no estudo, sendo que maior no grupo de alto risco x moderado/baixo risco (2,7% x 0,7%, p=0,011). A taxa de sangramento menor foi de 4,2% e tamb&#233;m mais significativo no grupo de pacientes que receberam a transi&#231;&#227;o com heparina dose plena<sup>141</sup>.</p>
    <p>Um estudo de farmacoeconomia que comparou o custo com os dois esquemas de transi&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o periprocedimento, mostrou vantagem da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de HBPM como terapia de transi&#231;&#227;o para anticoagula&#231;&#227;o no perioperat&#243;rio, por causa de menor custo quando comparado &#224; utiliza&#231;&#227;o de transi&#231;&#227;o com heparina endovenosa, gra&#231;as &#224; possibilidade de administra&#231;&#227;o em ambiente extra-hospitalar, com redu&#231;&#227;o do custo de interna&#231;&#227;o<sup>77</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em resumo, os estudos mostram a prefer&#234;ncia de realiza&#231;&#227;o de terapia ponte de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o com HBPM por causa de sua facilidade de administra&#231;&#227;o, sem necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar e menor custo. Por outro lado, nos casos onde o uso de HBPM &#233; contraindicado, prevalece a indica&#231;&#227;o de terapia com heparina n&#227;o fracionada.</p>
    <p>
      <italic>9.5.1.3. Tempo para suspens&#227;o da heparina antes da cirurgia</italic>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; estudos que avaliaram o tempo de suspens&#227;o de heparina no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio. A indica&#231;&#227;o &#233; baseada principalmente na meia-vida da heparina. Gra&#231;as &#224; meia-vida curta, com elimina&#231;&#227;o de 30 a 120 minutos, acredita-se ser seguro suspender a heparina n&#227;o fracionada de 4 a 6 horas antes da cirurgia<sup>131</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; HBPM, em estudos observacionais cl&#237;nicos, a suspens&#227;o de HBPM 12 horas antes da cirurgia n&#227;o mostrou aumento de sangramento na cirurgia. Entretanto, em estudos que avaliaram desfechos substitutos como a dosagem de n&#237;vel de anti-Xa, mostrou-se que mais de &gt;90% dos pacientes que receberam &#250;ltima dose de heparina 12 horas antes da cirurgia ainda apresentavam efeito anticoagulante, e em &gt;34% os pacientes mantinham n&#237;vel anticoagulante terap&#234;utico. Por causa destes achados, atualmente, recomenda-se que a HBPM seja suspensa pelo menos 24 horas antes da cirurgia<sup>131</sup>.</p>
    <p>O rein&#237;cio de HBPM no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio deve levar em considera&#231;&#227;o a efetividade da hemostasia e risco de sangramento. Em cirurgias de alto risco de sangramento, o rein&#237;cio deve ser postergado por pelo menos 24 horas ap&#243;s o t&#233;rmino da cirurgia, idealmente de 48 a 72 horas. Em cirurgias com baixo ou risco moderado de sangramento, o rein&#237;cio pode ser feito em 24 horas p&#243;s cirurgia<sup>131</sup> (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab22">Tabela 22</xref>).</p>
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    <p>
      <bold>9.5.2. Varfarina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O uso de anticoagulantes no perioperat&#243;rio depende do risco do paciente de apresentar eventos tromboemb&#243;licos quando houver descontinua&#231;&#227;o do anticoagulante e do risco de sangramento, caso a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o seja suspensa. A suspens&#227;o do anticoagulante aumenta o risco de fen&#244;menos emb&#243;licos, como acidente vascular cerebral, trombose de pr&#243;teses mec&#226;nicas, e este risco varia de acordo com a presen&#231;a de outras comorbidades e fatores de risco<sup>77,78,81,142</sup>. Estes eventos podem trazer consequ&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas devastadoras: o acidente vascular cerebral pode levar a uma grande incapacidade ou morte em 70% dos pacientes; a trombose de pr&#243;tese mec&#226;nica pode ser fatal em 15% dos pacientes<sup>77</sup>.</p>
    <p>Da mesma forma que em cirurgias card&#237;acas, de acordo com seus riscos para eventos emb&#243;licos no perioperat&#243;rio e comorbidades, deve-se utilizar uma estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco em alto, moderado e baixo risco, conforme recomenda&#231;&#245;es da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia na II Diretriz de Perioperat&#243;rio (<xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab08">Tabela 8</xref>)<sup>78</sup>.</p>
    <p>As recomenda&#231;&#245;es para suspens&#227;o da varfarina no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio encontram-se nas tabelas abaixo. Em casos de cirurgia de reintrodu&#231;&#227;o do agente, urg&#234;ncia/emerg&#234;ncia ou necessidade de revers&#227;o r&#225;pida do efeito da varfarina, s&#227;o mantidas as mesmas recomenda&#231;&#245;es j&#225; mencionadas para cirurgias card&#237;acas (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab23">Tabela 23</xref>).</p>
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    <p>
      <italic>9.5.2.1. Procedimentos com baixo risco de sangramento</italic>
    </p>
    <p>S&#227;o considerados procedimentos de baixo risco de sangramento os seguintes: cirurgia de catarata, procedimentos dermatol&#243;gicos menores e procedimentos dent&#225;rios (como: higiene, extra&#231;&#227;o simples, restaura&#231;&#227;o, procedimentos endod&#244;nticos e prot&#233;ticos). Nesses casos, devem-se seguir as recomenda&#231;&#245;es listadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab24">Tabela 24</xref>.</p>
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    <p>
      <bold>9.5.3. Fondaparinux</bold>
    </p>
    <p>H&#225; dois estudos randomizados duplo-cegos que avaliaram a efic&#225;cia de fondaparinux como profilaxia em perioperat&#243;rio de cirurgias gerais. No primeiro estudo, a fondaparinux foi comparada com dalteparina em pacientes com alto risco de TEV para cirurgias abdominais. Foram randomizados 2.927 pacientes selecionados de 131 centros em 22 pa&#237;ses. A administra&#231;&#227;o de fondaparinux foi feita ap&#243;s 6 horas do t&#233;rmino da cirurgia e a dalteparina era administrada com primeira dose de 2.500UI 2 horas antes da cirurgia, e segunda dose 12 horas ap&#243;s o t&#233;rmino da cirurgia. Em dias subsequentes, a dose administrada de dalteparina foi de 5.000UI di&#225;ria. O desfecho prim&#225;rio de efic&#225;cia do estudo foi a ocorr&#234;ncia de TEV (sintom&#225;tico ou assintom&#225;tico). O desfecho de seguran&#231;a adotado no estudo era o sangramento maior. A taxa de TEV encontrada foi de 4,6% no grupo fondaparinux x 6,1% no grupo dalteparina, com redu&#231;&#227;o de risco relativo de 24,6% (IC 95% 9,0-47,9), mas estatisticamente n&#227;o significativa, p=0,14. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa em rela&#231;&#227;o ao sangramento entre os dois grupos (3,4% no fondaparinux x 2,4% dalteparina, p=0,12). Os resultados mostraram que fondaparinux n&#227;o foi superior &#224; dalteparina como profilaxia em cirurgias gerais, mas na an&#225;lise de n&#227;o inferioridade, mostrou-se que &#233; pelo menos t&#227;o efetivo quando a HBPM<sup>143</sup>.</p>
    <p>Num outro estudo randomizado duplo-cego, placebo controlado de cirurgias gerais intra-abdominais, os pacientes eram randomizados para receber profilaxia com fondaparinux na dose 2,5mg iniciada de 6 a 8 horas do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio + compress&#227;o pneum&#225;tica intermitente x compress&#227;o pneum&#225;tica intermitente isoladamente. O desfecho prim&#225;rio &#233; a ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos venosos at&#233; o d&#233;cimo dia do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. Foram randomizados 1.309 pacientes de 50 centros. Como resultado, o grupo de pacientes que recebeu fondaparinux apresentou menor taxa de TEV, 1,7% x 5,3% (ORR de 69,8%, IC 95 % 27,9-87,3; p=0,004). Fondaparinux ainda reduziu a taxa de TVP proximal em 86,2%, p=0,037, mas n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a na taxa de TEV sintom&#225;tico ou de mortalidade entre os dois grupos. O sangramento maior foi de 1,6% no fondaparinux x 0,2% no grupo controle, p=0,006. Entre os casos de sangramento, n&#227;o houve nenhum sangramento fatal ou em &#243;rg&#227;o cr&#237;tico. A maioria dos sangramentos observados foi em ferida operat&#243;ria<sup>144</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estes estudos mostram que fondaparinux &#233; uma medica&#231;&#227;o eficiente para ser utilizada como tromboprofilaxia no perioperat&#243;rio, tanto de cirurgias gerais como ortop&#233;dicas. Entretanto a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o est&#225; relacionada a um risco maior de sangramento.</p>
    <p>Em estudos de meta-an&#225;lises pr&#233;vias, a tromboprofilaxia com heparina n&#227;o fracionada mostrou-se eficaz em redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade<sup>145</sup>, enquanto que o mesmo n&#227;o foi observado com HBPM<sup>146</sup>. Com objetivo de analisar o efeito de fondaparinux sobre a mortalidade nos estudos de preven&#231;&#227;o de tromboembolismo venoso, realizou-se a seguinte meta-an&#225;lise. Foram inclu&#237;dos oito estudos randomizados de fase III, duplo-cegos, com 13.085 pacientes, em estudos de preven&#231;&#227;o de TEV com fondaparinux na dose 2,5mg ao dia comparado a HBPM (em cinco estudos) ou placebo (em tr&#234;s estudos). O objetivo principal do estudo era a an&#225;lise de fondaparinux sobre a mortalidade em 30 dias, sendo considerado como dia 1, o dia de randomiza&#231;&#227;o. Dos oito estudos inclu&#237;dos nesta metan&#225;lise, sete foram em contexto perioperat&#243;rio (cirurgias abdominais ou ortop&#233;dicas), totalizando 12.236 pacientes e um estudo de pacientes cl&#237;nicos. A dose de fondaparinux, nos estudos cir&#250;rgicos, foi administrada 6&#177;2 horas ap&#243;s a cirurgia e a segunda dose, pelo menos 12 horas ap&#243;s a primeira dose e antes de 24 horas antes de fim da cirurgia. Resultado da meta-an&#225;lise mostrou uma redu&#231;&#227;o de risco de mortalidade de 21% no grupo que recebeu fondaparinux comparado com grupo controle, mas estatisticamente n&#227;o significativo (1,6% x 2,1%, com OR 0,79, IC 95% 0,6-1,01; p=0,058). Este resultado foi consistente tanto na compara&#231;&#227;o de fondaparinux com HBPM (fondaparinux 1,5% x HBPM 1,9%, OR 0,78 com IC 95% de 0,58-1,06; p=0,11) ou de fondaparinux <italic>versus</italic> placebo (2,0% x 2,6%, OR 0,77, com IC 95% 0,46-1,26; p=0,3). Desta forma, conclui-se que a fondaparinux n&#227;o apresentou influ&#234;ncia na mortalidade perioperat&#243;ria nos estudos analisados<sup>147</sup>.</p>
    <p>Da mesma casu&#237;stica da meta-an&#225;lise anterior, os autores realizaram a an&#225;lise da associa&#231;&#227;o entre a ocorr&#234;ncia de sangramento e a mortalidade em 30 dias e procuraram identificar os fatores de risco associados ao risco de sangramento. Os fatores de risco identificados como preditores de maior risco de sangramento foram: idade, sexo masculino, baixo peso, depura&#231;&#227;o de creatinina reduzida, cirurgia de quadril e qualquer tipo de cirurgia, aus&#234;ncia de hist&#243;ria de TEV e tratamento com fondaparinux. E os pacientes que apresentaram algum tipo de sangramento tiveram um aumento de mortalidade de quase 7 vezes maior quando comparado ao grupo sem sangramento, OR 6,83, IC 95% 4,57-10,22; p&lt;0,001, independentemente da profilaxia recebida. Este foi o primeiro estudo que estabeleceu a rela&#231;&#227;o entre o sangramento e o aumento da mortalidade em estudos de preven&#231;&#227;o de TEV<sup>148</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estes resultados dos estudos apresentados mostram a efic&#225;cia de fondaparinux como uma estrat&#233;gia eficaz na preven&#231;&#227;o de tromboprofilaxia no perioperat&#243;rio de opera&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o card&#237;acas, tendo mostrado efic&#225;cia semelhante ou maior quando comparado com HBPM. Entretanto, o uso de fondaparinux est&#225; relacionado a uma maior taxa de sangramentos n&#227;o fatais, com necessidade de mais transfus&#245;es sangu&#237;neas no perioperat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; estudos na literatura que avaliaram uso de fondaparinux como terapia ponte para anticoagula&#231;&#227;o provavelmente por causa de sua meia-vida prolongada e risco de sangramento perioperat&#243;rio (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab25">Tabela 25</xref>).</p>
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    <p>
      <bold>9.5.4. Dabigatrana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal, a dabigatrana pode ser suspensa 48 horas antes e assegurar uma adequada hemostasia. Em procedimentos considerados de baixo risco de sangramento, a dabigatrana pode ser suspensa 24 horas antes. Estes procedimentos incluem cateterismo, abla&#231;&#227;o, endoscopia, colonoscopia sem remo&#231;&#227;o de p&#243;lipos, laparoscopia n&#227;o complicada e pequenos procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos ortop&#233;dicos<sup>100</sup>. Para procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos maiores eletivos em pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal, recomenda-se a suspens&#227;o do agente por 1 a 2 dias<sup>100</sup>. Em pacientes com comprometimento da fun&#231;&#227;o renal, o per&#237;odo de interrup&#231;&#227;o deve ser mais longo<sup>101</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal moderada, pacientes com mais de 75 anos e naqueles recebendo amiodarona, preconiza-se reduzir a dose padr&#227;o para 150mg/dia (dose inicial de 75mg, seguida da dose padr&#227;o de 150mg, 1x/dia)<sup>78</sup>.</p>
    <p>Deve-se ter a precau&#231;&#227;o quando o tratamento &#233; temporariamente interrompido para interven&#231;&#245;es e garantir a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o. Isto deve ser considerado para qualquer procedimento, e um teste de coagula&#231;&#227;o pode ajudar a determinar se a hemostase continua alterada ou n&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Em caso de uma interven&#231;&#227;o aguda, a dabigatrana deve ser temporariamente suspensa e a cirurgia adiada at&#233;, pelo menos, 12 horas ap&#243;s a &#250;ltima dose<sup>100</sup>. Se a cirurgia n&#227;o puder ser adiada, considerar os riscos de hemorragia que devem ser ponderados em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; urg&#234;ncia da interven&#231;&#227;o<sup>100</sup>.</p>
    <p>A reintrodu&#231;&#227;o da medica&#231;&#227;o depende exclusivamente dos riscos de sangramento no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio<sup>100</sup>. Em casos de cirurgias abdominais, urol&#243;gicas com hemostasia incompleta, o agente s&#243; dever&#225; ser reintroduzido quando n&#227;o houver sinais de sangramento ativo. Em casos de pequenos procedimentos, com boa hemostasia, o agente poder&#225; ser iniciado de 4 a 6 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento com sugest&#227;o de usar meia dose (75mg) e depois manter a dose habitual<sup>100</sup> (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab26">Tabela 26</xref>).</p>
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    <p>
      <bold>9.5.5. Rivaroxabana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A suspens&#227;o do agente segue as mesmas recomenda&#231;&#245;es seguidas para a dabigatrana. No entanto, o tempo adequado para suspens&#227;o da mesma encontra-se na <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_9tab27">Tabela 27</xref>.</p>
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        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt61.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Em situa&#231;&#245;es de emerg&#234;ncia, em que &#233; necess&#225;ria a revers&#227;o dos efeitos anticoagulantes da rivaroxabana, pode-se utilizar o uso de concentrados de complexos de protrombina fator 4, na dose de 50IU/kg<sup>100</sup>. Outros produtos, como plasma e crioprecipitados, n&#227;o revertem o efeito anticoagulante desse agente<sup>100</sup>.</p>
    <p>Referente &#224; reintrodu&#231;&#227;o do agente no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, uma estrat&#233;gia similar &#224; usada para a dabigatrana pode ser utilizada nos casos de rivaroxabana. Iniciar com uma dose de 10mg, como primeira dose e depois manter a dose habitual<sup>100</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>9.5.6. Apixabana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Apixabana &#233; um dos mais novos anticoagulantes orais e tem mostrado efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a no tratamento de tromboembolismos<sup>149</sup>. Praticamente ap&#243;s uma extensa revis&#227;o na literatura, a maioria das quest&#245;es referentes ao per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio n&#227;o pode ser respondida de acordo com classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o e n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia, pois &#233; um agente novo, que continua sendo avaliado em ensaios cl&#237;nicos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>2.4. Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
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    <p>
      <bold>3.4. Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
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    <p content-type="ref-to-delete">121. Korte W, Cattaneo M, Chassot PG, Eichinger S, von Heymann C, Hofmann N, et al. Peri-operative management of antiplatelet therapy in patients with coronary artery disease: joint position paper by members of the working group on Perioperative Haemostasis of the Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis Research (GTH), the working group on Perioperative Coagulation of the Austrian Society for Anesthesiology, Resuscitation and Intensive Care (&#214;GARI) and the Working Group Thrombosis of the European Society for Cardiology (ESC). Thromb Haemost. 2011;105(5):743-9. </p>
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    <p>
      <bold>10. Peculiaridades dos antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>10.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, ocorreram avan&#231;os no tratamento das cardiopatias, principalmente nas s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas e, mais recentemente, na preven&#231;&#227;o de fen&#244;menos tromboemb&#243;licos na fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. Estudos recentes e novas evid&#234;ncias mostram que o cardiologista est&#225; cada vez mais familiarizado com novos f&#225;rmacos.</p>
    <p>A introdu&#231;&#227;o em nosso meio de novos medicamentos antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes, torna oportuno o estudo de todas as peculiaridades desses agentes, como tamb&#233;m a revis&#227;o e atualiza&#231;&#227;o dos agentes mais antigos ainda em uso na nossa pr&#225;tica di&#225;ria.</p>
    <p>Neste cap&#237;tulo pretendemos revisar o mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o farmacocin&#233;tica, indica&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas, precau&#231;&#245;es, contraindica&#231;&#245;es, intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas, risco de sangramento e particularidades para grupos especiais, permitindo ao leitor a utiliza&#231;&#227;o desses medicamentos com o m&#225;ximo de efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>10.2. Peculiaridades dos antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_10tab01">Tabela 1</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_10tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt62.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_10tab02">Tabela 2</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_10tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt63.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_10tab03">Tabela 3</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_10tab03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt64.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_10tab4a">Tabela 4a</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_10tab4a">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt65.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_10tab4b">Tabela 4b</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_10tab4b">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt66.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_10tab05">Tabela 5</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_10tab05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt67.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_10tab06">Tabela 6</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_10tab06">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt68.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_10tab07">Tabela 7</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_10tab07">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt69.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_10tab08">Tabela 8</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_10tab08">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt70.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>10.3. Peculiaridades dos anticoagulantes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_11tab01">Tabela 1</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_11tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt71.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_11tab02">Tabela 2</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_11tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt72.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_11tab03">Tabela 3</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_11tab03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt73.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_11tab04">Tabela 4</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_11tab04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt74.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_11tab05">Tabela 5</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_11tab05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt75.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_11tab06">Tabela 6</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_11tab06">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt76.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="table" rid="s03_11tab07">Tabela 7</xref>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="s03_11tab07">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt77.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia </p>
        <p> Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 - Centro </p>
        <p> Rio de Janeiro - CEP: 20020-907 </p>
        <p> e-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="scb@cardiol.br">scb@cardiol.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Errata</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As "Diretrizes Brasileiras de Antiagregantes Plaquet&#225;rios e Anticoagulantes em Cardiologia", publicadas como suplemento n&#250;mero tr&#234;s da edi&#231;&#227;o de Setembro de 2013 dos Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia [Arq Bras Cardiol. 2013;101(3Supl.3):1-93], sofreram as seguintes corre&#231;&#245;es:</p>
    <p>Na p&#225;gina 17, tabela 2, alterar a Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o de "Troca de heparinas (HNF e enoxaparina)" para III.</p>
    <p>Na p&#225;gina 31, tabela 5, &#250;ltima linha, considerar como correto o texto "Em situa&#231;&#245;es de CHADSVasc zero ou at&#233; 1 (se for apenas pelo sexo feminino), a n&#227;o utiliza&#231;&#227;o de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral (como a rivaroxabana) pode ser considerada", Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o: II e N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia: A.</p>
    <p>Na p&#225;gina 47, tabela 13, considerar como correto no texto para "Indica&#231;&#245;es": "Tratamento de TEV agudo e cr&#244;nico na dose de 15mg 2x/dia nos primeiros 21 dias seguido de 20mg 1x/dia durante 3, 6, 12 meses ou tempo maior a crit&#233;rio m&#233;dico."</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Guidelines</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Brazilian guidelines on antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in cardiology</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>GUIDELINES</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Brazilian guidelines on antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in cardiology</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Serrano Jr CV; Fenelon G; Soeiro AM; Nicolau JC; Piegas LS; Montenegro ST; Lorga Filho AM; Azmus AD; Quadros AS; Avezum Junior A; Marques AC; Franci A; Manica ALL; Volschan A; De Paola AAV; Greco AIL; Ferreira ACN; Sousa ACS; Pesaro AEP; Sim&#227;o AF; Lopes ASSA; Carvalho ACC; Timerman A; Ramos AIO; Alves BR; Caramelli B; Mendes BA; Polanczyk CA; Montenegro CEL; Barbosa CJDG; Melo CCL; Pinho C; Moreira DAR; Calderaro D; Gualandro DM; Armaganijan D; Machado Neto EA; Bocchi EA; Paiva EF; Stefanini E; D'Amico E; Evaristo EF; Silva EER; Fernandes F; Brito Junior FS; Bacal F; Ganem F; Gomes FLT; Mattos FR; Moraes Neto FR; Tarasoutchi F; Darrieux FCC; Feitosa GS; Morais GR; Correa Filho H; Castro I; Gon&#231;alves Junior I; Ati&#233; J; Souza Neto JD; Ferreira JFM; Faria Neto JR; Annichino-Bizzacchi JM; Zimerman LI; Pires LJT; Baracioli LM; Silva LB; Mattos LAP; Lisboa LAF; Magalh&#227;es LPM; Lopes MACQ; Montera MW; Figueiredo MJO; Malachias MVB; Gaz MVB; Andrade MD; Bacellar MSC; Barbosa MR; Clausell NO; Dutra OP; Coelho OR; Yu PC; Lav&#237;tola PL; Lemos Neto PA; Andrade PB; Farsky PS; Franco RA; Kalil RAK; Lopes RD; Esporcatte R; Heinisch RH; Kalil Filho R; Giraldez RRCV; Alves RC; Leite REGS; Gagliardi RJ; Ramos RF; Accorsi TAD; Jardim TSV; Scudeler TL; Mois&#233;s VA; Portal VL</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the past 10 years, we have observed an exponential development of anticoagulant and antiplatelet agents for replacing heparin and vitamin K antagonists and/or aiding in the treatment of coronary artery disease. Scientific literature has increasingly shown new applications for these agents. Some of these are already approved for use by ANVISA in Brazil, such as dabigratan, rivaroxaban, apixaban, prasugrel, and ticagrelor. These new alternative drugs require recommendations on specific restrictions and risks that must be considered before administration to patients. During the development of new medications, the safety of patients is being increasingly valued and includes a greater use of bleeding risk scores.</p>
      <p>Various multicenter randomized studies have been developed to validate the use of these drugs in acute coronary syndrome (ACS), venous thromboembolism (VTE), and pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) and in the prevention of thrombotic events. Brazil has participated in some of the main trials and, the country's experience in the use and management of these drugs is increasing.</p>
      <p>The Board of the Brazilian Heart Society (<italic>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</italic>, SBC) proposed to develop a guideline on recommendations regarding the use of anticoagulant and antiplatelet drugs owing to the importance of this fact in the field of cardiology in Brazil.</p>
      <p>This guideline was prepared by an editorial board consisting of Brazilian cardiologists with recognized experience and qualifications in the area. The document is a compilation of many national and international findings and opinions of Brazilian specialists and aims to help physicians in making decisions regarding patients in various clinical situations. Didactically, antithrombotic drugs are classified as antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents.</p>
      <p>SBC, the editors, and the group that collaborated in the preparation of this guideline hope that its dissemination will contribute to a better standardization of anticoagulant and antiplatelet drug management and will increase the effectiveness of their use and patient safety. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>1.1. Methods and scientific evidence</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The editorial board selected to write these recommendations consists of physicians with extensive experience in this area. These professionals are involved in the management and treatment of various clinical situations in which these drugs are widely used and work in major teaching and research centers in Latin America.</p>
      <p>We selected relevant studies published up to 2012, according to the evidence pyramid, the organization into levels of recommendation (Classes I, IIa, IIb, and III; <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>), and the impact of the evidence levels (A, B, and C; <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>1.2. Presentation of the text</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The guidelines in this document are presented in two manners. The first consists of a full text that includes the description of the pertaining to each agent, the recommendations, and the evidence levels shown in tables, together with the citations. This text is available on the website of <italic>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</italic>.</p>
      <p>The second consists of the executive summary, which contains only the tables with the recommendations and the evidence levels. The executive summary will be available in the publications of <italic>Arquivos</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2. Use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.1. Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p> ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) is the most severe form of unstable myocardial ischemia; its incidence varies between 29% and 47% of cases of acute coronary syndrome (ACS), and it is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Data from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)<sup>1</sup> in the US show that in 2010, the main cause of mortality was cardiovascular disease and that acute myocardial infarction (AMI) accounted for approximately 5% of the overall mortality. In addition to the high impact on mortality in the general population, AMI has also an important economic impact because it involves a large number of hospitalizations. According to data from the Heart Diseases and Stroke Statistics<sup>2</sup>, it is estimated that in 2006, the US spent 11.7 billion dollars on hospital expenses related to AMI.</p>
      <p>In Brazil, according to data from DATASUS for 2003<sup>3</sup>, cardiovascular diseases accounted for 11% of hospitalizations and approximately 19.5% of resources spent by SUS on hospitalizations in general. AMI accounted for 4.2% of all hospitalizations, which demonstrates the importance of this condition in terms of morbidity and hospital costs.</p>
      <p>With regard to the treatment of this clinical entity, in addition to reperfusion therapies (pharmacological, thrombolytic, or percutaneous therapy via primary angioplasty), antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy is essential to reduce mortality and recurrence of cardiovascular events<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>This section aims to assess the use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in the treatment of STEMI.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.2. Antiplatelet therapy in STEMI</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.2.1. ASA</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, aspirin) in STEMI is based on solid evidence; its use is deemed to be essential. The Second International Study of Infarct Survival (ISIS-2)<sup>5</sup> assessed the use of ASA and streptokinase alone and in combination. The use of ASA alone led to a 23% reduction in all-cause mortality, and combined use of the drugs led to a 42% reduction in all-cause mortality. A 25 &#177; 7%, 21 &#177; 7%, and 21 &#177; 12% reductions in mortality were observed when used within 0-4 h, 5-12 h, and 13-24 h of the initial symptoms, respectively.</p>
      <p>Subsequent meta-analyses reinforced the fundamental role of ASA in the reduction of mortality and cardiovascular events, when used at an early stage and in the long term. A study by the "Antiplatelet Trialists Collaboration"<sup>6</sup> group demonstrated a 29% reduction in the relative risk for the incidence of vascular events (nonfatal infarction, stroke, or vascular death). A more recent publication<sup>7</sup>, which analyzed the same outcomes, revealed a reduction of 36 vascular events per 1,000 patients with previous myocardial infarction.</p>
      <p>With regard to the ASA dose, the CURRENT-OASIS-7 study<sup>8</sup> evaluated the hypothesis of using a double maintenance dose of ASA in patients with ACS; 29% of them had STEMI and were undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PPCI). This study did not show any difference between the standard-dose regimen (75-100 mg/day) and the high-dose regimen (300-325 mg/day) in preventing cardiovascular events (cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or stroke) over 30 days (<italic>p</italic> = 0.61, 95% CI 0.86-1.09). Moreover, there was no difference in terms of the incidence of major bleeding (<italic>p</italic> = 0.90, 95% CI 0.84-1.17).</p>
      <p>The use of ASA should be contraindicated in some exceptional situations, e.g., known hypersensitivity (hives, bronchospasm, or anaphylaxis), active peptic ulcers, blood dyscrasia, and severe hepatopathy.</p>
      <p>Based on these findings, the use of ASA in patients with STEMI is essential in the prevention of mortality and cardiovascular events, both in the short and long term, and it should be indefinitely continued after the acute event (secondary prevention).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.2.2. Clopidogrel</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of clopidogrel, a thienopyridine derivative and inhibitor of adenosine diphosphate (ADP), in ACS began with the CURE study<sup>9</sup>, which compared the use of ASA alone and in combination with clopidogrel in a situation of intermediate- or high-risk unstable angina as well as non-STEMI (NSTEMI). This study showed a 20% reduction in the relative risk for cardiovascular death, stroke, and nonfatal AMI.</p>
      <p>In the context of STEMI, two important studies should be highlighted. The first study is the CLARITY-TIMI 28 study<sup>10</sup> that included 3,491 patients diagnosed with STEMI who were aged <underline>&lt;</underline> 75 years and were undergoing thrombolytic therapy (99.7% undergoing thrombolysis). These patients were assigned to ASA or ASA combined with clopidogrel groups; the study design envisaged the use of a 300 g loading dose of clopidogrel and a 75 mg maintenance dose/day. This study showed a 36% reduction in the combined outcome of death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or revascularization of the target vessel; no difference was observed in terms of bleeding between the groups. In this study, the age limit for inclusion was 75 years and the mean time of clopidogrel use was 4 days.</p>
      <p>The second study is the COMMIT study<sup>11</sup> that randomly assigned 45,852 patients with suspected STEMI in 1,250 centers in China to receive 162 mg of ASA/day or ASA (same dose) combined with 75 mg of clopidogrel/day, without the administration of a loading dose. This study included 26% of patients aged &gt; 70 years (without a maximum age limit). In addition, 50% of patients were subjected to thrombolysis. In this study, a 9% reduction in the combined outcome (death, reinfarction, or stroke) was observed; no difference was observed in terms of bleeding. The mean time of clopidogrel use was 28 days. Clopidogrel was beneficial for patients who received thrombolytic therapy and those who did not undergo reperfusion. There was a 7% reduction in the overall mortality (RR 0.93, 95% CI 0.87-0.99).</p>
      <p>In addition, the CURRENT-OASIS-7 study<sup>7</sup>, which assessed 25,086 patients, tested two hypotheses: the use of a high-maintenance dose of ASA (described in section 2.2.1) and the use of a double loading dose of 600 mg of clopidogrel, followed by a dose of 150 mg/day for 7 days and a dose of 75 mg/day thereafter, as opposed to the standard regimen (a loading dose of 300 mg, followed by 75 mg/day), in patients with ACS (29% of patients with STEMI). This study did not show any effect of the higher dose regimen on the prevention of cardiovascular events (cardiovascular deaths, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or stroke) over 30 days (<italic>p</italic> = 0.30). With regard to major bleeding, the group that received higher doses of clopidogrel exhibited a higher incidence of this event (2.5% &#215; 2.0%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.01). Analysis of secondary outcomes revealed a significant decrease in the incidence of stent thrombosis (1.6% &#215; 2.3%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.001) in the group subjected to PCI (17,263 patients). It should be noted that clopidogrel was never compared with a placebo in patients undergoing PPCI. The CURRENT-OASIS-7 study only compared the use of two doses of clopidogrel in patients with STEMI subjected to PPCI. A double dose of clopidogrel was also not assessed in patients who received thrombolytic therapy or those who were treated without reperfusion and should not be used in these patients.</p>
      <p>A loading dose of 600 mg of clopidogrel is used in patients subjected to PPCI because it enables faster inhibition of the ADP receptor. This fact has been demonstrated in various observational studies<sup>12,13</sup>.</p>
      <p>Clopidogrel should be administered during 12 months after STEMI, particularly if the patient has undergone PPCI. This conclusion resulted from the extrapolation of studies on Non-ST-segment elevation ACS (NSTEACS), including the CURE study<sup>8</sup> described above.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the use of clopidogrel is justified in the context of STEMI, with a loading dose of 300 mg, followed by 75 mg/day, from the acute phase up to 12 months after the event. It should be noted that the loading dose of 300 mg should not be administered to patients subjected to thrombolysis who are aged over 75 years. In patients undergoing PPCI, the loading dose should be 600 mg. A double dose of 150 mg/day should be restricted to patients at low risk for bleeding. In the case of surgical intervention, the administration of clopidogrel should be discontinued 5 days before the procedure.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_2tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_2tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.2.3. Prasugrel</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Prasugrel, an inhibitor of platelet aggregation induced by ADP via the irreversible blocking of the P2Y12 receptors, was developed to inhibit platelet aggregation more rapidly, more consistently, and to a greater extent than clopidogrel, thereby avoiding the well-known resistance to clopidogrel exhibited by a portion of the population.</p>
      <p>The TRITON-TIMI 38 study<sup>14</sup>, published in 2007, randomly assigned 13,608 patients with ACS, known as coronary anatomy, and planned PCI with clopidogrel or prasugrel, associated with standard therapy (including ASA). Within the sample, STEMI accounted for 26% of patients. In the general cohort, the group that used prasugrel exhibited a 19% reduction (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001) in the combined outcome of death from cardiovascular causes, nonfatal infarction, or stroke, particularly due to the reduction in cases of nonfatal infarction. With regard to bleeding, the prasugrel group exhibited a 32% increase (<italic>p </italic>= 0.03) in the risk for major bleeding (according to the TIMI score). Post hoc analyses identified three groups at higher risk for bleeding: age <underline>&gt;</underline> 75 years, weight &lt; 60 kg, or previous stroke/transient ischemic attack (TIA).</p>
      <p>Of the 3,534 patients with STEMI, 2,438 were subjected to PPCI and 1,096 were subjected to secondary PCI (patients referred to PCI approximately 38 h after AMI). The primary outcome of cardiovascular death, nonfatal AMI with stroke, was significantly less frequent in the prasugrel group than in the clopidogrel group (RC 0.79, 95% CI 0.65-0.97) over 15 months. A reduction in stent thrombosis from 2.8% to 1.6% was observed in the prasugrel group. There was no difference in the bleeding rate between the two groups<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the use of prasugrel in STEMI is indicated for cases of PPCI, after knowing the coronary anatomy. Prasugrel should be administered at a loading dose of 60 mg and a maintenance dose of 10 mg/day for 12 months. A lower maintenance dose (5 mg) may be considered for individuals weighing less than 60 kg and aged older than 75 years; however, such a dose has not been prospectively tested in STEMI clinical studies. The drug is contraindicated in the following cases: in combination with thrombolytic therapy and in patients without reperfusion (not studied in this population), in patients aged <underline>&gt;</underline> 75 years or in patients with previous stroke/TIA. In case of surgical intervention, the administration of prasugrel should be discontinued 7 days before the procedure.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.2.4. Ticagrelor</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Ticagrelor, another ADP inhibitor antiplatelet agent, is a reversible inhibitor of the P2Y12 receptors of ADP. It does not depend on primary metabolism (it is therefore not a pro-drug) and inhibits aggregation more intensely, more rapidly, and more consistently than clopidogrel.</p>
      <p>In ACS, the PLATO study<sup>16</sup> randomly assigned 18,624 patients to ticagrelor or clopidogrel, associated with the standard treatment (including ASA). In this study, clopidogrel or ticagrelor were administered during the initial treatment in the emergency room, without knowledge of the coronary anatomy. The prevalence of STEMI in the sample was approximately 38%. The group that used ticagrelor exhibited a 16% reduction in the incidence of the combined outcome of death from vascular causes, nonfatal infarction, or stroke (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001). Analysis of secondary outcomes revealed that in the ticagrelor group, there was a 21% (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001) reduction in mortality by vascular causes and a 22% (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001) reduction in all-cause mortality. With regard to the occurrence of major bleeding, ticagrelor was not significantly different from clopidogrel for the various criteria used (including the TIMI score). However, the ticagrelor group had a higher incidence of dyspnea, usually transient, which forced discontinuation in a higher number of individuals in this group. Moreover, this group exhibited a higher incidence of bradycardia, also usually transient and not leading to differences in clinical repercussions between the groups (pacemaker implant or symptoms).</p>
      <p>Therefore, the use of ticagrelor is indicated for patients with ACS with or without ST-segment elevation, regardless of the knowledge of the coronary anatomy. Ticagrelor should be administered at a loading dose of 180 mg and a maintenance dose of 90 mg twice a day, and its use should be continued for 12 months. The drug combined with thrombolytic therapy is contraindicated as well as in patients without reperfusion (not studied in this population). In case of surgical intervention, ticagrelor should be discontinued 5 days before the procedure.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.2.5. Glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa inhibitors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Studies with GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors, conducted prior to the current regimens of double antiplatelet therapy, revealed a significant reduction in the incidence of reinfarction, both in the context of PPCI and the use of thrombolytic agents. In the former situation, there was no increase in hemorrhage complications; however, there was a significant increase in bleeding in the context of thrombolysis<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>With the routine use of clopidogrel and the advent of PCI with stent, doubts have arisen regarding the use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors in STEMI. Since then, physicians have been unsure about using them routinely or selectively and about the best administration route (intracoronary or intravenous).</p>
      <p>The Relax-AMI study<sup>18</sup>, which included 210 patients, compared the early use of abciximab and its use just before PCI in the hemodynamics laboratory, and the results revealed improved perfusion parameters and recovery of ventricular function over 30 days. The On-TIME 2 study<sup>19</sup>, which randomly assigned 984 patients with STEMI to a prehospital high bolus dose of tirofiban or use during ICPP, showed a higher decrease in ST-segment elevation without a significant increase in major bleeding.</p>
      <p>The FINESSE study randomly assigned patients to three groups: PPCI, PCI facilitated with abciximab, and PCI facilitated with a small dose of reteplase and abciximab. There was no reduction in the ischemic outcomes, and there was an increase in hemorrhagic events with the use of the GP IIb/IIIa inhibitor. After 12 months of follow-up, the subgroup with previous AMI exhibited reduced mortality with the use of reteplase and abciximab (<italic>p</italic> = 0.093). The BRAVE-3 study randomly assigned patients with STEMI to a 600 mg loading dose of clopidogrel for routine use of abciximab or placebo, and there was no reduction in the size of the infarction area with this strategy<sup>20,21</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the routine use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors in STEMI is not beneficial and may involve higher bleeding rates. The use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors alone during PPCI (high incidence of thrombi, no reflow, and other thrombotic complications) may be considered despite the absence of strong evidence. The best way to use tirofiban and abciximab together with the new antiplatelet drugs (prasugrel and clopidogrel) still remains unclear.</p>
      <p>Another question is whether intracoronary administration of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors is better than intravenous administration. Several small studies have evaluated this strategy; the majority evaluated abciximab and suggested that intracoronary administration leads to better perfusion after PCI, lesser need for new revascularization, and decreased early deaths<sup>22</sup>. </p>
      <p>The only large study on this subject is the AINDA study, which randomly assigned 2,065 patients with STEMI to intracoronary or intravenous (0.25 mg/kg) administration of abciximab and intravenous administration of a maintenance dose of 0.125 mg/kg/min for 12 h. There was no difference in the primary outcome of death, AMI, and heart failure over 90 days, and there were no significant differences between the groups with regard to safety outcomes. However, analysis of secondary outcomes revealed that the group with intracoronary bolus exhibited a 43% reduction in the incidence of heart failure over 90 days. Based on these data, the intracoronary administration of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors may be considered; however, the intravenous route remains the route of choice<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.3. Anticoagulant therapy in STEMI</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.3.1. Unfractionated heparin (UH)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The advantage of using UH in ACS was recognized even before using ASA and thrombolytic therapy<sup>24</sup>. Studies such as the GISSI-2<sup>25</sup> and ISIS-3 studies<sup>26</sup>, wherein the use of UH during treatment with ASA and thrombolytic agents was assessed, revealed that it was not associated with a significant reduction in clinically relevant outcomes. However, in these studies, UH was subcutaneously administered 4-12 h after the administration of thrombolytic therapy.</p>
      <p>The GUSTO-I study<sup>27</sup>, published in 1993, evaluated the intravenous administration of UH using a 5,000 IU bolus, followed by initial continuous infusion of 1,000 or 1,200 IU/h, in patients weighing &gt; 80 kg. The UH dose was adjusted to maintain an activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) between 60 and 85 s in patients with STEMI receiving ASA and subjected to various thrombolytic therapies. Among the 41,021 randomized patients, the group that was administered UH intravenously combined with thrombolytic therapy with r-TPA exhibited the lowest mortality (6.3%) over 30 days.</p>
      <p>The ASSENT-3 study<sup>28</sup> assessed the efficacy and safety of tenecteplase in combination with enoxaparin, UH, or abciximab. In this study, a 60 IU/kg bolus of UH was intravenously administered (maximum 4.000 IU), followed by continuous infusion of 12 IU/kg/h (maximum 1.000 IU/h, initially), and adjusted to maintain aPTT between 50 and 70 s. The occurrence of death, reinfarction, or recurrent ischemia over 30 days was lower in the UH group than in the enoxaparin group; however, no difference in mortality was observed over 30 days. This UH administration regimen is associated with a lower incidence of hemorrhagic events (major bleeding and need for transfusions); however, it was not statistically different from enoxaparin.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.3.2. Low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The above mentioned ASSENT-3 study<sup>24 </sup>was one of the first large studies to compare LMWH and UH. Among 6,095 patients with STEMI or new left branch block (LBB) within 6 h of the onset of ischemic symptoms, the patients that received enoxaparin combined with thrombolytic therapy using tenecteplase exhibited a significant 26% reduction in the relative risk for death, reinfarction, or refractory ischemia over 30 days in comparison with those who received UH combined with tenecteplase, with the number of treated patients required to avoid an outcome (NNT) being 25.</p>
      <p>However, the strongest data on efficacy and safety of enoxaparin in patients with STEMI were obtained from the ExTRACT TIMI 25 study<sup>29-31</sup>, published in 2006. This was an international, multicenter, randomized, and double-blinded study that included 20,506 patients within 6 h of the onset of ischemic symptoms. ECG revealed ST-segment elevation in at least two contiguous leads or new LBB. Thrombolytic therapy was programmed. The patients were randomly assigned to UH for a minimum period of 48 h or enoxaparin for 8 days or until discharged. The enoxaparin regimen consisted of a 30 mg bolus intravenously administered 15 min before or up to 30 min after the onset of thrombolysis, followed by a subcutaneous injection of 1.0 mg/kg every 12 h (maximum 100 mg in the two first doses). Patients aged <underline>&gt;</underline> 75 years were not administered the bolus, and the dose of enoxaparin was adjusted to 0.75 mg/kg every 12 h (maximum 75 mg in the two first doses). In patients with an estimated creatinine clearance (CrCl) of &lt; 30 ml/min, the dose was adjusted to 1.0 mg/kg every 24 h. A 60 IU/kg bolus of UH was intravenously administered (maximum 4,000 UI), followed by continuous infusion of 12 IU/kg/h (maximum 1.000 IU/h, initially). The results revealed a significant 17% reduction in the relative risk for death or nonfatal infarction over 30 days in the group assigned to enoxaparin, with NNT of 48. Safety analysis revealed that there was a significant 53% increase in the relative risk for major bleeding in the group that received enoxaparin; however, there was no significant increase in the occurrence of intracranial bleeding. In the prespecified evaluations of the clinical advantages of the drugs, wherein the occurrence of death, nonfatal AMI, stroke with severe sequelae, nonfatal major bleeding, or intracranial hemorrhage was analyzed, the results obtained for enoxaparin were better.</p>
      <p>The use of enoxaparin in patients with STEMI subjected to PPCI was assessed in the ATOLL study, published in 2011. The study included 910 patients who were randomly assigned to receive 0.5 mg/kg of enoxaparin intravenously or 70-100 IU/kg of UH intravenously (in case of patients who did not receive GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors) and 50 -70 IU/kg of UH intravenously (in case of patients who received GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors). The UH dose was adjusted by TCA during the procedure. In this study, there was no significant difference in the outcome of death, infarction, failure to perform the procedure, or major bleeding over 30 days (<italic>p</italic> = 0.063)<sup>32</sup>. In Brazil, physicians prefer to use UH over enoxaparin after PPCI in the hemodynamics room.</p>
      <p>A meta-analysis with six studies, published in 2007, compared enoxaparin with UH in 27,131 patients with STEMI. A significant 16% reduction in the clinical outcome of death, nonfatal infarction, or nonfatal major bleeding was observed in the patients treated with enoxaparin over 30 days<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.3.4. Fondaparinux</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Fondaparinux is an antithrombotic agent that indirectly inhibits the Xa factor via selective bonding to antithrombin, inhibiting thrombin generation. The administration of fondaparinux in patients with STEMI was assessed in only one large clinical study. The OASIS-6 study<sup>34</sup>, published in 2006, included more than 12,000 patients assigned to receive fondaparinux for 8 days or until discharge or to receive UH or placebo according to the researcher's indication. The patients were treated with thrombolytic therapy or PPCI or did not receive reperfusion therapy. In this study, compared with the group that received UH or the placebo, a slight reduction in the incidence of death or reinfarction was observed over 30 days in the group that received fondaparinux (2.5 mg, first intravenous dose, followed by a subcutaneous dose of 2.5 mg/day). This advantage was obvious in the patients who received thrombolytic therapy (RR 0.79, <italic>p</italic> = 0.003) and in those who did not receive reperfusion therapy (RR 0.80, <italic>p</italic> = 0.03). However, this advantage was not observed in the patients undergoing PPCI because there was an increase in the incidence of catheter-related thrombosis and complications during the procedure and fondaparinux should not be used in these patients. There was no significant difference between the groups with regard to the incidence of major bleeding over 9 days.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.3.5. Bivalirudin</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the HORIZONS-AMI study<sup>35,36</sup>, published in 2008, 3,602 patients with STEMI within 12 h before the onset of symptoms who were referred for ICPP were randomly assigned to bivalirudin or UH combined with GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors. In this study, a 24% reduction in the relative risk for the primary outcome of death, reinfarction, and need for revascularization of the target vessel due to ischemia or stroke was observed in the group treated with bivalirudin over 30 days. In addition, there was a 40% reduction in the occurrence of major bleeding. Analysis of the secondary outcomes revealed that there was a 38% reduction in the occurrence of deaths caused by cardiovascular events and a 36% reduction in all-cause mortality. Despite the clear advantage of the use of this drug in treating patients with STEMI who will be subjected to PPCI, bivalirudin is still not available in Brazil.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_2tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_2tab02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_2tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_2tab03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt05-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>3. Use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTEACS)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.1. Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>NSTEACS is the most common form of acute coronary disease. These include low-, intermediate-, and high-risk unstable angina and non-ST elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI), which are characterized by changes in myocardial necrosis markers such as troponin and the absence of ST-segment elevation on the electrocardiogram.</p>
      <p>In a large North American register with more than 46,000 patients<sup>1</sup>, the mean prevalence of NSTEACS between 1999 and 2008 was approximately 67% among patients hospitalized for ACS. A recent study conducted in developing countries revealed that this percentage was similar to that of patients with STEMI; there were clear regional differences in terms of treatments used<sup>2,3</sup>. Moreover, the North American register shows that during the period under analysis, the incidence of hospitalizations due to ACS decreased, mainly because of the persistent reduction in the occurrence of STEMI. On the other hand, the incidence of NSTEMI increased up to 2004 and began to decrease thereafter. This increase may be attributed to the improvement in myocardial necrosis detection techniques, particularly with the advent and dissemination of increasingly sensitive troponin tests. In addition, the register shows a reduction in mortality over 30 days, between 1999 and 2008, in patients hospitalized due to ACS. Interestingly, patients with NSTEMI exhibited an 18% (HR 0.82, 95% CI, 0.67-0.99) reduction in the relative risk for death; on the other hand, mortality in patients with STEMI did not change significantly during this period (HR 0.93, 95% CI 0.71-1.20) despite the increase in the number of patients undergoing revascularization. It has been suggested that the increasing use of cardioprotective medications prior to coronary events (statins, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin II type I receptor blockers, and beta blockers) is responsible for the reduction in the incidence of death in this population. Moreover, the use of troponin (and consequently, the increased sensitivity of NSTEMI diagnosis) has led to the inclusion of patients experiencing a less severe course of the disease and with better prognosis.</p>
      <p>Intrahospital mortality among patients with NSTEACS is lower than that among those with STEMI (3%-5% vs. 7%). However, 6-month mortality is similar (13% vs. 12%), and after 4 years, the risk for death in patients with NSTEACS is twofold higher than that in patients with STEMI. This difference in the medium- to long-term evolution may be explained by some differences between the patients' profiles because patients with NSTEACS are older and have more comorbidities, namely diabetes and renal impairment, in addition to higher incidence of previous arteries, which increase the likelihood of reinfarction<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>Because NSTEACS includes patients with distinct forms of clinical presentation and evolution, it is essential to adequately stratify the patients' risk when making therapeutic decisions, both in terms of ischemic events and bleeding. The "occasional" stratification initially proposed by Braunwald<sup>5</sup> and the various previously published scores enable careful analysis of ischemic events. The most commonly used risk scores are probably the TIMI risk score<sup>6</sup> and the GRACE score<sup>7-9</sup>, each with their qualities and limitations<sup>10,11</sup>. It should be noted that the same patient is often at low, intermediate, or high risk according to different methods; in this situation, the worst scenario should be taken into account when making a decision. With regard to bleeding, other scores have been proposed, such as the one that resulted from the CRUSADE study<sup>12</sup> and the one proposed by Mehran et al.<sup>13</sup>. Many guidelines on antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy presented in this section are directly associated with the risk group in which the patient was included; this demonstrates the importance of this step in the evaluation of patients with NSTEACS.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.2. Antiplatelet therapy in NSTEACS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There are two well-established indications for the use of double antiplatelet therapy in patients with coronary artery disease: coronary stent implant (to prevent stent thrombosis) and after ACS (to prevent the recurrence of ischemic events).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.2.1. ASA</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The importance of ASA in the treatment of NSTEACS is based on studies published since the 1980s. One of the first studies published by Cairns et al.<sup>14</sup> in 1985 assigned groups to ASA, sulfinpyrazone [a uricosuric agent with anti-inflammatory activity via cyclooxygenase (COX) blocking], both drugs, or no drugs, in the context of unstable angina. This study included 555 patients and found a significant 51% (<italic>p</italic> = 0.008) reduction in the combined outcome of death and nonfatal acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in individuals who received ASA.</p>
      <p>Soon after this, in 1988, a study was published that compared the use of ASA, heparin, or both in the treatment of unstable angina in 479 patients<sup>15</sup>. A significant reduction in the incidence of nonfatal AMI was observed in the groups that received ASA, both when used alone (3% vs. 12% in the placebo group, <italic>p</italic> = 0.01) and in combination with heparin (3% vs. 1.6% in the placebo group, <italic>p</italic> = 0.003); a low incidence of mortality was observed in this study, and it was not possible to identify differences between the groups. In 1993, the same group published a study comparing the use of ASA and heparin in unstable angina, with the aim of preventing the occurrence of infarction<sup>16</sup>. This study included 484 patients; there were only nine cases of infarction in the group that received ASA (244 patients) and only two cases of infarction in the group that received heparin (240 patients); the results of this study favored the isolated use of heparin over ASA (<italic>p</italic> = 0.035).</p>
      <p>With regard to the dosage, ASA should be initially administered at a loading dose of 150-300 mg<sup>17-19</sup>, followed by a maintenance dose of 75-100 mg/day. The CURRENT OASIS-7 study<sup>20</sup> tested the hypothesis of using a double maintenance dose of ASA in patients with ACS (approximately 71% of patients with NSTEACS). This study did not show any difference between the standard maintenance dose (75-100 mg/day) and the high dose (300-325 mg/day) in the prevention of cardiovascular events (mortality, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or stroke; <italic>p</italic> = 0.61, 95% CI 0.86-1.09); in addition, no difference was observed with regard to major bleeding (<italic>p</italic> = 0.90, 95% CI 0.84-1.17).</p>
      <p>Furthermore, it should be noted that the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (such as rofecoxib, celecoxib, ibuprofen, and diclofenac) is associated with increased risk for ischemic events (these compounds cause transient blocking of COX-1, thereby inhibiting the irreversible blocking by ASA). Therefore, their combination with ASA should be avoided<sup>21</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the use of ASA in the context of NSTEACS, at the previously mentioned doses, is well established and is fundamental in this context. ASA should not be administered to patients with known allergy to the compound (a rare condition; the estimated prevalence is less than 0.5% of the population) and in cases of active bleeding in the digestive tract, particularly those related to gastric ulcers (due to the direct irritant effect of the compound associated with the antiplatelet effect on the stomach).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.2.2. Clopidogrel</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Clopidogrel, a thienopyridine derivative, inhibits the P2Y12 receptor for ADP, and it consequently inhibits the platelet aggregation process, which is mediated by this path. Clopidogrel is a pro-drug and is dependent on its first passage through the liver (and two modifications in this organ) for the formation of the active metabolite via metabolism by cytochrome P450 enzymes.</p>
      <p>This agent was first studied in the context of NSTEACS during the CURE study<sup>22</sup>, in which the isolated use of ASA (75-325 mg/day) was compared with the combined use of ASA and clopidogrel (loading dose of 300 mg, followed by a daily maintenance dose of 75 mg), in the context of intermediate- or high-risk unstable angina and NSTEMI. This study included 12,562 patients and revealed a 20% (9.3% vs. 11.4%, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001, NNT 48) reduction in the relative risk for the combined outcome of cardiovascular death, stroke, and nonfatal acute myocardial reinfarction. This advantage was the result of the reduction in the incidence of reinfarction. With regard to safety outcomes, the group that received clopidogrel exhibited a 38% increase in the incidence of major bleeding (3.7% vs. 2.7%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.001, NND 100); however, there was no difference in the incidence of life-threatening bleeding (2.1% vs. 1.8%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.13). In this study, 43.7% of patients (5,491 patients) underwent cine coronary angiography, 16.5% (2,072 patients) underwent myocardial revascularization surgery, and 21.2% (2,658 patients) underwent PCI. Clopidogrel was used during 12 months, with a mean use time of 9 months.</p>
      <p>Substudies of CURE revealed that adding clopidogrel to ASA remained advantageous regardless of the subsequent treatment received (clinical, percutaneous, or surgical). The PCI-CURE study<sup>23</sup> revealed a 30% reduction in the relative risk for the combined outcome of cardiovascular death, stroke, and nonfatal AMI (4.5% vs. 6.4%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.03, NNT 48); there was no significant difference between the groups in terms of major bleeding (<italic>p</italic> = 0.64). In the portion of the sample exclusively subjected to clinical treatment, the group that received clopidogrel exhibited a 20% reduction in the relative risk for the combined outcome of cardiovascular death, stroke, and nonfatal AMI (8.1% vs. 10%, 95% CI 0.69-0.92, NNT 53). In the group subjected to myocardial revascularization surgery, this advantage was less clear; the group that received clopidogrel exhibited a 11% reduction in the relative risk for the combined outcome of cardiovascular death, stroke, and nonfatal AMI (14.5% vs. 16.2%, 95% CI 0.71-1.11); however, this difference was not statistically significant<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another peculiarity of this drug is how quickly it produces beneficial effects. Temporal analysis in the CURE study<sup>25</sup> demonstrated that the reduction in the combined outcome of cardiovascular death, stroke, nonfatal AMI, and refractory ischemia occurred within the first 24 h of the administration of clopidogrel combined with ASA, with a 34% decrease in the relative risk (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.01); in addition, this effect lasted for at least 12 months when a stent was placed.</p>
      <p>With regard to the dose regimen, the CURRENT OASIS-7 study<sup>20</sup> assessed 25,086 patients and tested two hypotheses the use of a double maintenance dose of ASA (results previously discussed in this document) and the use of a 600 mg loading dose of clopidogrel, followed by a dose of 150 mg/day for 7 days and 75 mg/day thereafter. This regimen was compared with the standard regimen (300 mg loading dose, followed by 75 mg/day) in patients with acute coronary disease (approximately 70% of patients with NSTEACS). This study did not show any difference between the high dose and the standard regimen in terms of preventing cardiovascular events (cardiovascular deaths, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or stroke) over 30 days (<italic>p</italic> = 0.30). With regard to major bleeding, the group that received higher doses of clopidogrel exhibited a higher incidence of major bleeding (2.5% vs. 2.0%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.01). Analysis of secondary outcomes revealed a significant reduction in the incidence of stent thrombosis (1.6% vs. 2.3%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.001) in the group subjected to PCI (17,263 patients). This subpopulation deserved a specific study<sup>26</sup>, wherein a 14% reduction in the incidence of cardiovascular deaths, nonfatal myocardial infarction, or stroke was observed over 30 days (<italic>p</italic> = 0.039, NNT 167), in addition to a significant reduction in definite stent thrombosis (0.7% vs. 1.3%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.0001), owing to a higher incidence of major bleeding (1.6% vs. 1.1%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.009, NNH 200).</p>
      <p>Another important point is the high intra- and interindividual variability in the response to this compound, which is not observed with the more modern antiplatelet drugs. These limitations can be explained by genetic variability, such as differences related to the process of liver metabolism by cytochrome P450 enzymes (polymorphisms related to CYP3A4 and mainly to CYP2C19)<sup>27</sup> and to the process of intestinal drug absorption, which is associated with the expression of P-glycoprotein (Pgp), a product of the ABCB1 gene, in intestinal epithelial cells<sup>28</sup>. The routine use of genetic tests is not indicated in clinical practice because they only partially explain the poor response to clopidogrel<sup>29</sup>; however, platelet aggregation tests have been increasingly used. The GRAVITAS study<sup>30</sup> assessed 2,214 patients with poor response to clopidogrel (as determined by VerifyNow<sup>&#174;</sup> 12-24 h after elective angioplasty with pharmacological stents) who were randomly assigned to receive a high dose of the drug (loading dose of 600 mg and maintenance dose of 150 mg/day) or standard dose, without a loading dose and with a maintenance dose of 75 mg/day (both regimens administered for 6 months). At the end of the follow-up period, no difference was observed between the two groups in terms of events (2.3% vs. 2.3%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.97). On the other hand, another study<sup>31</sup> compared &gt; 100 patients subjected to elective PCI and followed them for 1 year; the results revealed that at the end of the follow-up period, most tests significantly correlated with events; however, the predictive capacity was poor or moderate at best. Thus, the use of platelet aggregation tests to guide therapy still does not have a defined place in clinical practice, and its routine use in NSTEACS is not recommended, with the exception of cases of patients with acute coronary disease receiving appropriate treatment with ASA in combination with clopidogrel.</p>
      <p>Furthermore, various drugs that interfere with liver metabolism mediated by cytochrome P450 enzymes affect the action of clopidogrel, such as ketoconazole (by inhibiting cytochrome P450 and reducing the action of clopidogrel) and rifampicin (by inducing cytochrome P450 and promoting the action of clopidogrel). The combined use of proton pump inhibitors (PPI) and clopidogrel, an important point in clinical practice, has not been completely clarified till date. Several <italic>in vitro</italic> studies have revealed a reduction in platelet inhibition induced by clopidogrel when used in combination with PPI, particularly omeprazole. Small clinical studies have suggested an increase in the incidence of ischemic events when this combination is used; however, only one randomized clinical study has tested this hypothesis: the COGENT study<sup>32</sup>, which assessed 3,761 patients with indication for double antiplatelet therapy for at least 12 months (one group received clopidogrel and omeprazole and another group received clopidogrel and placebo). This study was prematurely terminated for funding reasons; however, no differences were observed in the incidence of ischemic events between the patients (4.9% in the omeprazole group &#215; 5.7% in the placebo group, <italic>p</italic> = 0.96). In addition, the placebo group exhibited a higher incidence of bleeding in the digestive tract (2.9% vs. 1.1%, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001). Thus, the use of PPI (particularly omeprazole) in combination with clopidogrel should be restricted to groups at higher risk for gastrointestinal bleeding (history of hemorrhage in the digestive tract, peptic ulcer, infection by <italic>Helicobacter pylori </italic>in individuals aged <underline>&gt;</underline> 65 years, concomitant use of anticoagulant agents or steroids). On the other hand, H2 blockers (ranitidine, cimetidine) may be used as an alternative.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the use of clopidogrel is indicated for individuals with NSTEACS at moderate and high risk for ischemic events; a loading dose of 300 mg and a daily maintenance dose of 75 mg should be administered. In patients at low risk for bleeding and undergoing PCI, a loading dose of 600 mg may be considered, followed by a maintenance dose of 150 mg in the first 7 days and a dose of 7-5 mg/day thereafter. The ideal time of clopidogrel use is 12 months, regardless of the subsequent treatment (clinical, percutaneous, or surgical). In case of surgical procedure, clopidogrel should be discontinued for at least 5 days before the procedure.</p>
      <p>In patients with indication for triple antithrombotic therapy, the use of clopidogrel is recommended in addition to P2Y12 receptor blockers; the concomitant use of clopidogrel and anticoagulant agents has not yet been tested in these patients.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.2.3. Prasugrel</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Prasugrel, a new generation thienopyridine, was developed to inhibit platelet aggregation more effectively than clopidogrel, thereby minimizing its limitations. Its active metabolite is similar to the active metabolite derived from clopidogrel; however, their metabolism differs: prasugrel solely depends on one oxidation phase in the liver; the first phase occurs via plasma esterases. Consequently, the antiaggregation effect occurs faster and more consistently and is less affected by agents that act on cytochrome P450.</p>
      <p>The TRITON-TIMI 38 study<sup>33</sup>, published in 2007, randomly assigned 13,608 patients with ACS (who had not previously received clopidogrel and those with known coronary anatomy and planned PCI) to clopidogrel or prasugrel combined with the standard therapy (including ASA). NSTEACS accounted for 74% of the sample. In the general cohort, the group that used prasugrel exhibited a 19% (9.9% vs. 12.1%, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001) reduction in the combined outcome of cardiovascular death, nonfatal infarction, or stroke (primary efficacy outcome), mainly due to the reduction in cases of nonfatal infarction (7.3% vs. 9.5%, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001); there were no significant differences in terms of cardiovascular deaths and stroke; the results of using the AMI universal classification<sup>34</sup> revealed that the decrease in the incidence of reinfarction occurred in all five types of infarction<sup>35</sup>. With regard to bleeding, the prasugrel group exhibited a 32% increase in the risk for major bleeding according to the TIMI score, which is the main safety outcome (2.4% vs. 1.8%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.03). In addition, there was a significant increase in the incidence of life-threatening bleeding (1.4% vs. 0.9%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.01). When evaluating the benefit-harm relation, a clear benefit of 13% (<italic>p</italic> = 0.004) in favor of clopidogrel was observed. Post hoc analyses identified three groups at higher risk for bleeding: individuals aged <underline>&gt;</underline> 75 years, weighing less &lt; 60 kg (in these two subgroups, there was no clear benefit), and with a history of stroke/TIA (in which the net benefit was significantly favorable to clopidogrel). Prespecified subanalyses revealed that prasugrel was more effective than clopidogrel in several subgroups and that there was a special benefit for diabetic patients, although a significant interaction between diabetes and the results obtained in the prasugrel and clopidogrel groups was not demonstrated<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>In conclusion, after determination of the coronary anatomy, the use of prasugrel in NSTEACS is indicated in cases of intermediate- and high-risk unstable angina and NSTEMI that have been referred for PCI. Prasugrel should be administered at a loading dose of 60 mg and at a maintenance dose of 10 mg/day, and its use should be continued for 12 months. A lower maintenance dose (5 mg) can be considered for individuals weighing less than 60 kg; however, such a dose has not been prospectively tested in clinical studies. The drug should be avoided in patients aged <underline>&gt;</underline> 75 years; if it is used, the recommended dose is 5 mg/day. The medication is contraindicated in the case of patients with a history of stroke/TIA. In case of surgical intervention, prasugrel should be discontinued for at least 7 days before the procedure.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.2.4. Ticagrelor</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Ticagrelor also inhibits the action of ADP via P2Y12 receptor blocking; however, unlike clopidogrel and prasugrel, it is not a thienopyridine; it is a cyclopentyl-triazolo-pyrimidine (CPTP). The characteristics of this chemical class are very different from those of thienopyridine drugs, e.g., the fact that it inhibits P2Y12 receptors in a reversible manner. Because this drug does not depend on primary metabolism (it is therefore not a pro-drug and its main effect is mediated by ticagrelor itself and, to a lesser extent, by an active metabolite), it inhibits platelet aggregation more rapidly, more consistently, and to a greater extent than clopidogrel. It has a relatively short half-life (approximately 12 h).</p>
      <p>In particular, in acute coronary disease, ticagrelor was tested in the PLATO study<sup>37</sup>, which randomly assigned 18,624 to ticagrelor or clopidogrel. The study design was very interesting because it included all types of acute coronary disease (with the exception of STEMI treated with a fibrinolytic drug), the possibility of using clopidogrel before patient randomization, or the possibility of using an additional dose of clopidogrel before PCI. In this study, clopidogrel or ticagrelor was administered during the initial treatment, without determining the coronary anatomy, and the patients were followed during the period of 1 year. In the sample, the prevalence of NSTEACS was approximately 60% (intermediate- and high-risk unstable angina, in addition to NSTEMI). During the intrahospital phase, 61% of individuals received percutaneous treatment, approximately 10% underwent myocardial revascularization surgery, and the remaining received only clinical treatment.</p>
      <p>The use of ticagrelor resulted in a 16% reduction in the incidence of the primary efficacy outcome, death from vascular causes, nonfatal reinfarction, or stroke (9.8% vs. 11.7%, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001). Separate analysis of the components of the combined outcome revealed a significant reduction in the incidence of reinfarction (5.8% vs. 6.9%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.005) and cardiovascular deaths (4.0% vs. 5.1%, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001), and there were no significant differences with regard to the incidence of stroke. In addition, a significant 22% reduction in the incidence of all-cause mortality (4.5 vs. 5.9%, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001) was observed. With regard to safety outcomes, there were no significant differences in the incidence of major bleeding (according to different definitions) or need for transfusions in the overall population. Other secondary effects that exhibited a higher incidence in the ticagrelor group included dyspnea (13.8% vs. 7.8%, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001), usually transient and leading to discontinuation of the drug in 0.9% vs. 0.1% (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001); bradycardia was also usually transient did not differ between the groups in terms of clinical repercussions (pacemaker implant, syncope, or heart block). This was noted on Holter monitoring, which revealed a significant increase in the incidence of ventricular pauses of more than 3 s in the first 7 days of ticagrelor use (5.8% &#215; 3.6%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.01) but was less significant after 30 days of drug use (2.1% vs. 1.7%, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.52)<sup>38</sup>. Finally, a significant increase in creatinine (10% vs. 8%) and uric acid (14% vs. 7%) levels was observed; however, there were no significant differences between the groups 1 month after the end of the treatment.</p>
      <p>The PLATO database resulted in the publication of several analyses of prespecified subgroups of patients, such as diabetic and nondiabetic<sup>39</sup>, with or without renal impairment<sup>40</sup>, with or without previous stroke<sup>41</sup>, on or not on proton-pump blockers<sup>42</sup>, referred for invasive or noninvasive treatment<sup>43</sup>, and undergoing myocardial revascularization surgery<sup>44</sup>. In general, the results were very similar to those described in the original publication, in which the entire population was studied.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the use of ticagrelor in NSTEACS is indicated in cases of moderate- or high-risk unstable angina and NSTEMI, regardless of the subsequent treatment strategy. Ticagrelor should be administered at a loading dose of 180 mg and a maintenance dose of 90 mg twice a day, and its use should be continued for 12 months. This medication can be administered in the emergency room, even without the determination of the coronary anatomy. In case of surgical intervention, ticagrelor should be discontinued 5 days before the procedure. Among other precautions (see package insert), the use of the drug should be avoided in patients with uremic nephrotic syndrome and care should be taken when administering to patients with bradycardia.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.2.5. Glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa inhibitors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors is well established in patients with high ischemic risk (diabetic patients, patients with positive myocardial necrosis markers) subjected to PCI. This evidence mainly stems from studies in which the early invasive strategy and double oral antiplatelet treatment were not used<sup>45-47</sup>. However, a meta-analysis with more than 20,000 patients subjected to PCI revealed a 31% decrease in mortality at 30 days of follow-up, when the drug was used<sup>48</sup>.</p>
      <p>No studies have compared the use of double antiplatelet therapy with ASA and GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors with that of double oral antiplatelet therapy (ASA with clopidogrel, prasugrel or ticagrelor). Recent studies have assessed the use of triple antiplatelet therapy (double antiplatelet therapy and GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors), with the aim of determining when and in which patients this therapy should be used.</p>
      <p>The EARLY ACS study<sup>49</sup> evaluated 9,492 patients with NSTEACS receiving double antiplatelet therapy (ASA and clopidogrel) and randomly assigned them to additional routine use of the GP IIb/IIIa inhibitor before PCI or its use in selected cases during PCI (presence of thrombi, diffuse disease, thrombotic complications). In this study, the GP IIb/IIIa inhibitor used was eptifibatide, a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide, not commercially available in Brazil. The results of EARLY ACS revealed that the routine use of the GP IIb/IIIa inhibitor did not significantly reduce the combined outcome of death, AMI, recurrent ischemia, and thrombotic complications in PCI (9.3% in the routine group vs. 10% in the selective group, RR 0.92, <italic>p</italic> = 0.23). On the other hand, routine triple antiplatelet therapy led to a significant increase in the outcome of major hemorrhage according to the TIMI criterion (2.6% vs. 1.8%, RR 1.42, <italic>p</italic> = 0.015).</p>
      <p>The ACUITY study assessed the best moment to use GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors. It included 9,207 patients and a 2 &#215; 2 factorial design: in addition to evaluating three antithrombotic regimens (heparin with the GP IIb/IIIa inhibitor, bivalirudin with the GP IIb/IIIa inhibitor, or only bivalirudin), it randomly assigned patients from the GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors groups to routine use before PCI or use in selected cases during PCI. The routine use of triple antiplatelet therapy did not significantly reduce the primary combined outcome of death, AMI, and new revascularization over 30 days (7.1% vs. 7.9%, RR 1.12, <italic>p</italic> = 0.13). On the other hand, the use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors in selected cases resulted in a lower incidence of major hemorrhagic events (4.9% vs. 6.1%, RR 0.8, <italic>p</italic> = 0.009)<sup>50</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors should be used as a third antiplatelet agent in patients who are not at high risk for hemorrhage and who, on the other hand, are at high risk for clinical ischemia (positive necrosis markers, recurrent ischemia, ST-segment depression), only after confirmation by angiography (severe atheromatosis, presence of thrombi, and thrombotic complications of PCI).</p>
      <p>It has been shown that when the drug is concomitantly used with the new oral antiplatelet drugs (prasugrel and ticagrelor), the benefits of the latter (see relevant chapter) occur regardless of using GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors, e.g., both the TRITON study and the PLATO study showed nonsignificant <italic>p</italic> values for the interaction with prasugrel (or ticagrelor) vs. the interaction with clopidogrel in patients also using or not using GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors<sup>37,51</sup>.</p>
      <p>The GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors that are commercially available in Brazil are abciximab and tirofiban. The meta-analysis published in 2010 revealed that in the studies wherein a higher loading dose of tirofiban (25 &#181;g/kg) was used, this compound was equivalent to abciximab in terms of ischemic outcomes<sup>52,53</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.3. Anticoagulant therapy in NSTEACS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.3.1. Fondaparinux</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This is a synthetic pentasaccharide that selectively binds to antithrombin, indirectly causing the inhibition of factor Xa. It does not interact with many plasma components and therefore acts in a predictable manner with low individual variability. It has a half-life of 17 h and renal excretion [contraindicated in CrCl &lt; 20 ml/min). It does not induce thrombocytopnea and does not need to be monitored.</p>
      <p>Fondaparinux was initially evaluated in NSTEACS in the PENTUA study<sup>54</sup>, which randomly assigned 1,138 patients to different doses of fondaparinux or enoxaparin. This phase II study concluded that the subcutaneous administration of 2.5 mg/day was safe and as effective as enoxaparin in preventing death, AMI, and recurrent ischemia.</p>
      <p>The use of fondaparinux in the context of NSTEACS was assessed in the OASIS 5 study<sup>55</sup>, which randomly assigned 20,078 patients to a fondaparinux group (2.5 mg subcutaneously once a day) or enoxaparin group (1 mg/kg every 12 h or every 24 h if CrCl &lt; 30 ml/min). Fondaparinux was not inferior to enoxaparin with regard to the combined outcome of death and refractory ischemia over 9 days (RR 1.01, 95% CI 0.9-1.13, <italic>p</italic> = 0.007 for noninferiority), which was the main aim of the study. Moreover, the incidence of the main secondary outcome (death and infarction over 9 days) did not differ significantly between the groups. During the 30-day and 90-day follow-up, a significant reduction in mortality was observed (RR 0.83, <italic>p</italic> = 0.02 and RR 0.89, <italic>p</italic> = 0.05, respectively), mainly due to clinical treatment of patients, because there were no significant differences between the groups of patients subjected to PCI (RR 0.94 and 0.92 at 30 days and 180 days, respectively, <italic>p</italic> = NS).</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_3tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_3tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt06-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The results of hemorrhagic outcomes were as follows: a significant reduction in major bleeding (2.2% vs. 4.1%, RR 0.52, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001) and a significant reduction in fatal bleeding in the population using fondaparinux owing to the significant increase in the incidence of catheter thrombosis (RR 3.59, <italic>p</italic> = 0.001). On the other hand, subanalysis of the OASIS 5 study<sup>56</sup> revealed that a reduction in major bleeding occurred in the group treated with fondaparinux, regardless of the use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors or thienopyridine drugs.</p>
      <p>A possible explanation for this reduction in hemorrhagic events is that fondaparinux has a lower anticoagulation potential than enoxaparin. This conclusion stems from the fact that anti-Xa levels in individuals treated with fondaparinux are 50% lower than those in individuals treated with enoxaparin, which explains the increase in the incidence of catheter thrombosis in patients undergoing PCI, observed in the abovementioned OASIS 5 study<sup>57</sup>. Subananalysis including only the patients subjected to PCI (approximately 40% of the population in the OASIS 5 study) revealed that even in this subpopulation, the fondaparinux group had a significantly lower incidence of bleeding; however, there were no significant differences between the fondaparinux and enoxaparin groups in terms of the main outcome of the study (death, reinfarction, or stroke) or any of its components at 9, 30, or 180 days of follow-up<sup>58</sup>.</p>
      <p>The increase in the incidence of catheter thrombosis led to the modification of the protocol during the course of the OASIS 5 study, with the incorporation of a bolus of UH in the fondaparinux group. However, the ideal dose of a bolus of UH to be administered to the patients treated with fondaparinux during PCI was subsequently determined in the FUTURA OASIS 8 study. In this study, 2,026 patients initially treated with fondaparinux were randomly assigned to receive distinct doses of a bolus of UH during PCI. The patients would receive 50 IU/kg (regardless of the use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors) or 85 IU/kg (reduced to 60 IU/kg in the case of concomitant use with GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors). There was no significant difference between the groups in terms of the combined primary outcome of major bleeding, minor bleeding, or vascular complications. However, the net benefit in terms of major bleeding over 48 h and revascularization of the target vessel over 30 days was favorable in the group receiving a dose of 85 IU/kg (RR 1.51, <italic>p</italic> = 0.05). It should be noted that in this study, the incidence of catheter thrombosis while using the 85 IU/kg bolus was only 0.1%<sup>59</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the use of fondaparinux (2.5 mg subcutaneously once a day) has been proven to be a similarly effective alternative; however, its safety profile is better than that of enoxaparin in patients with NSTEACS, and the concomitant use of a bolus of UH in patients undergoing PCI is mandatory.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.3.2. Unfractionated heparin (UH)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>UH is a heterogeneous mixture of polysaccharide molecules (mean molecular weight between 15,000 and 18,000 Da). In general, only one-third of the molecules found in a solution of heparin have the necessary pentasaccharide sequence to bind to antithrombin and establish anticoagulant activity.</p>
      <p>A study by Th&#233;roux et al.<sup>15</sup> compared the isolated use of ASA or UH with the combined use of the two drugs or the use of a placebo. This was a randomized and double-blind study with 479 patients with unstable angina who were evaluated for the occurrence of refractory angina, AMI, or death. Compared with the placebo group, the isolated use of ASA and UH led to a significant reduction in the occurrence of IAM, with UH showing better results. Moreover, there was a marked reduction in the occurrence of recurrent angina in the group treated with UH. In this study, the combined use of ASA and UH did not confer additional protection against the risk for ischemic events and was associated with a slight increase in the risk for bleeding.</p>
      <p>The ATACS study<sup>19,60</sup>, published in 1994, randomly assigned 214 patients with unstable angina or NSTEMI to UH in addition to ASA or no therapy. A significant reduction in the occurrence of ischemic events was observed at 14 days of follow-up in the patients who received the combination of ASA and UH (10.5% vs. 27%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.004); however, this difference was not statistically significant in the 12-week evaluation (19% vs. 28%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.09). In addition, there was a slight increase in the incidence of bleeding in the group that received UH.</p>
      <p>Analysis of the most relevant clinical studies comparing the benefits of UH and ASA in patients with unstable angina and NSTEMI revealed a significant reduction in the risk for AMI or death in the patients who received combined therapy (ASA) and UH compared with that in the patients who received only ASA (RR 0.44, 95% CI 0.21-0.93)<sup>61</sup>.</p>
      <p>With the advent of LMWH, several studies were conducted to compare the efficacy of UH with that of the new drugs in reducing the risk for ischemic events, associated with better results in terms of bleeding risk-related safety. In a meta-analysis published in 2000, involving 17,157 patients with NSTEACS included in 12 clinical studies, there was no significant difference in the occurrence of death or AMI between therapy with LMWH or UH (RR 0.88, <italic>p</italic> = 0.34). On the other hand, both were highly effective in reducing the risk for AMI or death in comparison with the placebo or untreated controls (RR 0.53, <italic>p</italic> = 0.0001)<sup>62</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.3.3. Low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>LMWH is a heterogeneous group of compounds derived from heparin, and its molecular weights vary between 2,000 and 10,000 Da. This group of compounds exhibits some very important advantages over UH<sup>61</sup>; these include convenient dosage and administration route (i.e., intermittent use and subcutaneous administration); no need to monitor the anticoagulant effect, with the exception of special situations (such as obesity and renal failure) wherein anti-Xa activity should be monitored whenever possible (therapeutic target between 0.6 and 1.0 IU/ml)<sup>63</sup>; almost complete absorption via the subcutaneous route; lower binding to proteins; lower platelet activation; and, most importantly, a more predictable dose-effect relation.</p>
      <p>Compared with the use of UH, there was a nonsignificant 12% reduction in the occurrence of death or AMI during the initial phase of LMWH use. On the other hand, the main representative of LMWH is enoxaparin, and it is the most used in clinical practice. Enoxaparin was compared with UH in the context of NSTEACS in several studies. The ESSENCE and TIMI 11B studies showed, for the first time, the superiority of LMWH over UH<sup>64</sup>. However, because these studies were conducted at a time when the invasive strategy was not used and certain antithrombotic agents (such as GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors) still did not exist, further studies on the subject were required, and the SYNERGY study was therefore conducted<sup>65</sup>. This study randomly assigned 10,027 high-risk NSTEACS patients, allocated to early invasive strategy, to receive enoxaparin or UH. The primary aim of the study was to analyze the combined outcome of all-cause death or myocardial infarction in the first 30 days after randomization. Of the total sample, 92% of the patients were underwent cine coronary angiography, 47% underwent percutaneous revascularization, and 19% underwent surgical revascularization, distributed equally between the enoxaparin or UH groups. With regard to the primary outcome, there was no difference between the LMWH and UH groups (14% vs. 14.5%, <italic>p </italic>= 0.4). A similar result was observed at 48 h and at 14 days (<italic>p</italic> = 0.10 and 0.38, respectively). With regard to safety outcomes, the enoxaparin group exhibited a higher incidence of major bleeding according to the TIMI score (<italic>p</italic> = 0.008); however, no significant difference was observed according to the GUSTO score (<italic>p</italic> = 0.08) or when the number of transfusions was used as parameter (<italic>p</italic> = 0.15). In the population subjected to PCI, the incidence of any unsuccessful PCI, threat of acute occlusion, acute occlusion, and emergency myocardial revascularization surgery was similar between the groups. This study showed very relevant results regarding the crossover of heparin during the treatment of these patients. Of the total population, approximately 6,000 patients used only one heparin during hospitalization, and in this population receiving a "consistent therapy," post hoc analysis revealed a significant reduction in the incidence of the primary outcome of death or AMI over 30 days of evolution with the use of LMWH (12.8% vs. 15.6%, RR 0.81, <italic>p</italic> = 0.003).</p>
      <p>A meta-analysis that included approximately 22,000 patients with NSTEACS treated with enoxaparin or UH<sup>66</sup> revealed the following: a significant reduction in the combined outcome of death and myocardial infarction over 30 days in the enoxaparin group (RR 0.91, 95% CI 0.83-0.99) and nonsignificant differences in the incidence of major bleeding (RR 1.04, CI 0.83-1.30) or need for transfusions (RR 1.01, 95% CI 0.89-1.14); in the subpopulation without heparin therapy before randomization, the benefits of enoxaparin with regard to death or AMI were amplified when compared with UH (HR 0.81; 95% 95% CI 0.70-0.94).</p>
      <p>The recommended dose of enoxaparin to be used is 1 mg/kg every 12 h; this dose should be adjusted to 1 mg/kg once a day in case of renal failure with CrCl &lt; 30 ml/min and to 0.75 mg every 12 h in elderly patients aged &gt; 75 years. If a percutaneous procedure (angioplasty) is performed within 8 h of the last dose of enoxaparin, there is no need for an additional dose of enoxaparin; if the angioplasty is performed more than 8 h after the last dose of enoxaparin, an additional dose of 0.3 mg/kg should be intravenously administered. The concomitant use of enoxaparin and UH during hospitalization should be avoided<sup>67</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, LMWH should be used in patients with high- and intermediate-risk NSTEACS in addition to NSTEMI, at the described doses, until PCI or myocardial revascularization surgery is performed; in case of clinical treatment, it should be used for 8 days or until the patient is discharged; its use for a longer period than this is associated with increased risk for bleeding without significant reduction in ischemic events<sup>68,69</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3.3.4. New anticoagulant agents</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Phase III studies have analyzed two oral Xa factor inhibitors (apixaban and rivaroxaban) combined with double antiplatelet therapy in the context of acute coronary disease. The APRAISE-2 study randomly assigned 7,392 patients to apixaban (5 mg every 12 h) or placebo, 6 days (on average) after the onset of symptoms compatible with ACS. The study was prematurely terminated owing to a significant increase in major bleeding according to the TIMI criterion (HR 2.59, <italic>p</italic> = 0.001), without the observation of significant benefits in terms of ischemic events<sup>70</sup>. The dose of apixaban used was the same as that tested in the context of atrial fibrillation (AF), which would explain the excessive severe bleeding.</p>
      <p>The use of rivaroxaban in a similar population (4.7 days on average after an acute ischemic event) was assessed in the ATLAS ACS 2 study<sup>71</sup>, in which &gt; 15,000 patients were randomly assigned to three groups: rivaroxaban 2.5 mg every 12 h, rivaroxaban 5 mg every 12 h, and placebo (both doses were much lower than those tested in the context of AF). The 2.5 mg dose resulted in better results, with a relative 16% reduction in the primary goal of the study, the combined outcome of cardiovascular death, AMI , and stroke (<italic>p</italic> = 0.007), at the end of a 2-year follow-up; moreover, there was a significant reduction in cardiovascular death (HR 0.66, <italic>p</italic> = 0.005) and all-cause death (HR 0.68, <italic>p</italic> = 0.004). With regard to safety, the rivaroxaban group exhibited a significant increase in the incidence of nonsurgery-related bleeding (HR 3.46, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001), as expected; however, there was no significant increase in the incidence of fatal bleeding (<italic>p</italic> = 0.45).</p>
      <p>With regard to thrombin inhibitors, the concomitant use of dabigratan and double antiplatelet therapy was evaluated after ACS in the REDEEM study<sup>72</sup>. In this study, there was a marked increase in the incidence of bleeding at the different doses tested (50, 75, 110, and 150 mg).</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_3tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_3tab02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt07-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>4. Use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in stroke and transient ischemic attack (TIA)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.1. Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Stroke is the second main cause of morbidity and mortality in Brazil. Data from the DATASUS of 2010 revealed that stroke accounted for deaths in 99,732 patients (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://tabnet.datasus.gov.br/cgi/tabcgi.e.,xe?sim/cnv/obt10uf.def">http://tabnet.datasus.gov.br/cgi/tabcgi.e.,xe?sim/cnv/obt10uf.def</ext-link>)<sup>1</sup>; the leading cause is ischemic heart disease. In addition, it is essential to recognize TIA because it is a strong predictor of stroke.</p>
      <p>Furthermore, it should be noted that of the patients who survived the first event, many will have recurrent stroke. Therefore, the secondary prevention of new events is fundamental.</p>
      <p>This section aims to evaluate the use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant drugs in the secondary prevention of noncardioembolic stroke (described in section 5, "Use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in atrial fibrillation"), particularly cases of atherosclerotic origin.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.2. Antiplatelet therapy in stroke</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The main mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of stroke are arterial thrombosis, particularly related to atherosclerotic disease, and cardioembolic events, which confirms that platelet aggregation plays an important role in the development of stroke. Thus, the use of medications that act by blocking platelet aggregation reduces the rate of vascular events (including new stroke, acute myocardial infarction, and death).</p>
      <p>Most studies involving antiplatelet agents in the secondary prevention of stroke analyze combined cardiovascular events; this prevents an effective determination of the rate of stroke recurrence.</p>
      <p>Next, we describe the existing evidence in favor of prescribing antiplatelet agents for the secondary prevention of stroke /TIA after the acute 48-h phase.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.2.1. ASA</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of ASA is the standard secondary prevention against stroke and TIA. A meta-analysis published in 1999<sup>2</sup> assessed the efficacy of ASA in the prevention of new cerebrovascular events. In total, 11 studies were included in the analysis (with a total of over 9,500 patients), wherein ASA was compared with a placebo with regard to the prevention of <italic>de novo</italic> stroke in patients who had already suffered a previous episode of ischemic stroke/TIA. The results of this meta-analysis revealed that there was an approximately 15% reduction in the occurrence of <italic>de novo</italic> cerebrovascular events with the use of ASA and the difference was statistically significant. An important aspect of this study was the observation that the reduction in risk did not depend on higher doses of ASA, which suggests that even lower doses are effective in secondary prevention. Another factor to be taken into account is that higher doses of ASA are associated with a higher number of hemorrhagic events, particularly in the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, the use of ASA at low doses (e.g., 100 mg) seems to be effective in the secondary prevention of stroke/TIA, with less adverse effects.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.2.2. ASA in combination with dipiridamol</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The effectiveness of dipiridamol compared with that of ASA in the secondary prevention of ischemic stroke was evaluated in four major clinical trials. Among these, the ESPS-2 study<sup>3</sup> randomly assigned more than 6,000 patients who had ischemic stroke or TIA to ASA (25 mg twice a day), sustained-release dipiridamol (200 mg twice a day), ASA in addition to sustained-release dipiridamol (25/200 mg twice a day), or placebo. The primary outcomes assessed were stroke and death. The group that received the combined therapy exhibited a 23.1% and 24.7% reduction in the relative risk for ischemic stroke and TIA, respectively, compared with the groups that received ASA and dipiridamol alone, and the difference was statistically significant. However, the dose of ASA used in this study was low. With regard to adverse effects, the incidence of bleeding was higher in patients who used ASA, both in the ASA group and in the group receiving ASA and dipiridamol. The patients who used dipiridamol experienced more headaches and gastrointestinal symptoms, particularly diarrhea.</p>
      <p>The ESPRIT study<sup>4</sup> randomly assigned more than 2,500 patients with stroke or TIA to ASA (the dose varied between 30 and 325 mg/day and the average dose was 75 mg/day) or ASA combined with sustained-release dipiridamol (the dose of dipiridamol was 200 mg twice a day). The primary outcome assessed was a combination of acute myocardial infarction (AMI), stroke, and death from cardiovascular causes or bleeding. These events occurred in 13% of patients under double therapy and in 16% of patients in the group under monotherapy. However, an intriguing fact observed in this study was that there was a higher occurrence of hemorrhagic events in the patients receiving only ASA than in those receiving double therapy. Therefore, ASA combined with sustained-release dipiridamol (200 mg twice a day) is an interesting option for secondary prevention in patients with ischemic stroke or TIA. However, this form of dipiridamol is still not available in Brazil.</p>
      <p>In general, the studies showed that dipiridamol combined with ASA was as effective as ASA alone, although the patients less tolerated it.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.2.4. Ticlopidine</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The CATS study<sup>5</sup> involved more than 1,000 patients who had stroke; they were randomly assigned to ticlopidine (250 mg twice a day) or placebo to determine the reduction in <italic>de novo</italic> stroke, AMI, or death from vascular causes. Compared with the placebo group, the ticlopidine group (assessed by intention to treat) exhibited a 23.3% reduction in the relative risk for events, and the difference was statistically significant. The most common adverse effects related to the use of ticlopidine were neutropenia, skin rash, and diarrhea (all were reversible after drug discontinuation).</p>
      <p>The TASS study<sup>6</sup> randomly assigned more than 3,000 patients who had stroke or TIA to ticlopidine (250 mg twice a day) or ASA (625 mg twice a day). The primary outcome assessed was <italic>de novo</italic> stroke or all-cause mortality. There was a 12% reduction in the relative risk as a result of using ticlopidine. However, the incidence of side effects when ticlopidine was used (similar to the CATS study) was higher than when ASA was used.</p>
      <p>The AAASPS study<sup>7</sup> selected almost 2,000 African-American patients who recently had a stroke. The patients were randomly assigned to ticlopidine (250 mg twice a day) or ASA (325 mg twice a day). The outcomes assessed were <italic>de novo</italic> stroke, AMI, or death from cardiovascular causes. The incidence of stroke and TIA in the ticlopidine group was 14.7% and 12.3% in the ASA group; however, the difference was not statistically significant. The side effects of using ticlopidine were similar to those observed in the previous studies.</p>
      <p>Considering that the number of severe adverse events observed with the use of ticlopidine is higher than that observed with the use of a similar drug, clopidogrel, the use of ticlopidine has no longer been considered as an alternative to ASA.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.2.5. Clopidogrel</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No studies have compared clopidogrel with a placebo in the secondary prevention of stroke.</p>
      <p>The CAPRIE study<sup>8</sup> involved more than 19,000 patients with manifest atherosclerotic disease (ischemic stroke, acute myocardial infarction [AMI], and symptomatic peripheral vascular disease). The patients were randomly assigned to ASA (325 mg/day) or clopidogrel (75 mg/day). The primary outcome was a combination of ischemic stroke, AMI, intracranial hemorrhage, leg amputation, and death. There was a relative 8.7% reduction in risk for events with the use of clopidogrel. If we only consider patients with ischemic stroke, there was a relative 7.3% reduction in the risk for events with the use of clopidogrel; however, the difference was not statistically significant. It should be noted that this study was not designed to assess events only in patients with previous ischemic stroke.</p>
      <p>The PRoFESS study<sup>9</sup> randomly assigned more than 20,000 patients with a history of stroke to clopidogrel (75 mg/day) or ASA in addition to sustained-release dipiridamol (25/200 mg twice a day). The primary outcome assessed was recurrent stroke. The rate of primary events in the patients who received clopidogrel was 8.8%, whereas that in the patients who received ASA in combination with sustained-release dipiridamol was 9.0%. This was a noninferiority study; however, the treatment regimens were found to be equivalent. Moreover, the number of hemorrhagic events was higher in the patients who received ASA in combination with sustained-release dipiridamol than in those who received clopidogrel.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.2.6. ASA plus clopidogrel</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The MATCH study<sup>10</sup> selected more than 7,500 patients who were using clopidogrel and had stroke or TIA to receive ASA (75 mg/day) or a placebo. The primary outcome assessed was stroke, AMI, death from vascular causes, or rehospitalization for acute ischemia. There was a 9.5% reduction in the relative risk for events in the patients who received clopidogrel in addition to ASA; however, the difference was not statistically significant. The group that received the combined therapy exhibited more hemorrhagic events.</p>
      <p>The CHARISMA study<sup>11</sup> randomly assigned more than 15,000 patients with manifest atherosclerotic disease or with multiple risk factors to ASA combined with placebo or ASA combined with clopidogrel for determining whether the association of antiplatelet agents was more effective in reducing AMI, stroke, or death from cardiovascular causes than the use of ASA alone. The results demonstrated a reduction in the risk for events with the use of the antiplatelet drug combination; however, the difference was not statistically significant. The combination of ASA with clopidogrel increased the rate of bleeding. In subgroup analysis that included only the patients with manifest atherosclerotic disease (excluding the patients who only exhibited risk factors for atherosclerotic disease), a statistically significant reduction in the primary outcome was observed. However, analysis that only included the poststroke patients did not reveal a statistically significant reduction in primary outcomes with the combination of ASA and clopidogrel.</p>
      <p>The FASTER study<sup>12</sup> aimed to assess the potential benefits of adding clopidogrel to ASA in terms of reducing the primary outcome (stroke, TIA, AMI, or all-cause mortality). However, the recruitment of patients failed and the study was prematurely terminated. The results of this study suggest that the combination of ASA (a loading dose of 162 mg, followed by a maintenance dose of 81 mg/day) and clopidogrel (a loading dose of 300 mg, followed by a maintenance dose of 75 mg/day) was not effective in reducing events and increased the bleeding rate.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.2.7. Cilostazol</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A Chinese pilot study (CASISP)<sup>13</sup> randomly assigned 720 postischemic patients to ASA or cilostazol; the dose used in each group of patients was not indicated. The primary outcome assessed was the recurrence of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. A 38% reduction in the relative risk for events was observed in the group that received cilostazol, and the event curves began to diverge 6 months after the use of medication. However, there was no statistically significant difference. Headaches, tachycardia, palpitations, and dizziness were the most common side effects among the patients who used cilostazol.</p>
      <p>In the Japanese CSPS-2 study<sup>14</sup> (a noninferiority study), more than 2,500 postischemic stroke patients were randomly assigned to ASA (81 mg/day) or cilostazol (100 mg twice a day). The primary outcomes assessed were similar to those assessed in the CASISP study. Cilostazol reduced the likelihood of primary events in 25% patients and was thus not lesser effective than ASA in preventing postischemic stroke events. Another advantage of using cilostazol was the lower incidence of hemorrhagic events. However, it should be noted that patients in the ASA group used more antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and lipid-lowering medications, which confirmed the higher severity of the disease in this group. The adverse effects of using cilostazol were similar to those observed in the CASISP study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.2.8. Glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa inhibitors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Abciximab was tested in a phase II study in postacute ischemic stroke patients and was shown to be safe if administered within 24 h after the event<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>On the other hand, the AbESTT-II study16, a multicenter phase III study with a higher number of patients, did not show abciximab to be safe or effective in patients with ischemic stroke. The study was prematurely terminated owing to the higher incidence of bleeding in the group that received abciximab.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.3. Anticoagulant therapy in stroke</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Arterial thromboembolism is an important mechanism in the pathophysiology of ischemic stroke. In general, multicenter studies have not demonstrated that anticoagulant agents are beneficial in the secondary prevention of noncardioembolic ischemic stroke.</p>
      <p>Next, we describe these studies and address the use of heparin after acute stroke.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.3.1. Warfarin</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The SPIRIT study<sup>17</sup> randomly assigned more than 1,700 poststroke or TIA patients to ASA 300 mg/day or warfarin (target INR [international normalization ratio] between 3.0 and 4.5). The primary outcome assessed was a combination of death from cardiovascular causes, stroke, AMI, or major hemorrhagic complications. This study was prematurely terminated owing to the statistically higher incidence of events in the group that received warfarin (RR 2.3). The occurrence of events was most influenced by hemorrhagic complications, including those that led to death. Therefore, the use of warfarin to keep INR between 3.0 and 4.5 is not safe in patients with ischemic stroke or TIA.</p>
      <p>The WARSS study<sup>18</sup> involved more than 2,200 postischemic stroke patients who were randomly assigned to ASA (325 mg/day) or warfarin (target INR between 1.4 and 2.8). The primary outcomes assessed were all-cause mortality and recurrent ischemic stroke. The group that received warfarin exhibited a 1.13-fold higher risk for primary events than the group that received ASA, without a statistically significant difference. The risk for major bleeding was 1.48-fold higher in the warfarin group, without a statistically significant difference.</p>
      <p>The ESPRIT study<sup>3</sup> randomly assigned postischemic stroke or TIA patients to warfarin (target INR between 2.0 and 3.0) or ASA (doses varying between 30 and 325 mg/day). The primary outcome assessed was similar to that evaluated in the SPIRIT study. Furthermore, post hoc analysis was performed to compare the use of warfarin with the combination of ASA and sustained-release dipiridamol (200 mg twice a day); the same outcome was assessed in both the cases. The incidence of events was 19% in the warfarin group and 18% in the ASA group, without a statistically significant difference. Considering only ischemic events, there was a 27% reduction in the relative risk for events with the use of warfarin; however, the difference was not statistically significant. The risk for major bleeding was 2.56-fold higher in the group that received warfarin; the difference was statistically significant. It is important to note that in post hoc analysis, the risk for primary events was 1.31-fold higher in the warfarin group than in the group using the combination of ASA with sustained-release dipiridamol, although there was no statistically significant difference.</p>
      <p>The chronic use of oral anticoagulant drugs is recommended in some specific clinical conditions, such as stroke due to cerebral artery dissection, acquired thrombophilia, and antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, according to indirect evidence from clinical trial subgroups, series of cases, and the opinion of specialists. It is not within the scope of this review to address these conditions.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.3.2. Unfractionated heparin (UH)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The number of studies on the use of UH in the acute phase of stroke is small.</p>
      <p>A single-center study<sup>19</sup> randomly assigned more than 400 patients in the first 3 h after lacunar ischemic stroke to endovenous UH (target aPTT between 2.0 and 2.5) or saline solution. The primary outcome assessed was the autonomy in daily activities 90 days after the acute event. The safety outcomes were death, symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage, and other major bleeding. After 90 days, the percentage of patients who received heparin with primary outcome was 38.9% and that of patients who received saline solution was 28.6%; the difference was statistically significant. However, symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage occurred in 6.2% of patients in the treatment group and 1.4% of patients in the control group; the difference was also statistically significant.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_4tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_4tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt08-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>A meta-analysis<sup>20</sup> assessed the use of anticoagulant drugs (including heparin and oral anticoagulant agents) in acute ischemic stroke. The results showed that the use of anticoagulant drugs did not reduce mortality or improve the patients' autonomy.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.3.3. Low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A study conducted in Hong Kong<sup>21</sup> randomly assigned approximately 300 patients within 48 h after acute stroke to receive nadroparin at high doses (4,000 IU twice a day), nadroparin at low doses (4,000 IU once a day), or a placebo for 10 days. The primary outcome assessed was death or autonomy in daily activities. At 3 months of follow-up, no difference was observed between the groups. However, in 6-month analysis, the percentages of patients with the primary outcome were as follows: 45% in the group that received high-dose nadroparin, 52% in the group that received low-dose nadroparin, and 65% in the placebo group, without any increase in hemorrhagic transformation. It is important to note that this study included patients with cardioembolic stroke.</p>
      <p>Another study<sup>22</sup> on nadroparin did not show any advantages of using this medication and demonstrated that higher doses are associated with higher bleeding rates.</p>
      <p>It should be noted that the use of any antiplatelet or anticoagulant drug is contraindicated within 24 h after intravenous thrombolytic treatment of ischemic stroke with alteplase<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4.3.4. Anticoagulation following a hemorrhagic cerebral event</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Deciding the best time to return to full anticoagulation therapy after a hemorrhagic cerebral event in previously anticoagulated patients is a great challenge. The evaluation of the risk for thrombotic events and new hemorrhagic events is important. Therefore, some factors must be taken into account in this assessment: the motive for which the patient is anticoagulated, age, presence of systemic arterial hypertension, level of anticoagulation, presence of small bleeding areas on magnetic resonance, dialysis, and presence of lobar hemorrhage.</p>
      <p>A study<sup>24</sup> assessed more than 230 patients who presented acute cerebral hemorrhage and used anticoagulant drugs. Of these patients, 177 survived the first week. Only 33% of patients restarted anticoagulation therapy after the hemorrhagic event. Recurrence of hemorrhagic events occurred in eight patients who restarted anticoagulant therapy and in 10 patients who did not receive anticoagulant therapy. The risk for embolic events was higher in the group that was not anticoagulated. After a statistical model was applied, the authors determined that the ideal time to restart anticoagulation therapy was between 10 and 30 weeks after the event.</p>
      <p>In another study<sup>25</sup>, in which more than 700 patients were followed after intracranial hemorrhage, Hanger et al. observed that the risk for a new hemorrhagic event was 2.1% in the first year of follow-up and the risk for ischemic stroke was 1.3%.</p>
      <p>Overall, it is important to note that if there is a need to start the patient on anticoagulant therapy, the administration of UH using a continuous infusion pump should be preferred because titration and reversal are easier with this medication<sup>26</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_4tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_4tab02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt09-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>5. Use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in atrial fibrillation (AF)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>5.1. Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>AF is the most common form of sustained arrhythmia in clinical practice. Its incidence and prevalence increase as the population ages, doubling every decade of life after 50 years of age. AF is associated with an increase in the risk for stroke, heart failure and overall mortality<sup>1-6</sup>.</p>
      <p>Stroke is the third cause of death in developed countries and the main cause of severe long-term incapacity; it has a negative impact on treatment costs. At least one in every five strokes is caused by AF<sup>5,7-10</sup>. In addition, stroke secondary to a thromboembolic event in a patient with AF is usually more severe and disabling than ischemic stroke<sup>9,10</sup>. Furthermore, it is important to highlight the increased risk for cognitive disorders in the population with AF. Small observational studies have shown that asymptomatic embolic events can contribute to cognitive deficit in patients with AF in the absence of clinically diagnosed stroke<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>This document focuses on the update of antithrombotic therapy in AF in view of the main advances in risk stratification in the prevention of thromboembolic phenomena and the incorporation of new antithrombotic therapies, such as dabigatran, rivaroxaban, and apixaban.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>5.2. Application of thromboembolic risk scores in patients with AF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The main AF treatment strategies include the improvement of symptoms (via rhythm or heart rate control) and prevention of thromboembolic phenomena. However, AF can be silent in the preclinical and clinical phases or after invasive interventions. In the presence of risk factors, the prevention of thromboembolic phenomena is considered most important for the treatment of AF, regardless of the adopted strategy (rhythm or heart rate control)<sup>12,13</sup>. In addition, the paroxysmal form of AF exhibits the same risk for stroke as the persistent and permanent forms.</p>
      <p>The risk for thromboembolic phenomena can be determined using the CHADS<sub>2 </sub>score<sup>14-16</sup> as well as the recent CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc score<sup>17</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig5char01-body2">Chart 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>). This new score resulted in a "real" separation between uncertain low risk and certain low risk. Moreover, several patients previously classified as being at intermediate risk according to the old score were now part of high-risk groups according to the new risk score, with a clinical impact (less thromboembolic events). New risk factors were incorporated in the score, such as female gender, presence of arterial vascular disease (such as coronary artery disease, peripheral vascular disease, or plaque in the aorta), and intermediate age (between 65 and 74 years). Age <underline>&gt;</underline> 75 years now correspond to a score of 2 points because of the high risk associated with this factor. Thus, the CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc score is a refinement of the CHADS<sub>2 </sub>score, when the latter is 0 or 1. Because the CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc score automatically includes the risk factors of the old CHADS<sub>2 </sub>score, it is simpler and more accurate to assess the risk thromboembolic phenomena in AF using the CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc score. CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc scores above 1 indicate anticoagulant therapy (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="fig5char01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt10-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt11-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The customary indications for anticoagulation, based on the CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc score, are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">Tables 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_5tab03-body2">3</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_5tab03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt12-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>5.3. Risk for hemorrhagic phenomena during oral anticoagulation therapy</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Strong evidence indicates a beneficial action of chronic oral anticoagulation (COA) therapy in patients at risk. On the other hand, this therapy is associated with hemorrhagic complications<sup>18-22</sup>, one of the most feared complications being intracranial hemorrhage, which is almost always related to levels of INR above the therapeutic range (INR &gt; 3.5-4.0). Because the therapeutic range of INR is very narrow, several scores have been developed to assess the hemorrhagic risk; the HAS-BLED risk score [Hypertension, Abnormal Renal/Liver Function, Stroke, Bleeding History or Predisposition, Labile INR, Elderly (&gt; 65 years), Drugs/Alcohol Concomitantly]<sup>23</sup> is the most used in patients with AF. If the score is <underline>&gt;</underline> 3, COA should be administered very carefully and all efforts should be made to control the risk factors, such as arterial hypertension and alcohol consumption.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>5.4. Use of new anticoagulant agents in patients with AF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>5.4.1. Results from large studies</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Warfarin, at adjusted doses, is highly effective in the prevention of thromboembolic phenomena in AF by reducing this risk by 64% in adequately treated patients<sup>24-26</sup>. Despite this success, 50% of patients who are supposed to be treated are not indeed, owing to several reasons that include the need for frequent evaluation of the anticoagulation rate (periodical INR monitoring) and hemorrhagic risk<sup>24,25</sup>. On the other hand, patients treated with this medication are not always within the appropriate therapeutic range. This is because of the irregular use of the medication, the interaction between warfarin and foods (particularly "greens") and other medications such as antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs. The likelihood of anticoagulation being outside the therapeutic range is particularly noteworthy in the elderly, who usually take other drugs for the treatment of associated conditions. Furthermore, there is the possibility of resistance to the drug owing to individual genetic characteristics. Thus, although anticoagulant therapy is highly effective, it has some disadvantages and does not benefit the population that needs it the most.</p>
      <p>In recent years, the discovery of thrombin or factor Xa inhibitor drugs has brought a new perspective on anticoagulant therapy<sup>27</sup>. These drugs do not require anticoagulation monitoring (INR) and have little interaction with medications and foods. Owing to these characteristics as well as their high efficacy and safety, these new drugs have the potential to increase adherence to treatment with COA as well as the number of treated patients. Three new generation anticoagulant drugs had a phase III clinical trial approval: dabigatran, rivaroxaban, and apixaban. Dabigatran is a direct thrombin competitive inhibitor and the remaining are factor Xa inhibitors. </p>
      <p>Dabigatran was compared to warfarin in the prevention of systemic thromboembolism (STE) in a study involving approximately 18,000 patients with paroxysmal or permanent AF. Patients were aged <underline>&gt;</underline> 75 years; in the latter case, patients had more than one associated risk factor such as heart failure, diabetes, arterial hypertension, or a previous history of stroke. Patients were randomly assigned to warfarin at doses adjusted according to INR or fixed doses of dabigatran (110 mg and 150 mg twice a day). This was an open study, based on intention to treat analysis, with a maximum follow-up period of 3 years. The mean CHADS<sub>2 </sub>risk score of the assessed population was 2.3, and the time in therapeutic range for patients who used warfarin was 64%. The RE-LY study used the criterion of noninferiority of the new anticoagulant agent relative to warfarin, i.e., the criterion that the efficacy and safety of the new agent are at least equal to those of warfarin<sup>28,29</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the RE-LY study, the annual rate of stroke or systemic embolism was 1.71% for warfarin, 1.54% for the 110 mg dose of dabigatran (RR 0.90; 95% CI 0.74-1.10), and 1.11% for the 150 mg dose of dabigatran (RR 0.65; 95% CI 0.52-0.81). Hemorrhagic stroke rate was lower with the use of both doses of dabigatran [150 mg (0.10%) and 110 mg (0.12%)] than with the use of warfarin (0.38%) (<italic>p </italic>&lt; 0.001 for both doses). Major bleeding rate was 3.57% with the use of warfarin, 2.8% with the use of 110 mg of dabigatran (<italic>p</italic> = 0.003), and 3.22% with the use of 150 mg of dabigatran (<italic>p</italic> = 0.31).</p>
      <p>Regarding to side effects, there was a higher rate of dyspepsia in the group that received dabigatran and a slight increase in the risk for gastrointestinal bleeding at a dose of 150 mg. A higher numeric risk for myocardial infarction was observed in patients receiving dabigatran (0.82% and 0.81% for 110 mg and 150 mg, respectively) than in those receiving warfarin (0.64%/year; <italic>p</italic> = 0.09 and 0.12, respectively), but with no statistical significance. </p>
      <p>These findings revealed that dabigatran was safe and effective in preventing TE in patients with AF. The 150 mg dose of dabigatran was superior to warfarin (with similar bleeding rate), while the 110 mg dose of dabigatran had a similar efficacy and lower bleeding rate.</p>
      <p>The ROCKET-AF study<sup>30</sup> compared rivaroxaban with warfarin in the prevention of TE in 14,264 patients with nonvalvular AF and with risk factors for thromboembolism (mean CHADS<sub>2</sub> = 3.47). A 20 mg fixed dose of rivaroxaban once a day (dose of 15 mg for patients with renal clearance between 30 and 49 ml/min) was compared with warfarin in a double-blind manner using the criterion of noninferiority In a per protocol analysis, the annual rate of stroke was 1.7% for rivaroxaban and 2.2% for warfarin [the relative risk (RR) in the rivaroxaban group was 0.79; 95% CI 0.66-0.96, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001 for noninferiority]. Based on the intention to treat analysis, thromboembolic events occurred in 2.1% (per year) of patients who received rivaroxaban and in 2.4% of patients who received warfarin (RR 0.88, 95% CI 0.74-1.03, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001 for noninferiority; <italic>p</italic> = 0.12 for superiority). The rates of major and clinically nonmajor bleeding were similar in both groups (14.9% vs. 14.5%, RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.96-1.11, <italic>p</italic> = 0.44); however, the rates of hemorrhagic stroke were lower with rivaroxaban than with warfarin (0.5% vs. 0.7%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.02) and the same trend was observed in fatal bleeding rates (0.2% with rivaroxaban and 0.5% with warfarin, <italic>p</italic> = 0003).</p>
      <p>Regarding to secondary prevention, a recent presentation confirmed the noninferiority of rivaroxaban relative to warfarin. In a prospective evaluation of 7,468 patients with a previous history of stroke/TIA (CHADS2 score of 3.93), the rate of stroke recurrence was 13% lower in the group that received rivaroxaban than in the group that received warfarin (2.26% in the rivaroxaban group and 2.60% in the warfarin group; RR 0.87, 95% CI 0.69-1.10)<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>Apixaban was assessed in two large studies. The double-blind AVERROES study<sup>32</sup> compared apixaban (at a dose of 5 mg twice a day) with aspirin in 5,599 patients with AF and at risk for stroke, who, for some reason, could not use warfarin<sup>32</sup>. The study was prematurely stopped because there was a clear reduction in TE and stroke with the use of apixaban (1.6% for apixaban and 3.7% for aspirin, RR 0.45, 95% CI 0.32-0.62), with similar rates of major hemorrhage (1.4% for apixaban and 1.2% for aspirin, RR 1.13, 95% CI 0.74-1.75). Death rate was 3.5% in the apixaban group and 4.4% in the aspirin group (RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.62-1.02, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.07).</p>
      <p>The ARISTOTLE study<sup>33,34</sup> compared apixaban at a dose of 5 mg twice a day with warfarin (INR between 2 and 3) in a double-blind manner using the criterion of noninferiority in 18,201 patients with AF and with at least one additional risk factor for stroke. In a 1.8-year follow-up, the annual rate of primary events was 1.27% in the apixaban group and 1.60% in the warfarin group (RR with apixaban 0.79, 95% CI 0.66-0.95, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001 for noninferiority; <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.01 for superiority). Major bleeding rate was 2.13% in the apixaban group and 3.09% in the warfarin group (RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.60-0.80, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001). The annual rate of all-cause mortality was 3.52% for apixaban and 3.94% for warfarin (RR 0.89, 95% CI 0.80-0.99, <italic>p </italic>= 0.047). Hemorrhagic stroke rate was 0.24% in the apixaban group and 0.47% in the warfarin group (RR 0.51, 95% CI 0.35-0.75, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001). The annual rate of ischemic stroke or stroke of undetermined cause was 0.97% in the apixaban group and 1.05% in the warfarin group (RR 0.92, 95% CI 0.74-1.13, <italic>p</italic> = 0.42). Therefore, apixaban was superior to warfarin in reducing stroke and TE and exhibited a lower risk for hemorrhage and mortality<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>5.5. Considerations on electrical cardioversion with the new oral anticoagulant agents</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of new oral anticoagulant drugs for the prevention of thromboembolic phenomena in patients with AF leads us to an important topic regarding the strategy to be used in case these patients need to undergo electrical cardioversion. Data are still scarce in the literature; however, subgroup analysis resulting from the RE-LY study revealed that cardioversion could be performed without major risk for thromboembolic phenomena, provided the patients were on chronic dabigatran therapy<sup>35</sup>. Data on rivaroxaban and apixaban are still not available. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>5.6. Recommendations on the use of the new oral anticoagulant agents</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The results of the studies on the new oral anticoagulant drugs (NOACs) reinforce the new indications for their use (dabigatran, rivaroxaban, and apixaban) in patients with AF and risk factors for thromboembolic events. However, until the end of this paper, we will limit the recommendations to the drugs currently available in Brazil: dabigatran and rivaroxaban.</p>
      <p>Pharmacovigilance is of utmost importance as the use of these new drugs in the "real world" increases. Till date, there is no specific antidote for dabigatran, whose half-life is short (between 12 and 17 h). In case of bleeding, treatment may vary from basic care (minor bleeding) to transfusion of blood derivatives, oral administration of activated charcoal, hemodialysis, and surgical intervention (major bleeding). In case of minor bleeding, interrupting the dose for 12-24 h or, if appropriate, reducing the subsequent dose (e.g., from 150 mg to 110 mg) may be sufficient. Although not a specific antidote, the prothrombin complex can be used to reverse the anticoagulant activity of factor Xa inhibitors<sup>36</sup>. The recommendations on the use of dabigatran and rivaroxaban in AF are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_5tab04-body2">Tables 4</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_5tab05-body2">5</xref>, respectively.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_5tab04-body2">
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      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_5tab05-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt14-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>5.7. Use of heparin in patients with AF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>UH is mainly used in the prevention of thromboembolic phenomena in patients subjected to electrical or chemical cardioversion of AF; however, it has lost prominence to LMWH. The type of heparin preferred for the maintenance of anticoagulation in patients with AF is LMWH, which is administered when the ideal adjustment of ACO has not been achieved or when its use must be temporarily interrupted because of diagnostic or therapeutic procedures that carry risk for hemorrhage. Although there are three types of LMWH (dalteparin, enoxaparin, and nadroparin), enoxaparin is the most used in clinical practice. The indications for the use of heparin in AF are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_5tab06-body2">Tables 6</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_5tab07-body2">7</xref><sup>37</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_5tab06-body2">
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      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>5.8. Summary of the international guidelines</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In addition to Diretrizes Brasileiras de Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial<sup>38</sup>, various international guidelines have been published regarding anticoagulation in AF, with a clear preference for the new anticoagulant drugs as anticoagulation agents in patients with nonvalvular AF<sup>39-42</sup>. However, other topics remain controversial, and consensus has not been reached with regard to recommendations such as which agent to use (and for how long) after AF ablation.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>6. Use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in valvular disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>6.1. Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>It is well documented that valvular dysfunctions, regardless of the cardiac rhythm and mainly in the presence of atrial fibrillation (AF), put patients at increased risk for embolic events<sup>1</sup>. Systemic thrombolism (STE) has been shown to be one of the severe complications following the formation of a thrombus in the atrial chamber. Thromboembolic phenomena can significantly modify the natural history of valvular disease, and its prevention should be considered during disease follow-up<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>In practice, two groups of antithrombotic agents are available:</p>
      <disp-quote>
        <p>&#149; Oral anticoagulant drugs. This group includes phenprocumon (Marcoumar<sup>&#174;</sup>), acenocoumarol (Sintrom<sup>&#174;</sup>), phenindione (Dindevan<sup>&#174;</sup>), crystalline sodium warfarin (Cumadin<sup>&#174;</sup>), and sodium warfarin (Marevan<sup>&#174;</sup>). Of the four compounds, sodium warfarin is the most used in clinical practice.</p>
        <p>&#149; Anticoagulant agents for parenteral use: heparin. This group includes UH (Liquemin<sup>&#174;</sup>) and LMWH: dalteparin (Fragmin<sup>&#174;</sup>), nadroparin (Fraxiparine<sup>&#174;</sup>), and enoxaparin (Clexane<sup>&#174;</sup>).</p>
      </disp-quote>
      <p>Treatment of valvular dysfunctions with oral anticoagulant agents is prolonged and oral administration is therefore preferred. The use of heparin (via endovenous or subcutaneous administration) is indicated for special treatment situations.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>6.2. Oral anticoagulation with warfarin</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Of the anticoagulant compounds that are administered orally, both forms of warfarin (sodium warfarin and crystalline sodium warfarin) are the most used because of their advantageous characteristics, namely good availability, predictable onset and duration of action<sup>3,4</sup>.</p>
      <p>Warfarin has been used in clinical practice for more than half a century. Despite this fact, it is still underused because of difficulties in controlling coagulation, drug interactions, and lack of compliance.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>6.3. Parenteral anticoagulant agents</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Of the injectable anticoagulant compounds, LMWH is the drug of choice because of its anticoagulation efficacy and practicality of use.</p>
      <p>The isolated or combined use of both forms of anticoagulant drugs depends on their half-life. If the aim is to rapidly achieve antithrombotic protection, heparin is used concomitantly with oral warfarin<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>Heparin, particularly LMWH, can be used after implanting a mechanical valvular prosthesis if the risk for bleeding is considered until oral anticoagulation is initiated and INR is within the appropriate range<sup>5-15</sup>. Moreover, it is useful in the transition between oral anticoagulation discontinuation and a surgical/intervention procedure ("heparin bridge") in patients with valvular disease and indication for permanent anticoagulation therapy<sup>16-18</sup>, in pregnant women (from pregnancy diagnosis to week 12 of gestation), and in women with valvular disease and with indication for permanent anticoagulation therapy (from week 36 of gestation)<sup>16,19,20</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>6.4. Initial and maintenance doses of oral anticoagulant agents</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The initial and maintenance doses should be guided by INR (international normalization ratio) values. The initial dose is 2.5 mg/day in patients aged &gt; 65 years and 5 mg/day in the remaining patients. Laboratory monitoring of INR should be performed after 5 days. Following dose adjustment, the adequate dose is achieved when the values of three blood samples collected at 5-day intervals are within the desired range. It has been suggested that patients aged &gt; 65 years are more sensitive to warfarin because of lower liver metabolism. Liver cells that form the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the P450 system, where warfarin is metabolized, secrete less enzyme<sup>18</sup>. Achievement of target values of INR throughout the treatment is difficult because of numerous external factors such as fluctuation of the vitamin K dose (the intake of this vitamin varies with frequently modified diets), use of multiple drugs with agonist or antagonist effects, and gastric mucosa edema resulting in lower drug absorption. It is recommended that the patient follows a balanced diet without great restrictions and anticipates blood collection for INR monitoring when there is a need to start a new medication. Once the correct dose is achieved, INR monitoring can be performed every 30 days<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>The best moment for warfarin administration is open for debate. One study has reported that absorption is greater at the proximal level (stomach and duodenum) of the gastrointestinal tract<sup>19</sup>, while another study has added that the absorption rate depends on the presence of food<sup>20</sup>. Based on reports, it is suggested that the drug should be taken in the morning, after fasting, to avoid the influence of gastric pH, which is modified by ingested foods. In clinical practice, no differences have been observed as a result of distinct times of drug intake.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>6.5. Anticoagulation in valvular disease with native valve</bold>
      </p>
      <p> Rheumatic mitral valve disease (RMVD) is more thrombogenic than aortic lesions, and it results in a fivefold increase in the incidence of embolic events. STE is not frequent among patients with aortic valve disease, particularly stenosis from calcification and sinus rhythm. Holley et al.<sup>21</sup> attribute the presence of microemboli, particularly renal microemboli, to aortic degeneration.</p>
      <p>AF is the most common arrhythmia in mitral dysfunctions; it occurs in 26% of patients with mitral stenosis and in 16% of patients with mitral insufficiency. In aortic dysfunction, AF is also more common in stenotic lesions (5%). The presence of AF results in a 17.5-fold increase in TE<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>Studies have failed to show that left atrial dilatation (55 mm) is associated with higher risk for STE <italic>per se</italic>. However, patients with left atrial diameter <underline>&gt;</underline> 55 mm and associated risk factors such as advanced age, presence of intracavitary thrombus, or even spontaneous contrast are candidates for thromboembolism prevention<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>Coulshed et al.<sup>22</sup> revealed that in mitral valve dysfunction (mitral stenosis and mitral insufficiency, even in sinus rhythm), the incidence of STE varies from 7.7% to 8%. In the presence of AF, this incidence is three- to fourfold higher (21.1% vs. 31.5%).</p>
      <p>In patients who exhibit aortic calcification and sinus rhythm, without a previous history of thromboembolic events, anticoagulation is not recommended.</p>
      <p>Oral anticoagulation is recommended in patients with aortic stenosis or insufficiency who develop AF<sup>5,6</sup>.</p>
      <p>Aspirin can be used as an alternative for STE prevention in patients in unfavorable economic conditions, at a dose of 200-300 mg/day<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>6.6. Anticoagulation in patients with a mechanical prosthesis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>It is generally agreed that a mechanical prosthesis exposes the patients to an increased risk for STE, regardless of the cardiac rhythm. This risk is estimated to be 12%/year for a prosthesis in the aortic position and 22% for a prosthesis in the mitral position, in the absence of oral anticoagulation therapy<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>Patients with a mechanical prosthesis, regardless of their mitral/aortic position and cardiac rhythm, require antithrombotic prevention treatment. When they are implanted in the aortic position and the cardiac rhythm is sinusal, in the absence of other risk factors for STE, INR should be between 2.0 and 3.0<sup>3</sup>. Mechanical prostheses in the aortic position are less thrombogenic because this is a site of high flow and pressure where fibrin deposition is reduced. However, even with a prosthesis in the aortic position, if the patient has AF rhythm, it is recommended to maintain INR between 2.5 and 3.5. Because bleeding in elderly patients is a relatively common complication<sup>8</sup>, it is recommended to keep INR between 2.0 and 2.5 and to monitor this parameter more frequently<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients with a mechanical prosthesis implanted in the mitral position, regardless of the cardiac rhythm, prophylactic care against thromboembolism should be greater and mean INR of 3.0 (2.5-3.5) is recommended.</p>
      <p>In patients with a mechanical prosthesis, in the presence of any risk factor for STE, such as blood hypercoagulability, previous thromboembolism in the presence of adequate anticoagulation, or compromised ventricular function, it is recommended to add oral aspirin at a dose of 50-100 mg/day to the anticoagulation therapy. The exceptions are as follows: elderly patients aged <underline>&gt;</underline> 80 years or those with a tendency for gastrointestinal bleeding<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>6.7. Anticoagulation in patients with a biological prosthesis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Bioprostheses are less thrombogenic. However, some authors believe that the risk for STE is higher in the first 3 months after implantating a prosthesis. Thrombogenicity may be associated with suture stitches and nonendothelized traumatized perivalvular tissues<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients with a biological prosthesis implanted in the mitral and aortic positions, even in sinus rhythm, the recommended oral anticoagulant agent for use in the first 3 months after surgery is class IIb (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_6tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
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      </p>
      <p>Regardless of the position of the bioprosthesis, in the presence of AF or hypercoagulability, oral anticoagulation should be prolonged and INR should be maintained at approximately 2.5.</p>
      <p>The presence of an intracavitary thrombus found during the surgical procedure requires anticoagulation for a minimum period of 3 months after surgery. Even if the thrombus is removed during the procedure, INR should be kept at approximately 2.5 (2.0-3.0).</p>
      <p>These recommendations are based on studies<sup>13,14</sup> in which the authors observed a high incidence of embolic events (6.9%) among patients who did not receive antithrombotic prevention treatment in the first 3 months after surgery.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_6tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_6tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt18-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_6tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_6tab02-body2">
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      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_6tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7. Use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in venous thromboembolism (VTE)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.1. Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>VTE has a high impact on morbidity and mortality in the general population; however, it can be prevented in most cases. Thus, its treatment and prevention through the use of specific medication is very important. Until recently, the anticoagulant drugs used in clinical practice were fractioned heparin and UH, fondaparinux, and warfarin. However, these drugs exhibit limitations, such as its injectable use (heparin and fondaparinux) and a narrow therapeutic window associated with a strong interaction with various drugs and foods (warfarin). Therefore, new anticoagulant agents were developed to overcome these limitations and enable oral treatment with fixed doses, without the need for routine laboratory monitoring.</p>
      <p>These drugs have been tested in randomized controlled studies that included a large number of patients. However, clinical studies do not represent the "real world" because patients at high risk for hemorrhage or with more clinical complications are usually excluded. Didactically, we will consider that VTE encompasses deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE).</p>
      <p>Most studies comparing enoxaparin with the new anticoagulant drugs for primary prevention in case of knee and hip prostheses surgeries focus on the occurrence of asymptomatic DVT; however, cost/benefit analysis requires the assessment of the occurrence of symptomatic VTE and bleeding.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.2. Assessment of the risk for VTE and prevention</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The prevention of VTE is indicated for hospitalized medical patients who are aged &gt; 40 years, have an expected duration of limited mobility of 3 days or more, have at least one risk factor for TEV, and are not at increased risk for bleeding; prophylactic therapy should be maintained at least until hospital discharge. All patients hospitalized in intensive care units are deemed at high risk for VTE.</p>
      <p>Risk factors for VTE are as follows: previous VTE, advanced age (particularly &gt; 55 years), surgery, major trauma or lower limb injury, immobility, lower limb paresis, varicose veins, cancer, cancer therapy (hormone therapy, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, angiogenesis inhibitors), myeloproliferative disorders, venous compression (hematoma, tumor, arterial abnormality), pregnancy and puerperium, estrogen therapy, estrogen receptor modulators, erythropoiesis-stimulating agents, acute disease, acute infectious disease, class III or IV congestive heart failure, AMI, acute respiratory disease, stroke, rheumatic disease, inflammatory bowel disease, nephrotic syndrome, renal failure, nocturnal paroxystic hemoglobinuria, obesity, central venous catheter, and inherited or acquired thrombophilia<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
      <p>The indication for prevention using anticoagulant agents should take into account cost/benefit analysis of using these drugs with the potential risk for bleeding. In practice, it is difficult to determine when medical patients are at high or low risk for developing DVT on the basis of studies with very heterogeneous populations.</p>
      <p>In an observational prospective study that included 1,180 patients hospitalized for medical treatment, 11 risk factors for DVT with different weights were established and scores were defined for risk for DVT on the basis of the total number of points considered for the presence of each one of these factors (see <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref> for the Padua risk score)<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt20-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Patients were deemed to be at high risk when the score was <underline>&gt;</underline> 4 (39.7% of patients) and low risk when it was &lt; 4 points (60.3%). After a 90-day follow-up, DVT occurred in 11% of high-risk patients and in 0.3% of low-risk patients. Despite the limitations of this study, the Padua risk score is a good means of determining risk for DVT in hospitalized patients. In surgical patients, preventive anticoagulation is recommended for patients deemed at moderate risk (patients undergoing gynecological, urological, or thoracic surgery or neurosurgery; patients undergoing small surgical procedures who exhibit an additional risk factor; patients aged between 40 and 60 years who will receive general anesthesia for more than 30 min without additional risk factors) or at high risk (patients aged &gt; 60 years undergoing major surgical procedures; patients aged between 40 and 60 years with additional risk factors; patients undergoing hip or knee arthroplasty, pelvic or hip fracture surgery, colorectal surgery, major trauma, spinal cord surgery, or cancer surgery). Risk factors for the development of VTE in surgical patients also include the type and extent of the surgery or trauma as well as the duration of hospitalization. Prevention should be continued until hospital discharge. In some subgroups of patients, it may be advisable to maintain prevention for an extended period of time after discharge, e.g., patients undergoing major cancer surgery or having experienced a previous thromboembolic event (up to 28 days) and patients undergoing hip or knee prosthesis surgery or hip fracture surgery (up to 35 days)<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.3. Risk for bleeding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Till date, there is no prospectively validated model for assessing the risk for bleeding in hospitalized medical patients. A retrospective study including more than 15,000 patients presented the following risk factors for bleeding: active gastroduodenal ulcer, bleeding over the last 3 months, platelet count &lt; 50,000/&#181;l, older age, liver or kidney failure, prolonged stay in an intensive care unit, presence of a central venous catheter, rheumatic disease, cancer, and male gender<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4. Anticoagulant therapy in VTE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.1. Unfractionated heparin (UH)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.1.1. Prevention</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of UH at low doses (5,000 IU subcutaneously every 8 or 12 h) for the prevention of thromboembolism in medical and surgical patients at risk is effective and safe and reduces the risk for VTE and fatal pulmonary embolism (in 60%-70% of patients)<sup>6</sup>. On the other hand, its use is associated with a slight increase in the incidence of wound hematoma and a nonstatistically significant increase in major bleeding (without an increase in fatal bleeding).</p>
      <p>Patients hospitalized for stroke who exhibit reduced mobility should receive prophylactic treatment with low-dose anticoagulant drugs; however, these drugs should not be used during 24 h after the administration of thrombolytic drugs<sup>9,10</sup>. Patients hospitalized for hemorrhagic stroke should receive mechanical prophylactic treatment using pneumatic compression intermittent devices<sup>11</sup>. The use of heparin at low doses should be considered for high-risk patients, particularly bedridden patients, after bleeding cessation has been observed, on the second to fourth day following the onset of hemorrhagic stroke<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p>Platelet count should be performed every 2-3 days within 4-14 days or until the end of heparin treatment, whichever occurs first, in patients who are on prophylactic UH and on alternate days in patients who are on postoperative prophylactic UH because they represent the group at higher risk for thrombocytopenia induced by heparin. In patients who will start UH or LMWH therapy and who have received UH in the last 100 days, basal platelet count should be performed and repeated 24 h after the start of heparin therapy. Platelet count is not necessary in medical patients who are solely on UH catheter flush<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.1.2. Treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>UH is an effective drug in the treatment of DVT. It should be started as soon as the diagnosis is confirmed (or in case of high medical suspicion, until the diagnostic tests are performed) because pulmonary embolism occurs in approximately 50% of patients with symptomatic DVT in untreated lower limbs<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>There are three forms of using UH in the initial treatment of DVT: intravenous administration with coagulation monitoring, subcutaneous administration with coagulation monitoring, and subcutaneous administration adjusted for weight without coagulation monitoring.</p>
      <p><italic>Intravenous administration with coagulation monitoring</italic>. Two administration regimens of intravenous UH are recommended for the treatment of DVT: a 5.000 IU bolus followed by continuous infusion of at least 30.000 IU in the first 24 h (1,250 IU/h) or a 80 IU kg bolus followed by 18 IU/kg/h (specific protocols are available to reach and maintain adequate aPTT levels, i.e., 1.5- to 2.5-fold the control value)<sup>15</sup>. Intravenous administration of heparin is difficult and can often result in inadequate treatment, with up to 60% of patients not reaching an adequate aPTT in the first 24 h<sup>16</sup>. The creation of specific protocols, such as the administration of weight-adjusted doses, aims to avoid incorrect dosing.</p>
      <p><italic>Subcutaneous administration with coagulation monitoring.</italic> A meta-analysis of eight clinical studies on the initial treatment of patients with DVT revealed that subcutaneous administration of UH twice a day is more effective (RR of extent or recurrence of thromboembolism: 0.62, 95% CI 0.39-0.98) and at least as safe (RR of major bleeding: 0.79, 95% CI 0.42-1.48) as continuous intravenous administration<sup>17</sup>, which facilitates dosage and enables home treatment. The usual regimen in these studies included an initial intravenous bolus of approximately 5,000 IU and a subsequent subcutaneous dose of 17,500 IU twice a day in the first day, followed by adjustments to reach aPTT that is 1.5- to 2.5-fold the laboratory control value.</p>
      <p>Subcutaneous administration of UH with aPTT adjustment was also as effective and safe as that of a fixed dose of LMWH in the initial treatment of patients with VTE, including patients with pulmonary embolism<sup>18</sup>. In this case, heparin therapy was initiated at a dose adjusted for weight (&lt; 50 kg, 4,000 IU intravenously + 12,500 IU subcutaneously; 50-70 kg, 5,000 IU intravenously + 15,000 IU subcutaneously; &gt; 70 kg, 6,000 IU intravenously + 17,500 IU subcutaneously) and the dose was adjusted according to the result of aPTT every 6 h.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt21-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p><italic>Subcutaneous administration adjusted for weight without coagulation monitoring.</italic> The rates of recurrent VTE, major bleeding, and death after subcutaneous administration of UH at an initial dose of 333 IU/kg, followed by a fixed dose of 250 IU/kg twice a day, without coagulation monitoring were similar to those after the administration of LMWH<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>The efficacy of treatment with UH depends on reaching a critical therapeutic level of heparin in the first 24 h (aPTT 1.5-fold higher than the control value or the upper limit of the normal variation of aPTT)<sup>20</sup>; the risk for thromboembolism recurrence in patients who do not attain this level is increased. The use of a dose adjusted to weight (initial bolus of 80 IU/kg, followed by a continuous infusion of 18 IU/kg/h) results in a higher number of patients (97% vs. 77%) reaching aPTT within the therapeutic range in the first 24 h and in a lower incidence of thromboembolism recurrence<sup>15</sup>. In the case of subcutaneous administration, the initial dose should be high to obtain an adequate response within the first 24 h<sup>21</sup>.</p>
      <p>At present, the simultaneous introduction of heparin and vitamin K antagonist, followed by heparin discontinuation after 5 days, is recommended, provided that INR is <underline>&gt;</underline> 2.0 for at least 24 h. In addition to the reduction in the risk for thrombocytopenia induced by heparin, two randomized clinical studies including patients with proximal DVT showed a similar efficacy in the use of intravenous UH for 5-7 days and 10-14 days<sup>22,23</sup>. Platelet counts should be regularly performed to monitor thrombocytopenia induced by heparin, which should be discontinued if there is a sharp or sustained platelet drop or a platelet count &lt; 100,000.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.2. Low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.2.1. Prevention</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of LMWH in the prevention of DVT is determined by the patient's risk for experiencing a medical event. Within this risk stratification, certain medical situations are differently assessed. In this context, patients are divided into three groups: nonsurgical patients, patients undergoing orthopedic surgeries, and patients undergoing nonorthopedic surgeries. In this section, we will focus on nonsurgical patients.</p>
      <p>The use of heparin significantly reduces the incidence of VTE, with better efficacy obtained with LMWH, which can be administered once a day and exhibits a lower tendency for trombocytopenia<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>Data from three systematic literature reviews were used to determine the indication for prophylaxis of thromboembolic phenomena in patients hospitalized for acute diseases. The results show that thromboprophylaxis is associated with a significant reduction in the risk for thromboembolic phenomena, particularly in patients deemed at higher risk for these events. Moreover, the risk for major bleeding was not significant<sup>25,26</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, tromboprophylaxis with LMWH is recommended for high-risk individuals until mobility is recovered or until hospital discharge (whichever occurs first). In low-risk individuals, the incidence of events is very low and does not justify prophylaxis<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>Interestingly, in the LIFENOX study<sup>28</sup> was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized study that compared the effect of subcutaneous enoxaparin (40 mg/day) with that of a placebo (both administered for 10 &#177; 4 days in patients who wore elastic graduated compression stockings) as well as the rate of all-cause mortality among acute hospitalized patients. The results revealed that compared with the use of elastic graduated compression stockings alone, combined use of enoxaparin and elastic graduated compression stockings was not associated with a reduction in the rate of all-cause mortality.</p>
      <p><italic>Prevention of DVT in long-distance travel.</italic> Prophylaxis with LMWH or ASA has been discussed and often indicated in individuals who return from long-distance flights. Symptomatic VTE is rare in this specific group of patients.</p>
      <p>High-risk patients are recommended to walk frequently, exercise, and massage the muscles. In addition, these patients should consider wearing below-the-knee elastic stockings with compression of 15-30 mmHg.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt22-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Till date, no studies have been conducted using an adequate methodology to test the potential benefits of LMWH in this group of patients. In high-risk individuals, i.e., those with previous thromboembolism, known thrombophilia, body mass index above 40 kg/m<sup>2</sup> (third-degree obesity), active cancer, recent major surgery (less than 1 month), as well as those traveling for more than 6 h, the use of thromboprophylactic medications should be decided on a case-by-case basis, always taking into account that adverse events may outweigh any benefit<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>The usual practice in this case is the use of 20-40 mg of enoxaparin (subcutaneously) 1 h before boarding a flight of more than 6 h, although this has not been scientifically demonstrated. Other drug options (also not tested under these conditions) include dabigatran (110 mg) or rivaroxaban (10 mg).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.2.2. Treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of LMWH for initial anticoagulation after a diagnosis of DVT is associated with lower mortality, lower DVT recurrence, and a lower incidence of major bleeding. Moreover, there is a lower incidence of thrombocytopenia induced by heparin and its use is simple. Care should be taken when administering the drug to individuals with significantly impaired renal function (CrCl &lt; 30 ml/min). The dose is adjusted according to the patient's age, with a predictable therapeutic effect. aPTT monitoring is unnecessary. LMWH exhibits better bioavailability than UH. The prolonged therapeutic activity of LMWH enables one or two daily administrations<sup>30,31</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, combined use of LMWH and a vitamin K antagonist is recommended until INR monitoring reveals that the patient is adequately anticoagulated<sup>32,33</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.3. Warfarin</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.3.1. Prevention</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In patients who underwent major orthopedic surgery and who do not accept or tolerate injections, warfarin can be used as an alternative to apixaban, dabigratan, or intermittent pneumatic compression devices for the prevention of DVT<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.3.2. Treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In patients with acute DVT, warfarin must be started on the same day as that of the onset of the administration of LMWH or UH. Parenteral anticoagulation must be maintained for a minimum of 5 days or until INR of 2.0 is reached<sup>35</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients with DVT treated with warfarin, the dose must be adjusted in view of reaching INR between 2.0 and 3.0 (target INR: 2.5)<sup>36,37</sup>.</p>
      <p>The anticoagulation period will depend on the existence of a thrombosis-predisposing factor, which may be transient such as surgery or definitive such as thrombophylic syndrome. A minimum period of 3 months is recommended, which can be extended in the presence of a causative factor. In patients with proximal lower-extremity DVT caused by surgery <sup>38,39</sup>, proximal lower-extremity DVT caused by a transient risk factor not related to surgery, or an isolated episode of distal lower-extremity DVT caused by a transient risk factor or caused by surgery <sup>40</sup>,the recommended period of anticoagulation with warfarin is also 3 months.</p>
      <p>In patients with spontaneous DVT (without a known triggering factor) in the lower extremities, the minimum recommended period of anticoagulation with warfarin is 3 months. After this period, patients must be evaluated with regard to the risk/benefit of extending the anticoagulation treatment. In patients who present with a first episode of proximal lower-extremity DVT without a known risk factor, anticoagulation for a period greater than 3 months is recommended. Anticoagulation for 3 months is recommended for individuals who exhibit a first episode of proximal lower-extremity DVT without a known risk factor and with a high risk of bleeding. In patients who present with a first episode of proximal lower-extremity DVT without a known risk factor, regardless of the risk for bleeding, anticoagulation with warfarin for 3 months is recommended<sup>41,42</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab04-body2">Table 4</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt23-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab05-body2">Table 5</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab05-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt24-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Another factor that should be considered with regard to anticoagulation time is the nature of the DVT episode: first episode or recurrent episode. Furthermore, the risk for bleeding should be evaluated.</p>
      <p>In patients with a recurrent DVT episode without a known risk factor, the period of anticoagulation with warfarin should be extended beyond 3 months in individuals at low risk for bleeding<sup>43,44</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients with a recurrent DVT episode without a known risk factor, it is suggested that the period of anticoagulation with warfarin should be extended beyond 3 months in individuals at moderate risk for bleeding. In patients with a recurrent DVT episode without a known risk factor, the period of anticoagulation with warfarin should be 3 months in individuals at high risk for bleeding<sup>45,46</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients with active cancer, the period of anticoagulation with warfarin for lower-extremity DVT should be extended beyond 3 months in individuals not at high risk for bleeding. In patients with active cancer, the period of anticoagulation with warfarin for lower-extremity DVT should be 3 months in individuals at high risk for bleeding. Warfarin treatment for asymptomatic lower-extremity DVT should follow the same recommendations with regard to the INR therapeutic level and duration<sup>47</sup>.</p>
      <p>The ARTEMIS double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study was designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of the use of fondaparinux in the prevention of DVT in 849 patients aged <underline>&gt;</underline> 60 years who had been hospitalized for acute cardiac, respiratory, infectious, or inflammatory disease and who needed to be bedridden for at least 4 days and had moderate risk for DVT.</p>
      <p>Subcutaneous administration of fondaparinux 2.5 mg/day (with an onset within the first 48 h after hospital admission and maintained for 6-14 days) significantly reduced the risk for DVT, from 10.5% in the placebo group to 5.6% (reduction in RR 47%, 95% CI 8-69). Major bleeding occurred in one patient in each group (0.2%)<sup>48</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the PEGASUS study, patients who underwent elective abdominal surgery were randomly assigned to receive fondaparinux 2.5 mg daily for 5-9 days, with treatment beginning 6 h after the surgery, or subcutaneously administered 2,500 U dalteparin 2 h before and 12 h after the preoperative dose, followed by 5,000 U daily for 5-9 days. Among the 2,048 patients, the rate of DVT was 4.6% in the fondaparinux group and 6.1% in the group that received dalteparin, which represented a 25% reduction in RR (95% CI -9-48). The goal of noninferiority of fondaparinux was reached, and the rate of major bleeding was similar (3.4% in the fondaparinux group vs. 2.4% in the dalteparin group)<sup>49</sup>.</p>
      <p>Based on the presence of a composite endpoint in bilateral ascending venography, phase III randomized studies revealed that compared with LMWH (enoxaparin), fondaparinux therapy, when started within 4-8 h postoperatively, exhibited a superior efficacy in the prevention of DVT in patients who underwent orthopedic surgery, such as total hip replacement, knee replacement, and hip fracture surgery, and objectively documented symptomatic events<sup>50</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab06-body2">Table 6</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab06-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt25-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab07-body2">Table 7</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab07-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt26-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>A meta-analysis of four multicenter, double-blind, randomized studies on the prevention of DVT that compared fondaparinux with enoxaparin in patients who underwent major orthopedic surgery confirmed those findings in favor of fondaparinux<sup>51</sup>.</p>
      <p>Prolonged thromboprophylaxis was evaluated in a phase III study entitled PENTPHIRA-Plus, which evaluated patients who underwent hip fracture surgery. Prolongation of the duration of prophylaxis with subcutaneous administration of fondaparinux 2.5 mg once a day starting 1 to 4 weeks after the fracture considerably lowered the frequency of venographically confirmed DVT [from 35% to 1.4% (<italic>p</italic> = 0.0001)] as well as that of symptomatic DVT [from 2.7% to 0.3% (<italic>p</italic> = 0.0021)]<sup>52</sup>.</p>
      <p>Studies that evaluated treatments for DVT revealed that fondaparinux was as effective and safe as enoxaparin and UH in treating DVT and PTE.</p>
      <p>The double-blind MATISSE study randomly assigned 2,205 patients with acute symptomatic DVT and weight &lt; 50 kg, from 50 to 100 kg, and &gt; 100 kg to receive an initial treatment with 5, 7.5, and 10 mg/day of fondaparinux, respectively, or with 1 mg/kg enoxaparin twice a day, for at least 5 days or until vitamin K inhibitors induced INR greater than 2.0. The main outcome, i.e., the recurrence of symptomatic DVT within 3 months, was 3.9% in the fondaparinux group and 4.1% in the enoxaparin group. The incidence of major bleeding during the initial period (1.1% and 1.2%, respectively) was also similar; the same was observed in case of the overall mortality (3.8% and 3.0%, respectively). It was concluded that the administration of fondaparinux once daily was at least as effective and safe as that of enoxaparin in the initial treatment of symptomatic DVT<sup>53</sup>.</p>
      <p>The CALISTO study, which was a randomized trial that included more than 3,000 patients with superficial vein thrombosis of the lower extremities, compared the administration of fondaparinux at a dose of 2.5 mg subcutaneously once daily for 45 days with the administration of a placebo. This study showed that the active treatment reduced the incidence of composite endpoints of symptomatic DVT, PTE, the spread of thrombosis into the sapheno-femoral junction, the recurrence of superficial vein thrombosis, and death (0.9% in the active treatment group vs. 5.9% in the placebo group), with an 85% reduction in RR in favor of fondaparinux (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001). No statistically significant difference was observed with regard to hemorrhagic complications between the two groups<sup>54</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.5. Dabigatran</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.5.1. Prevention</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Four randomized, controlled, double-blind studies evaluated the efficacy and safety of dabigratan for the prophylaxis of VTE during knee or hip replacement surgery. The primary event was total VTE (including PTE and proximal and distal, symptomatic and asymptomatic DVT, as assessed by venography) and all-cause mortality.</p>
      <p>The RE-NOVATE study included 3,494 patients who underwent hip replacement surgery and compared dabigratan at a dose of 150 or 220 mg once daily with enoxaparin at a dose of 40 mg/day, with a duration of 28-35 days. The frequency of the primary event after 220 mg of dabigratan, 150 mg of dabigratan, and enoxaparin was 6%, 8.6%, and 6.7%, respectively. These results revealed that dabigratan is not inferior to enoxaparin. In the same groups, the incidence of major bleeding was 2%, 1.3%, and 1.6%, respectively. Therefore, there was no difference between the groups<sup>55</sup>.</p>
      <p>The RE-NOVATE II study evaluated only a dose of 220 mg of dabigratan in 2,055 patients who underwent hip replacement surgery. In the dabigratan and enoxaparin groups, the primary event occurred with a frequency of 7.7% and 8.8%, respectively, and major bleeding occurred in 1.4% and 0.9%, respectively. Therefore, there was no difference between the groups with regard to both safety and efficacy<sup>56</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab08-body2">Table 8</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab08-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt27-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab09-body2">Table 9</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab09-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt28-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab10-body2">Table 10</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab10-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt29-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The RE-MOBILIZE study included 2,615 patients and compared dabigratan 150 or 220 mg once daily with enoxaparin 30 mg twice daily for a period of 12-15 days in the context of knee replacement surgery. In the dabigratan 150 mg, dabigratan 220 mg, and enoxaparin 30 mg groups, the frequency of the primary event was 33.7%, 31.1%, and 25.3%, respectively. Major bleeding occurred in 0.6%, 0.6%, and 1.4% of cases, respectively. Therefore, these results revealed that despite having the same safety, the efficacy of debigratan was lower<sup>57</sup>.</p>
      <p>The RE-MODEL study included 2,076 patients who received debigratan 150 or 220 mg once daily or enoxaparin 40 mg once daily for 6-10 days. In the dabigratan 150 mg, dabigratan 220 mg, and enoxaparin 40 mg groups, the primary event occurred in 40.5%, 36.4%, and 37.7% of cases, respectively. The frequency of major bleeding was 1.3%, 1.5%, and 1.3%, respectively. Therefore, dabigratan was not inferior to enoxaparin, and it exhibited the same safety<sup>58</sup>.</p>
      <p>A meta-analysis that evaluated only 220 mg of dabigratan in the RE-MODEL, RE-NOVATE, and RE-MOBILIZE trials demonstrated a lack of inferiority and a similar hemorrhagic risk for dabigratan relative to enoxaparin<sup>59</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another meta-analysis that included the four studies revealed that the frequency of the occurrence of VTE or mortality associated with VTE was 3%, 3.8%, and 3.3% in the dabigatran 220 mg, dabigatran 150 mg, and enoxaparin groups, respectively. Major bleeding occurred in 1.4%, 1.1%, and 1.4% of cases, respectively. Therefore, dabigratan was as effective as enoxaparin and exhibited the same hemorrhagic risk<sup>60</sup>.</p>
      <p>No study has compared the presence thromboprophylaxis with dabigratan vs. absence of thromboprophylaxis in knee and hip replacement surgeries.</p>
      <p>The NICE Guidance considers that dabigratan is safe and adequate for primary prophylaxis in knee and hip replacement surgery, with an adequate cost/effectiveness, while emphasizing on the lack of an antidote and the fact that a dose of 150 mg/day would be more adequate for patients with renal failure or elderly patients. Dabigratan may be considered as an alternative in situations in which enoxaparin is indicated<sup>61</sup>.</p>
      <p>The 9th ACCP Guideline, which uses the data obtained in the four studies described above, considered that dabigratan at a dose of 220 mg was similar to enoxaparin with regard to the occurrence of symptomatic VTE (PTE: RR 1.22, 95% CI, 0.52-2.85; DVT: RR 0.7, 95% CI 0.12-3.91) and major bleeding (RR 1.06, 95% CI 0.66-1.72). The absolute risk for bleeding and VTE was similar, with one event/1,000 patients. At a dose of 150 mg, dabigratan failed to demonstrate or exclude a beneficial VTE-preventive effect in comparison with enoxaparin (PTE: RR 0.31, 95% CI 0.04-2.48; symptomatic DVT: RR 1.52, 95% CI 0.45-5.05). Therefore, based on evidence with moderate quality, dabigratan may be considered to be similar to enoxaparin with regard to efficacy and safety; however, given the greater amount of experience with enoxaparin, this drug is indicated as the first choice<sup>62</sup>.</p>
      <p>For the prophylaxis of VTE in knee and hip replacement surgeries, a dose of 150 or 220 mg once daily for a period of 28-35 or 14 days is recommended. The administration of the drug should begin 1-4 h after the surgical procedure, with hemostasis established with half dose. The choice of dose is left to the discretion of the physician taking into consideration the age of the patient, CrCl, and the use of other drugs that interact with dabigratan.</p>
      <p>Studies conducted on patients with acute or chronic DVT were analyzed for comparing the noninferiority and safety of dabigratan and warfarin, considering the occurrence of symptomatic VTE.</p>
      <p>The RE-COVER study was a phase III, double-blind, randomized, and controlled study on the treatment of acute VTE. After conventional treatment with enoxaparin for a minimum of 5 days, a total of 2,539 patients received 150 mg of dabigratan twice daily or warfarin at a dose adjusted for INR between 2.0 and 3.0 for 6 months. The results revealed that the recurrence of VTE (2.4% vs. 2.1%, RR 1.10, 95% CI 0.65-1.84) and major bleeding (1.6% vs. 1.9%, RR 0.83, 95% CI 0.46-1.49) was similar. During the study-inclusion period, 786 patients (31%) exhibited symptoms of TPE. The results showed no differences in the response to dabigratan with regard to the recurrence of VTE or bleeding in that subgroup of patients<sup>63</sup>.</p>
      <p>The RE-MEDY study compared the use of 150 mg of dabigratan twice daily with that of warfarin at a dose adjusted for INR between 2.0 and 3.0 for 6-36 months after a period of conventional treatment for VTE of 3-12 months. The study included 2,856 patients; the recurrence of VTE occurred in 1.8% and 1.3% of cases, respectively (RR 1.44, 95% CI 0.79-2.62), and the recurrence of major bleeding occurred in 0.9% and 1.8% of cases, respectively (RR 0.56, 95% CI 0.27-1.01). These results revealed that the efficacy of dabigratan is similar to that of warfarin, with the same hemorrhagic risk. An increased incidence of acute coronary events was observed. The results of this study have not been published till date.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab11-body2">Table 11</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab11-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt30-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The RE-SONATE study was started in 2011 for evaluating the noninferiority of dabigratan and the placebo with regard to the recurrence of symptomatic VTE. After a conventional treatment period of 6-18 months, the patients will be included in the study for an additional treatment of 6 months.</p>
      <p>The 9th ACCP, which was cited above, considers that the indication of dabigratan for the treatment of acute VTE is based on moderate-quality evidence because of serious imprecision regarding various occurrences and the lack of data on long-term safety. Because very few patients with cancer were included, the results cannot be extrapolated to that group of patients.</p>
      <p>Some aspects that need to be evaluated when choosing an anticoagulant include the patient's tolerance to daily injections, history of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, renal function, need for laboratory control, cost of treatment, and availability of an antidote to treat intoxication. Dabigratan can be very unpleasant for patients; however, no phase IV studies substantiate the safety of this drug in a better manner, particularly with regard to bleeding and hepatic complications.</p>
      <p>In addition, there is a limitation in the use of this drug in patients with renal impairment as well as the lack of an antidote. In patients with CrCl between 30 and 50 ml/min or those older than 75 years, the dose can be reduced to 150 mg/day. Similarly, as mentioned in the RE-COVER study, the dose should be reduced to 150 mg/day in the presence of the concomitant administration of potent inhibitors of glycoprotein P, such as amiodarone or verapamil.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.6. Rivaroxaban</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.6.1. Prevention</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The most important studies that analyzed the efficacy and safety of rivaroxaban for the primary prophylaxis of VTE in knee and hip replacement surgeries are the RECORD 1-4 controlled, randomized, double-blind, phase III studies. The primary event was total VTE, including PTE, proximal and distal, symptomatic and asymptomatic DVT (as assessed by venography), and all-cause mortality.</p>
      <p>In the RECORD 1 study, which included 4,541 patients who underwent hip replacement surgery, rivaroxaban was administered at a dose of 10 mg once daily, started on the day of surgery, and it was compared with enoxaparin 40 mg once daily, started 2 days before the surgery, for 35 days. Rivaroxaban was superior to enoxaparin with regard to the primary event (1.1% vs. 3.7%, RR 0.3, 95% CI 0.18-0.51, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001) and the occurrence of VTE (0.2% vs. 2.0%, RR 0.12, 95% CI 0.04-0.34, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001). Major bleeding was similar between the two groups (0.3% vs. 0.1%, RR 3.02, 95% CI 0.61-14.95, <italic>p</italic> = 0.18). These results revealed that rivaroxaban was more effective than enoxaparin, and it exhibited the same safety<sup>64</sup>.</p>
      <p>The RECORD 2 study compared 2,509 patients who received prophylaxis with rivaroxaban 10 mg once daily for 35 days or enoxaparin 40 mg once daily for 15 days. The primary event had a lower incidence in the rivaroxaban group than in the enoxaparin group (2.0% vs. 9.3%, RR 0.21, 95% CI 0.13-0.35,<italic> p</italic> &lt; 0.001); the same was observed in case of VTE (0.6% vs. 5.1%, RR 0.12, 95% CI 0.04-0.34, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001). The incidence of major or clinically significant bleeding was similar in the two groups (0.1% vs. 0.1%, RR 1.0, 95% CI 0.06-15.98 and 9.9% vs. 8.21%; RR 1.20, 95% CI 0.93-1.54, respectively)<sup>65</sup>. Therefore, rivaroxaban was more effective and had the same safety as enoxaparin. However, it is important to stress that enoxaparin was used for 15 days only, whereas rivaroxaban was used for 35 days.</p>
      <p>The RECORD 3 study (<italic>n</italic> = 2,531) compared patients who underwent knee replacement surgery and received 10 mg of rivaroxaban once daily or 40 mg of enoxaparin/day for 10-14 days. Rivaroxaban was superior to enoxaparin with regard to the prevention of the primary event (1.1% vs. 3.7%, RR 0.3, 95% CI 0.18-0.51, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001) and VTE (0.2% vs. 2.0%, RR 0.12, 95% CI 0.04-0.34). Major bleeding was similar in the two groups (0.3% vs. 0.1%, RR 3.02, 95% CI 0.61-14.95)<sup>66</sup>. Therefore, rivaroxaban was more effective and had the same safety as enoxaparin.</p>
      <p>In the RECORD 4 study (<italic>n</italic> = 3,148), rivaroxaban was used at a dose of 10 mg once daily and was compared with enoxaparin 30 mg twice daily for knee replacement surgery. The primary event was less prevalent in the rivaroxaban group (6.9% vs. 10.1%, RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.51-0.92, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001); the same was observed in case of VTE (1.2% vs. 2.0%, RR 0.59, 95% CI 0.30-1.16). Bleeding was similar in the two groups (0.7% vs. 0.3%, RR 2.47, 95% CI 0.78-7.86)<sup>67</sup>. Therefore, these results confirmed those obtained in the RECORD 3 study.</p>
      <p>The incidence of clinically significant bleeding was also low in all these studies: RECORD 1: 5.8% vs. 5.8%; RECORD 2: 6.5% vs. 5.5%; RECORD 3: 4.3% vs. 4.4%; and RECORD 4: 10.2% vs. 9.2%.</p>
      <p>A meta-analysis of eight randomized clinical studies that included 15,586 patients who underwent knee or hip replacement surgery revealed that the use of rivaroxaban was associated with a lower incidence of VTE and all-cause mortality (9,244 patients, RR 0.56, 95% CI 0.39-0.80) and with a similar incidence of bleeding (major bleeding: 13,384 patients, RR 1.65, 95% CI 0.93-2.93; clinically significant bleeding: 13,384 patients, RR 1.21, 95% CI 0.98-1,50; total hemorrhagic events: 13,384 patients, RR 1.10, 95% CI 0.97-1.24)<sup>68</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab12-body2">Table 12</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab12-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt31-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>However, a limitation of the bleeding evaluation method used in those studies was that only bleeding that required reoperation was considered and bleeding at the surgical site was not and that the drop in hemoglobin was compared with the first postoperative day and not with the preoperative value.</p>
      <p>Furthermore, approximately 30%-39% of patients included in the RECORD studies were excluded from analysis of the intention-to-treat because of inadequate evaluation of DVT. Moreover, the RECORD 4 study was completely excluded from the approval decision of FDA. Inadequate monitoring and loss of data compromised analyses and prevented the confirmation of the superiority of rivaroxaban over enoxaparin. In addition, the bleeding was considered to be similar.</p>
      <p>The NICE Guidance considers that rivaroxaban is more effective than enoxaparin for the prevention of VTE; however, the risk for major bleeding is greater (when considering RR of the studies), and the drug can be considered in situations in which enoxaparin is indicated. With regard to the direct comparison between rivaroxaban and dabigatran, the former significantly reduced the risk of VTE, whereas the risk of bleeding favored dabigatran; therefore, these drugs were considered as being similar.</p>
      <p>The 9th ACCP Guidelines included seven randomized clinical studies that included more than 10,000 patients to evaluate the indication of the use of rivaroxaban for the thromboprophylaxis of knee and hip replacement surgery. Rivaroxaban reduced symptomatic DVT by 50% (RR 0.41, 95% CI 0.20-0.83), with an increase in major bleeding or bleeding that required reoperation (major bleeding: RR 1.58, 95% CI 0.84-2.97; bleeding that required reoperation: RR 2.0, 95% CI 0.86-4.83; both: RR 1.73, 95% CI 0.94-3.17). The absolute risk for major bleeding was low; however, the criteria used for evaluating bleeding mentioned earlier were not adequate. It was estimated that the reduction of five symptomatic DVT among 1,000 patients would lead to nine major bleedings.</p>
      <p>With regard to prolonged thromboprophylaxis in hip replacement surgery, which included more than 2,400 patients, rivaroxaban significantly reduced symptomatic VTE (symptomatic DVT: RR 0.18, 95% CI 0.04-0.82; PTE: RR 0.25, 95% CI 0.02-2.2). However, it is important to stress that enoxaparin was only used in the first 12 days. Analysis of bleeding also had the same limitations as those mentioned for the previous studies, and there was only one case of bleeding in the two groups. It is estimated that among 1,000 patients, 12 less DVTs will occur in the rivaroxaban group. However, given the uncertain results regarding bleeding, it remains unclear whether the beneficial effects will be overcome by the increase in the hemorrhagic risk.</p>
      <p>Based on these studies (which are considered to provide moderate quality evidence), the increased hemorrhagic risk, and the lack of data on long-term safety, ACCP still recommends enoxaparin as the first choice for the thromboprophylaxis of knee and hip replacement surgery, even considering the inconvenience of subcutaneous injections.</p>
      <p>The randomized, double-blind MAGELLAN study<sup>69</sup> evaluated rivaroxaban for the prevention of VTE in hospitalized medical patients. The study included 5,932 patients who were administered 10 mg of rivaroxaban/day for 35 days or 40 mg of enoxaparin/day for 10 days. Patients were also administered a placebo orally for 35 days or subcutaneously for 10 days. The risk factors were infectious disease, congestive heart failure, respiratory insufficiency, cancer, ischemic stroke, and inflammatory or rheumatologic disease. The results revealed that rivaroxaban reduced the incidence of VTE at 35 days (4.4% vs. 5.7%, RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.62-0.96, <italic>p</italic> = 0.02), albeit with a significant increase in bleeding (1.9% vs. 0.6%, RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.62-0.96, <italic>p</italic> = 0.02), which overcame the benefits of its use. The debate regarding this study includes the possibility that the heterogeneity of the patients and comparison with the placebo explain the findings and that subgroup analysis and long-term comparison with enoxaparin may be important because VTE is also common in hospitalized medical patients. The results of this study have not been published. For the prevention of VTE in knee and hip replacement surgeries, a dose of 10 mg once daily is recommended for a period of 35 and 14 days, respectively. The administration of the drug should be started 6-8 h after the surgical procedure, after hemostasis has been re-established.</p>
      <p>The efficacy and safety of rivaroxaban for the treatment of acute- and long-term VTE have been evaluated in more than 4,600 patients in two controlled, randomized, phase III clinical studies, EINSTEIN DVT<sup>70</sup> and EINSTEIN EXTENSION<sup>71</sup>. These two studies used the same primary (recurrent symptomatic VTE, defined as recurrent DVT or fatal or nonfatal PTE) and secondary (recurrent DVT, nonfatal PTE, and all-cause mortality) events for the evaluation of efficacy. In those studies, patients with moderate renal failure (CrCl 30-49 ml/min) were treated with the same dose as patients with CrCl greater than 50 ml/min.</p>
      <p>One of A difference between the EINSTEIN DVT and RE-COVER studies was that rivaroxaban was started immediately after the diagnosis of VTE and not after the administration of enoxaparin.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab13-body2">Table 13</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab13-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt32-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>In the EINSTEIN study (<italic>n</italic> = 3,449), rivaroxaban was administered at a dose of 15 mg twice daily for 3 weeks, followed by 20 mg/day for 3, 6, or 12 months, and it was compared with enoxaparin for a minimum of 5 days and with warfarin at a dose adjusted for INR between 2.0 and 3.0. Only patients with proximal symptomatic DVT were included, and those with symptomatic PTE were excluded. The results revealed that the recurrence of VTE (2.1% vs. 3.0%, RR 0.70, 95% CI 0.46-1.07) and that of major bleeding (0.8% vs. 1.2%, RR 0.70, 95% CI 0.35-1.38, <italic>p</italic> = 0.21) were similar to those observed for enoxaparin and warfarin in the treatment of acute-stage VTE.</p>
      <p>In the EINSTEIN EXTENSION study (<italic>n</italic> = 1,196), patients with proximal DVT who were previously treated with rivaroxaban or enoxaparin and warfarin for 6-12 months were administered rivaroxaban 20 mg/day or placebo for treatment over an additional 6-12 months. The results revealed that rivaroxaban was superior to the placebo with regard to the primary and secondary efficacy events (1.3% vs. 7.1%, RR 0.19, 95% CI 0.09-0.40, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001), with a nonsignificant increase in bleeding (0.7% vs. 0%, RR 7.89, 95% CI 0.42-148.99).</p>
      <p>The 9th ACCP considers that the indication of rivaroxaban for the treatment of acute- and long-term DVT stems from moderate quality evidence resulting from serious imprecision regarding various events and the lack of data regarding long-term safety. Because very few patients with cancer were included, the results cannot be extrapolated to that group of patients.</p>
      <p>Some aspects that need to be evaluated when choosing an anticoagulant include the patient's tolerance to daily injections, history of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia, renal function, need for laboratory control, cost of treatment, and availability of an antidote to treat intoxication. Rivaroxaban can be lesser unpleasant for patients; however, it was associated with greater bleeding in studies of primary thromboprophylaxis. At present, there are no phase IV studies to substantiate the safety of this drug in a better manner, particularly with regard to bleeding and hepatic complications. In addition, there is a limitation in the use of this drug in patients with renal impairment as well as the lack of an antidote. Although this has not been well established, there should be some precaution with regard to the administration of rivaroxaban to patients with CrCl between 15 and 30 ml/min, liver disease (Child-Pugh classes B and C), concomitant use of inhibitors/enhancers of CYP3A4 or glycoprotein P (amiodarone, verapamil, macrolides, rifampicin, phenytoin, carbamazepine, and phenobarbital), and use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and platelet inhibitors.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.7. Apixaban</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.7.1. Prevention</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The efficacy and safety of apixaban in the primary prevention of VTE in patients who underwent hip and knee prosthesis were assessed in three controlled, randomized, double-blind, phase III clinical studies, entitled ADVANCE 1-3. The primary event was total VTE (including PTE, proximal and distal DVT, symptomatic and asymptomatic, as assessed by venography) and all-cause mortality.</p>
      <p>In the ADVANCE 1 study, 3,195 patients who underwent knee prosthesis received apixaban at a dose of 2.5 mg twice daily, starting on the day of the surgery, or anoxaparin at a dose of 30 mg twice daily, starting one day before the surgery, for 10-14 days. Apixaban was similar to enoxaparin with regard to the incidence of total VTE and death (9.9% vs. 8.8%, RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.78-1.32, <italic>p</italic> = 0.06). The incidence of major or clinically significant bleeding was lower in the apixaban group (2.9% vs. 4.3%, RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.47-0.97, <italic>p</italic> = 0.03)<sup>72</sup>.</p>
      <p>The ADVANCE 2 study<sup>73</sup> compared 3,057 patients who underwent knee arthroplasty and received 2.5 mg of apixaban twice daily or 40 mg of enoxaparin once daily for 10-14 days. The first dose of apixaban was administered between 12-24 h after the surgery, and enoxaparin was started between 9-15 h before the surgery. The incidence of the primary event was lower in the apixaban group (15.06% vs. 24.37%, RR 0.62, 95% CI 0.51-0.34, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.0001), and major or clinically significant bleeding was similar in both the groups (4% vs. 5%, RR 0.74, 95% CI 0.52-1.05, <italic>p</italic> = 0.08).</p>
      <p>The ADVANCE 3 study<sup>74</sup> (n = 5,407) compared the effect of 2.5 mg of apixaban twice daily with 40 mg of enoxaparin administered for 35 days in hip prosthesis surgery. Apixaban was superior to enoxaparin with regard to the primary event (1.4% vs. 3.9%, RR 0.36, 95% CI 0.22-0.54, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001). Major or clinically significant bleeding was similar in both the groups (4.8% vs. 5.0%, RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.76-1.21, <italic>p</italic> = 0.68).</p>
      <p>One meta-analysis<sup>75</sup> included the three studies (<italic>n</italic> = 7,337) that compared the use of apixaban 2.5 mg twice daily with that of enoxaparin 40 mg/day or 30 mg twice daily for the prevention of VTE in knee prosthesis surgery. The risk for VTE when using apixaban and enoxaparin was 0.47 (95% CI 0.27-0.82, 0.6% vs. 1.2%) and 2.09 (95% CI 0.99-4.45, 0.6% vs. 0.3%), respectively. Death occurred in 0.2% of patients in the apixaban group and in 0.09% of patients in the enoxaparin group (OR 1.74, 95% CI 0.51-5.95). Apixaban was associated with a lower hemorrhagic risk (OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.32-0.96). These data demonstrated that in knee prosthesis surgery, apixaban is more effective and safe than enoxaparin.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab14-body2">Table 14</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab14-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt33-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The NICE Guidance considered that apixaban was more effective than enoxaparin and exhibited lower hemorrhagic risk, although the difference was not statistically significant. However, it also points out that the observation period with regard to adverse events was short.</p>
      <p>The 9th ACCP assessed four studies that included more than 12,000 patients using apixaban for prevention in case of knee or hip prosthesis surgery. Apixaban reduced the occurrence of symptomatic PVT by 59% (RR 0.41, 95% CI 0.18-0.95) and had little or no effect on the occurrence of major bleeding (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.44-1.32) or bleeding that required reoperation (RR 0.82 95% CI 0.15-4.58) in comparison with enoxaparin. However, the criticism that was made in relation to the two studies with rivaroxaban is also applicable to the ADVANCE 2 and 3 studies because the drop in hemoglobin was compared with the hemoglobin value on the first postoperative day and not with the preoperative value, which may underestimate the rate of major bleeding. The results failed to show a beneficial or deleterious effect of apixaban with regard to nonfatal PTE (RR 1.09, 95% CI 0.31-3.88) and overall mortality (RR 1.87, 95% CI 0.61-5.74). The five deaths occurred in the apixaban group. The best estimations suggest that apixaban prevents seven symptomatic PVTs in 1,000 patients, without a significant increase in major bleeding (at least eight major bleedings or more less in five cases). However, the results failed to demonstrate a difference when all fatal and nonfatal VTEs were included. Therefore, based on moderate-quality evidence, the safety of apixaban was deemed to be similar to that of enoxaparin with regard to the occurrence of symptomatic VTE and hemorrhagic risk, which was infrequent. However, because of the lack of results on long-term safety in phase IV studies, there is still no indication for the preferential use of enoxaparin.</p>
      <p>The ADOPT study<sup>76</sup> assessed apixaban for the prevention of VTE in hospitalized patients with acute disease, congestive heart failure, respiratory failure or other acute condition, and at least one more risk factor for VTE. The study included 6,528 patients who used 2.5 mg of apixaban twice daily for 30 days or 40 mg of enoxaparin once daily for 6-14 days. The occurrence of VTE was similar in both the groups (2.71% vs. 3.06%, RR 0.87, 95% CI 0.62-1.23), with a higher bleeding rate in the apixaban group (2.7% vs. 2.1%, RR 1.28, 95% CI 0.93-1.76). Therefore, these results revealed that apixaban was not superior to enoxaparin with regard to the prevention of VTE in hospitalized medical patients and was associated with higher bleeding; its use is not indicated in this situation.</p>
      <p>A dose of 2.5 mg twice daily for a period of 32-38 days and 10-14 days is recommended for the prevention of VTE in hip and knee prosthesis surgery, respectively. The medication should begin 12-24 h after the surgical procedure and after hemostasis has been achieved.</p>
      <p>Some aspects that need to be evaluated when choosing an anticoagulant include the patient's tolerance to daily injections, history of thrombocytopenia induced by heparin, renal function, need for laboratory monitoring, cost of treatment, and availability of an antidote to treat intoxication. Apixaban can be lesser unpleasant for patients and its efficacy and safety are similar to or better than those of enoxaparin in the thromboprophylaxis of knee and hip prosthesis surgery. At present, there are no phase IV studies to substantiate the safety of this drug in a better manner, particularly with regard to bleeding and hepatic complications. Compared with dabigatran and rivaroxaban, there are lesser limitations in patients with renal impairment, and there is no antidote. Although this has not been well established, there should be some precaution with regard to the administration of apixaban to patients with CrCl between 15 and 30 ml/min, liver disease (Child-Pugh class A and B), concomitant use of inhibitors/inducers of CYP3A4 or glycoprotein P (amiodarone, verapamil, macrolides, rifampicin, phenytoin, carbamazepine, and phenobarbital), and use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and platelet inhibitors in patients with increased liver transaminase.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.4.7.2. Treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There are no recommendations for the use of apixaban in the treatment of VTE. Studies are still ongoing.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.5. Comparison between the new anticoagulant agents</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Comparison between the use of apixaban, dabigatran, and rivaroxaban for the prevention of VTE in knee or hip prosthesis was indirectly performed through the various studies that compared these new drugs with enoxaparin. One of the criticisms to this type of comparison is that there may be differences in the design of the studies and the centers where they were developed may also have been different.</p>
      <p>A review<sup>77</sup> that only included randomized studies comparing the safety and efficacy of apixaban with those of other anticoagulant drugs in the prevention of VTE in knee and hip prosthesis surgery revealed that VTE and death are more frequent with dabigatran than with apixaban in hip (OR 2.51, 95% CI 1.50-4.21) and knee (OR 1.72, 95% CI 1.22-2.42) surgery. Rivaroxaban was similar to apixaban in hip and knee surgery (OR 0.69, 95% CI 0.38-1.25 and OR 0.83, 95% CI 0.57-1.19, respectively). There was no difference with regard to major bleeding.</p>
      <p>Another meta-analysis<sup>78</sup> that included 12 studies comparing rivaroxaban or apixaban with enoxaparin revealed that apixaban was associated with a lower incidence of bleeding in knee prosthesis surgery (6,496 patients, RR 0.56, 95% CI 0.32-0.96) and that the number of major bleeding cases was similar (5,699 patients, RR 1.40, 95% CI 0.56-3.52). There was no difference in bleeding in hip prosthesis.</p>
      <p>Maratea et al.<sup>79</sup> analyzed eight studies comparing the new anticoagulant agents in the prevention of VTE in knee and hip prosthesis surgery. Dabigatran at a dose of 150 mg/day was less effective than apixaban at a dose of 2.5 mg twice daily (RR 2.0, 95% CI 1.61-2.50) and rivaroxaban at a dose of 10 mg/day (RR 2.38, 95% CI 1.85-3.03). Dabigatran at a dose of 220 mg/day was also less effective than apixaban at a dose of 2.5 mg twice daily (RR 1.66, 95% CI 1.33-2.08) and rivaroxaban at a dose of 10 mg/day (RR 2.38, 95% CI 1.85-3.03). There was no difference in the efficacy of dabigatran at doses of 150 mg and 220 mg/day (RR 0.83, 95% CI 0.67-1.02). Rrivaroxabana at 10 mg/day was superior to apixaban at 2.5 mg twice daily (RR 0.70, 95% CI 0.53-0.90). Indirect comparison between rivaroxaban and dabigatran with regard to primary thromboprofilaxys in knee and hip prosthesis revealed that rivaroxaban was superior to dabigatran in the prevention of VTE (RR 0.50, 95% CI 0.37-0.68); however, the hemorrhagic risk was higher with rivaroxaban (RR 1.14, 95% CI 0.80-1.64).</p>
      <p>Recently, a meta-analysis<sup>80 </sup>revealed that compared with mechanical methods and warfarin, the use of powerful anticoagulant agents, including dabigatran and rivaroxaban, was associated with higher mortality. However, as noted by Eriksson et al.<sup>81</sup>, this study had numerous flaws, from the inclusion of studies with distinct designs to the generalization of the results obtained for one anticoagulant to the entire group, different periods of prophylaxis, and lack of results corrected by interference factors.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.6. Bivalirudin</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We identified a single phase II open study<sup>82</sup>, with 222 patients, which assessed the efficacy and safety of various doses of bivalirudin for the prevention of VTE in patients who underwent major hip and knee orthopedic surgery. Six different regimens were evaluated, varying from 0.3 mg/kg every 12 h to 1.0 mg/kg every 8 h, via subcutaneous administration. On discharge, patients were subjected to bilateral venography and the highest dose resulted in the lowest rates of total (17%) and proximal DVT (2%), which were significantly different from those observed at lower doses (overall incidences: 43% for total DVT and 20% for proximal DVT (<italic>p</italic> = 0.01 and <italic>p</italic> = 0.023, respectively). It is not possible to make recommendations regarding the use of bivalirudin for the treatment and prevention of DVT because of the lack of studies on the subject.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>7.7. Antiplatelet therapy in VTE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Arterial and venous thromboses are considered to be distinct pathophysiological entities. Arterial thrombosis mainly involves platelets (white clot), and venous thrombosis is caused by the formation of fibrin and deposition of erythrocytes (red thrombus). However, some characteristics are common to arterial and venous events. In fact, platelets, fibrin, and erythrocytes are present in both arterial and venous thrombi, although in different proportions. Moreover, there is evidence that platelet activation occurs in venous thrombi and that the inhibition of P-selectin, a protein on the surface of activated platelets, can lead to the resolution of venous thrombosis<sup>83</sup>. These facts explain some effect of antiplatelet therapy on the prevention of venous events.</p>
      <p>Although there is strong evidence regarding the beneficial effect of antiplatelet therapy on the secondary prevention of arterial events, these drugs have not been tested with regard to the treatment of DVT or PTE, and data related to the prevention of VTE are not very consistent. Some studies suggest that there is an approximately 25% reduction in the risk for VTE after surgical procedures; however, there is no indication that this is an ideal prophylactic method and there are no well-designed studies directly comparing this method with heparins or coumarin derivatives<sup>84</sup>.</p>
      <p>Two meta-analyses, one with general surgery patients published in 1988<sup>6</sup> and another with patients subjected to total hip arthroplasty published in 1994<sup>85</sup>, did not demonstrate a beneficial effect of aspirin on the reduction of VTE. On the other hand, in a systematic review also published in 1994, which included data from 9,623 patients, 814 of which were medical patients and 8,809 were surgical patients, the authors concluded that antiplatelet drugs reduced the incidence of DVT by 39% and the incidence of PTE by 64% and that the effect was detected both in the groups of high-risk surgical and medical patients<sup>86</sup>. However, the validity of these conclusions has been widely questioned; most studies included in this systematic review were not blind and had been published in the 1970s and 1980s, and <italic>n</italic> was &lt; 200. Moreover, a wide range of drugs were used, including ASA at various doses, dipiridamol, suloctidil, hydroxychloroquine, ticlopidine, and sulfinopyrazone, either isolated or in combination. The VTE detection method considerably varied, and in five studies, there was concomitant use of UH. Lastly, analysis of the various subgroups did not show any reduction in the risk for VTE in high-risk medical patients.</p>
      <p>A large randomized prospective study <sup>87</sup> with 17,444 patients compared the effect of aspirin with that of a placebo with regard to the incidence of VTE after orthopedic surgery (13,356 hip fractures, 2,648 hip arthroplasties, and 1,440 knee arthroplasties). ASA at a dose of 160 mg or placebo was used for 35 days, and the aim was to assess morbidity and intrahospital mortality at 35 days. It should be noted that 18% of patients received UH, 26% received LMWH, and 30% wore elastic gradual compression stockings. A significant reduction in the incidence of total VTE was observed in the group that used ASA (HR 0.71, 95% CI 0.54-0.94), DVT (HR 0.71, 95% CI 0.52-0.97), and fatal PTE (HR 0.42, 95% CI 0.24-0.73). This reduction in risk was observed in patients who were not on heparin or UH but was not detected in those who also used LMWH. In patients subjected to hip or knee arthroplasty, the use of ASA did not reduce the incidence of DVT or PTE.</p>
      <p>We only identified three small studies that performed a direct comparison between ASA and drugs normally used for preventing VTE. One of these studies compared the efficacy and safety of ASA with those of danaparoid in 251 patients subjected to hip fracture surgery. This was a randomized, blind study, and the dose of ASA used was 100 mg twice daily for 14 days. All the patients underwent labeled fibrinogen scanning or pletismography, and suspected cases of DVT were confirmed by venography. The incidence of VTE was significantly lower in the danaparoid group [27.8% vs. 44.3% in the ASA group, RRR 37.3 (95% CI 3.7-59.7)], and the incidence of hemorrhages was 1.6% in the danaparoid group and 6.4% in the placebo group (<italic>p</italic> = NS)<sup>88</sup>.</p>
      <p>In another study, 312 patients subjected to hip or knee arthroplasty were randomly assigned to ASA (325 mg twice daily) or warfarin. The incidence of VTE was 33.1% in the aspirin group and 24.7% in the warfarin group (<italic>p</italic> = NS)<sup>89</sup>. In the last study on knee arthroplasty, Westrich et al.<sup>90</sup> randomly assigned 275 patients to 325 mg of ASA, which was started on the day of the surgery, or enoxaparin (30 mg twice daily), which was only started 48 h after the surgery. The drugs were maintained for 3 weeks and the dose of enoxaparin was reduced to 40 mg once daily after discharge. The incidence of VTE was 17.8% in the ASA group and 14.1% in the enoxaparin group (<italic>p</italic> = NS). In both studies, the small size of the sample and the lack of power of the study may explain why the differences observed between the ASA group and the control group were not statistically significant. In addition, the delayed administration of enoxaparin in Westrich's study may have contributed to the VTE events observed in this group.</p>
      <p>Analysis of the data of two recent studies<sup>91,92</sup> suggests a beneficial effect of ASA (100 mg/day) in patients who discontinue oral anticoagulation after 3-6 months of DVT treatment. In these patients, a reduction of at least 30% was observed in the recurrence of VTE episodes and a 42% reduction was observed in the recurrence of other vascular events.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_7tab15-body2">Table 15</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_7tab15-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt34-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>8. Use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in heart failure (HF)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>8.1. Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Full anticoagulation in patients with HF has been the subject of various studies over recent years. Its wide use has been criticized, and it is only indicated for specific situations. New drugs have been recently developed; however, their function has not been definitely established in this context. As shown below, this guideline focuses on reporting the indications for antithrombosis, particularly in HF, taking into account the main studies that have been developed in the area.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>8.2. Anticoagulation in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Decreased left ventricular ejection fraction and nonrheumatic AF are independent predictors of stroke<sup>1,2</sup>. However, there are conflicting data with regard to the predictive value of history of HF because antithrombotic prevention is associated with increased risk for bleeding<sup>3-5</sup>. In addition, ASA can, in theory, interact with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and decrease their beneficial effect<sup>4</sup>. Recommendations for prophylaxis are based on the clinical effect by taking into account the risk for stroke and the risk for bleeding<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>8.2.1. Application of thromboembolism risk scores in AF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Risk scores are applied to guide the use of drugs that reduce the incidence of thromboembolic phenomena. However, all scores that have been published only exhibit moderate ability to predict stroke in AF (statistic between 0.55 and 0.70)<sup>6</sup>. The most validated score is the CHADS<sub>2 </sub>score for risk stratification (C, deterioration of heart failure; H, history of hypertension; A, age <underline>&gt;</underline> 75 years; D, diabetes; S, stroke or transient ischemic episode)<sup>7</sup>. Each risk factor has a weight of 1 point, with the exception of S, which has a weight of 2 points, and anticoagulation therapy with warfarin is recommended if the score is <underline>&gt;</underline> 2. Recently, the CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc score, which includes new risk factors, has been used<sup>8</sup>. Age <underline>&gt;</underline> 75 years now weighs 2 points; moreover, V means previous AMI, peripheral vascular disease, or plaque in the aorta and weighs 1 point; A, age between 65 and 74 years adds a point; the female gender is represented by the letters Sc. Considering the previous version of the score, the absence of risk factor is considered to indicate low risk for AF and a score of 1 is considered to indicate intermediate risk. A score <underline>&gt;</underline> 2 indicates high risk. There are no specific prospective studies considering HF. (section 4, "Use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in atrial fibrillation," also addresses the CHADS<sub>2</sub> and CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASc scores.)</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_8tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_8tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt35-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The indication for medications should also be assessed taking into account the risk for the bleeding score HAS-BLED (H, arterial hypertension with systolic <underline>&gt;</underline> 160 mmHg weighing 1 point; A, impaired liver or renal function weighing 1 point each; S, stroke weighing 1 point; B, bleeding weighing 1 point; L, unstable INR weighing 1 point; E, elderly (&gt; 75 years) weighing 1 point; D, drugs or alcohol weighing 1 point each)<sup>9</sup>. Three or more points indicate high annual risk for bleeding, and the use of medication for the prevention of thromboembolism needs to be weighed against the risk. To justify the use of medications that are not associated with the reduction of mortality, the number of avoided nonfatal strokes should be higher than 1/3 of the number of major extracranial bleeding episodes<sup>6</sup>. (section 4, "Use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in atrial fibrillation," also addresses the HAS-BLED score.)</p>
      <p>
        <bold>8.3. Anticoagulation therapy in patients with HF and sinus rhythm</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The WATCH study assessed patients with heart failure and sinus rhythm who were using vitamin K antagonist (dose adjusted according to INR) over 23 months. The incidence of stroke was 0.7% with vitamin K antagonist, 2.1%, with the use of ASA 162 mg, and 2.5% with clopidogrel 75 mg (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.05)<sup>10</sup>. The number of hospitalizations was higher in the ASA group (22.2%) than in the group receiving the vitamin K antagonist. There was no difference in mortality. However, there was no placebo group. The WASH study, with a limited number of patients with heart failure and sinus rhythm, did not show a beneficial effect of the vitamin K antagonist with regard to mortality: however, the incidence of stroke was lower in the vitamin K antagonist group than in the placebo and ASA groups. Hospitalization was more frequent in the ASA 300 mg group (58%) than in the vitamin K antagonist group (42%) and the group without prophylaxis (48%) (<italic>p</italic> = 0.05)<sup>11</sup>. The recently published WARCEF study<sup>12</sup> assessed 2,305 patients from 176 centers in 11 countries, with LVEF lower than 35%, with sinus rhythm. This double-blind study compared treatment with warfarin and target INR of 2-3.5 with treatment with aspirin at a dose of 325 mg/day. The mean follow-up of the study was 3.5 years. Compared with ASA, warfarin did not significantly reduce the rate of the primary outcome (7.47 events/100 person-years in the warfarin group and 7.93 in the aspirin group).</p>
      <p>Therefore, at present, full anticoagulation is indicated for patients with heart failure and sinus rhythm, only as secondary prevention of thromboembolic events.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>8.4. New anticoagulant agents for HF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>New anticoagulant drugs have been recently proposed in the context of AF. The RE-LY, ROCKET AF, and ARISTOTLE clinical trials were recently published and compared warfarin with dabigatran, rivaroxaban, and apixaban with regard to the prevention of the primary outcome of stroke or systemic embolism. In the RE-LY trial, which tested dabigatran, a competitive thrombin inhibitor, of the 18,113 patients with AF, 5,793 had heart failure (32%)<sup>13</sup>. In the prespecified subgroup analysis of patients symptomatic for HF, dabigatran at the doses of 110 mg and 150 mg twice daily was not inferior or superior to warfarin in the prevention of the primary outcome, although at a dose of 150 mg, it reduced the primary outcome from 1.53% to 1.11% (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001 for superiority) in the overall group. There was no difference in mortality. Patients with CrCl &lt; 30 ml/min should not receive dabigatran, and patients with some degree of renal impairment or low weight should receive a lower dose<sup>14</sup>. In the ROCKET study, rivaroxaban, a direct inhibitor of the activated factor X, was tested. It included 14,264 patients, 8,851 of which had heart failure (62%). Rivaroxaban was not inferior to warfarin in the overall group and in patients with heart failure with regard to the prevention of stroke or systemic embolism<sup>15</sup>. The ARISTOTLE study tested apixaban, an inhibitor of the activated factor X. It included 18,201 patients, 6,451 of which had heart failure<sup>16</sup>. In the overall group, compared with warfarin, apixaban reduced the primary outcome from 1.6% to 1.27% (<italic>p</italic> = 0.01 for superiority) and major bleeding from 3.09% to 2.13% (<italic>p </italic>&lt; 0.001); however, there was a reduction in mortality from 3.95% to 3.52%, with <italic>p</italic> = 0.047, i.e., close to 0.05 despite the inclusion of a high number of patients. In the subgroup analysis of patients with HF, apixaban was not superior to warfarin. The disadvantages of using these new anticoagulant agents are the higher cost and the limitations in the treatment of bleeding episodes. The advantage is that there is no need to monitor INR, which is important in patients who do not adhere to an adequate control protocol. However, the main limitations are the lack of phase IV studies to assess safety in the "real world" and the lack of specific studies on HF. Moreover, there are no publications that include patients with heart failure caused by Chagas disease, which would be important because studies suggest that microembolism is more frequent in patients with this disease<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_8tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_8tab02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt36-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_8tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_8tab03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt37-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>8.5. Anticoagulation in HF due to Chagas disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Chagas disease remains a serious public health problem in Brazil, with approximately 5 million infected individuals. It is estimated that 30% of these patients will develop the symptomatic clinical form of the disease, chronic chagasic cardiopathy (CCC), which is the most severe stage of the disease. Its most common clinical manifestations are tachycardia, bradyarrhythmia, thromboembolic phenomena, and HF<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p>Thromboembolic phenomena are common complications because of the presence of dyskinesia and ventricular aneurysm, cardiac chamber dilatation, venous stasis, and AF<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>The presence of these factors favors the formation of intracavitary thrombi with subsequent systemic or pulmonary embolism. Chagas disease is the third cause of heart failure in Brazil<sup>20</sup>. The annual incidence of thromboembolic phenomena is 1%-2% in CCC, and they are associated with aneurysm of the left ventricular apex and mural thrombosis.</p>
      <p>In view of the specificities of Chagas disease, the most recent update of the Brazilian guideline on chronic heart failure considers that the treatment of heart failure of chagasic origin is similar to that of other etiologies, the only difference being the level of evidence<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>8.5.1. Application of thromboembolism risk scores in Chagas disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The CHADS<sub>2 </sub>scoreand more recently the CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>VASCscore are used for risk stratification in the treatment to reduce thromboembolic phenomena in HF in the presence of AF. The recommendation made for the use of warfarin in other forms of heart failure is applicable.</p>
      <p>A Brazilian study published in 2008<sup>21</sup> presented the development of a score (IPEC/FIOCRUZ - Instituto de Pesquisa Cl&#237;nica Evandro Chagas/Funda&#231;&#227;o Osvaldo Cruz) for risk assessment and the prevention of stroke in Chagas disease, in particular. The presence of left ventricular systolic dysfunction contributed with 2 points, and apical aneurysm, ventricular repolarization alteration, and age &gt; 48 years contributed 1 point each. Risk/benefit analysis revealed that warfarin is indicated for patients with 4-5 points (in this subgroup, the annual incidence of stroke was 4.4% and the annual incidence of major bleeding was 2%). In the subgroup with a score of 3 points, the rates of events and bleeding with anticoagulant agent are balanced, and both warfarin and ASA are indicated. In patients with 2 points, ASA or no prophylaxis is recommended because of the low incidence of stroke.</p>
      <p>See <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_8tab04-body2">Tables 4</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_8tab05-body2">5</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_8tab04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt38-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_8tab05-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt39-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>8.5.2. Anticoagulation with heparin in patients with Chagas disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Anticoagulant drugs such as UH or LMWH can be used in this group of patients. Other antiplatelet and anticoagulant drugs have not been tested in the chagasic population; therefore, its use is not recommended. Recommendations follow the same line as those for patients with heart failure of other etiologies.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>8.5.3. Use of new oral anticoagulant agents in patients with Chagas disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Recent clinical trials such as the RE-LY, ROCKET AF, and the ARISTOTLE trials compared dabigatran, rivaroxaban, and apixaban with warfarin in the prevention of systemic thromboembolism. However, patients with Chagas disease were not included in this studies; therefore, there is no evidence in favor of its use in this group of patients<sup>13,15,16</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>9. Use of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents in the perioperative period of cardiac and noncardiac surgeries</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold> 9.1. Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Certain cardiovascular diseases often present some thromboembolic complications. Consequently, their treatment includes the use of drugs that inhibit platelet aggregation and delay blood coagulation. However, in the perioperative period, this activity may be inconvenient because blood coagulation needs to be partially or entirely completed for the surgical procedure to be successful. This creates a paradox that the involved professionals have to address during perioperative procedures using evidence to weigh the risk for bleeding against the risk for thromboembolic event and ensure patients' safety. We hope that the following recommendations help these professionals determine the lowest risk:</p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.2. Indications for antiplatelet agents in cardiac surgery</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.2.1. ASA</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The effect of ASA on the reduction of mortality, myocardial infarction, and cerebral thromboembolism in patients at risk for thromboembolic events, at the cost of higher risk for bleeding, has been demonstrated<sup>1</sup>. Doses of 75-100 mg are as effective as doses &gt;300 mg, with lower risk for bleeding<sup>2</sup>. On the other hand, the variability of individual response to ASA and other antiplatelet agents has been shown. However, there is no practical clinical way of individualizing its administration and dosage.</p>
      <p>In patients who are scheduled for cardiac surgery, the risk-benefit analysis of maintaining ASA in the preoperative period depends on the urgency of the situation, patient's cardiovascular risk, associated antithrombotic medications, and risk for bleeding<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although in the past, the recommendation was to discontinue the use of ASA for 3-5 days before cardiac surgery, this practice has not been in use for some years in most healthcare centers<sup>4</sup>. The current guidelines of the American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology regarding revascularization surgery recommend the administration of ASA before the surgical procedure (as Class I) because there is evidence of an association with better postoperative outcomes<sup>5</sup>. In modern perioperative management, potential bleeding is rarely associated with continued administration of ASA (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_9tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt40-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.2.2. Thienopyridines</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Ticlopidine is the first-generation thienopyridine. In the second generation, clopidogrel was introduced; it became the preferred agent for the associated lower incidence of blood dyscrasias and bone marrow toxicity<sup>6</sup>. More recently, prasugrel was introduced. Antiplatelet drugs of this class are associated with major bleeding in the postoperative period and should be avoided or specific measures should be taken in perioperative management. All these agents irreversibly inhibit platelet aggregation, and antidotes are not available. Thus, to restore platelet function, the use of these drugs needs to be discontinued, and one should wait for 5-7 days for the circulating platelet population to be renewed.</p>
      <p>These drugs should receive separate comments because they exhibit specific characteristics (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_9tab02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt41-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.2.2.1. Ticlopidine</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This first-generation thienopyridine reduces the incidence of stroke, myocardial infarction, and death by vascular causes and is more effective than ASA. The maximum effect occurs after 3-5 days and lasts for up to 10 days after discontinuation. The adverse effects include diarrhea, allergic reaction, urticaria and erythema, and hemorrhagic (epistaxis, ecchymosis, menorrhagia) and hematolological (leucopenia, thrombocytopenia, pancytopenia) disorders<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>In systematic reviews of large clinical trials, it was considered to be as effective as or more effective than ASA in preventing cardiovascular events. However, with the advent of clopidogrel, a drug of the same class and with less side effects, its use became secondary in clinical practice, mainly because of the occurrence of diarrhea and neutropenia<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.2.2.2. Clopidogrel</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This thienopyridine agent, a ADP P2Y12 receptor inhibitor, is the most widely used. It irreversibly inhibits platelet aggregation and should be discontinued 5-7 days before a surgical procedure to enable platelet renewal.</p>
      <p>A recent multicenter analysis assessed the impact of exposure to clopidogrel for <underline>&lt;</underline> 5 days before myocardial revascularization surgery on the outcomes of reoperation, major bleeding, and hospitalization time in patients with ACS. The risk-adjusted reoperation rate (OR) was 9.80%, (95% CI 2.18-43.95, <italic>p</italic> = 0.01) in the clopidogrel group, in which the rate of reoperations was 6.4%, compared with 1.7% in the group without clopidogrel (<italic>p</italic> = 0.004)<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>On the other hand, another recent analysis that compared the results obtained during three decades revealed that the management of surgical patients receiving clopidogrel had improved, which was demonstrated by the significant reduction in the occurrence of bleeding and mortality in recent years<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>There is individual variability in the response to clopidogrel as a result of the genetic characteristics of patients. Therefore, a laboratory assessment should be performed (point of care testing) to determine its action in a specific patient<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients with recent ACS, stabilized with drug-based treatment, the preferred strategy is discontinuation for 5 days before the surgery, as mentioned above. During this period, the administration of ASA 100 mg/day and heparin is recommended. In patients at high risk for severe ischemic events (previous myocardial revascularization surgery, complex procedures, or with noncardiac comorbidities), the recommendation, which is rarely followed, is to perform antiplatelet therapy as "bridge to surgery" with drugs of short duration, i.e., GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors such as eptifibatide and tirofiban.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.2.3. Glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa inhibitors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This class of drugs inhibits the final step of platelet aggregation, preventing fibrinogen from binding to GP IIb/IIIa receptors and its conversion to fibrin. The available drugs are tirofiban, abciximab, and eptifibatide, all of which are intravenously administered. Their rapid activity onset, which occurs minutes after administration, and potency make them particularly effective for use in percutaneous coronary angioplasty and ACS but at the cost of higher risk for bleeding<sup>11</sup>. They vary with regard to the mechanism of action and duration of the effect.</p>
      <p><italic>Tirofiban and eptifibatide</italic>. These agents have short duration and a reversible effect. Tirofiban is a peptidomimetic, with an amino acid sequence similar to that of fibrinogen. Eptifibatide is a hexapeptide that has a three-amino-acid sequence similar to the bothropic ophidic venom<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Abciximab</italic>. This is a long-acting monoclonal antibody that inhibits thrombin generation. It has a short half-life in plasma and exhibits cross-reactivity with leukocyte receptors. It has a potent platelet-inhibiting activity, with gradual recovery 24-48 h after discontinuation<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p>The use of these agents combined with UH is recommended for a short preoperative period of time as "bridge to surgery" in patients with ACS who were using clopidogrel. The latter should be discontinued at least 5 days before the surgery. During this period, the use of ASA at a low dose (up to 100 mg) and heparin is recommended. An alternative, although not very much used, could be the administration of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors to prevent ischemic events during the preoperative period but at the cost of higher risk for bleeding. In patients at high risk for bleeding, the alternative is to form this bridge using an intra-aortico balloon for 48-72 h before the surgical procedure<sup>4</sup>. In Brazil, the postclopidogrel bridge has been preferentially used with UH and ASA.</p>
      <p>Patients who undergo surgery with the use of GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors require special measures and discontinuation of the medication at the time of the procedure, if not before. Eptifibatide and tirofiban have short half-lives of approximately 2 h, and there may be platelet aggregation recovery at the end of the revascularization surgery. With regard to abciximab, although it has a short half-life in plasma (10 min), dissociation from platelets gradually occurs, and with a half-life of 4 h, platelet function returns to normal after 24-48 h and a rebound effect may occur. If excessive bleeding occurs, the recommendations include fresh platelet transfusion and fibrinogen supplementation with fresh plasma or cryoprecipitate; these measures may be applied alone or in combination<sup>13</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.2.4. P2Y12 receptor inhibitors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>For complete aggregation to occur, both receptors (P2Y1 and P2Y12) have to be inhibited; however, P2Y12 is predominant, and its binding to adenosin results in increased production of thromboxane and prolonged antiplatelet activity<sup>14-18</sup>.</p>
      <p>The antiplatelet therapy recommended for patients with ACS and for those undergoing a coronary stent implant comprises ASA and a P2Y12 receptor inhibitor<sup>19,20</sup>.</p>
      <p>The new P2Y12 receptor inhibitors alter the conformation of this receptor, resulting in its reversible inhibition, unlike old platelet inhibitors such as ticlopidine and clopidogrel that irreversibly bind to platelets<sup>21,22</sup>. Platelet inhibition achieved by the new inhibitors prasugrel and ticagrelor has an earlier onset, on average 15-30 min after the initial dose vs. 1-2 h after the initial dose of clopidogrel, which has a higher effect (between 60% and 70% of inhibition 2-4 h after the initial dose vs. 30% 5 h after the initial dose of clopidogrel). Moreover, it exhibits a higher duration of action (up to 10 days vs. 7 days with clopidogrel)<sup>23-30</sup>. Patients with ACS treated with prasugrel are more protected against ischemic events than patients treated with clopidogrel. However, they exhibit higher risk for bleeding<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the literature, some factors are associated with increased risk for postoperative bleeding, such as advanced age, preoperative anemia, emergency surgery, surgery with long extracorporeal circulation, and other comorbidities such as congestive heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and renal failure. In addition, one important factor associated with bleeding is the use of antiplatelet agents in the preoperative period. This type of drug is common in patients with coronary disease, particularly those with ACS. A series of studies have indicated that the use of P2Y12 receptor inhibitor is associated with major bleeding and that not even surgery without extracorporeal circulation seems to prevent this<sup>9,32-34</sup>. Three studies suggest that the use of P2Y12 receptor inhibitors associated with ASA decreases the incidence of ischemic events and does not increase the rate of bleeding, provided that the P2Y12 receptor inhibitors are discontinued at least 5 days before surgery<sup>35-37</sup>. Two recent studies have revealed that discontinuation 3 days before coronary surgery is sufficient<sup>38,39</sup>.</p>
      <p>In some series of studies, compared with clopidogrel, the two new P2Y12 receptor inhibitor agents prasugrel and ticagrelor did not exhibit an excessive increase in bleeding<sup>40,41</sup>. However, this fact is not associated with coronary surgeries, i.e., even if the increase in the incidence of bleeding with the use of these drugs has not been demonstrated, bleeding associated with myocardial revascularization surgery in patients using these new antiplatelet agents is increased<sup>41</sup>. Studies have shown up to fourfold higher likelihood of bleeding with the use of prasugrel than with the use of clopidogrel, and both ticagrelor and clopidogrel have been shown to exhibit the same risk for bleeding during surgery if the drug is administered up to 72 h before surgery<sup>31,42</sup>.</p>
      <p>The Society of Thoracic Surgery (STS), in a guideline published in 2011<sup>3</sup>, recommends the discontinuation of P2Y12 receptor inhibitor agents at least 3 days before the surgical procedure. The previous recommendation was to wait for 5-7 days after the discontinuation of these drugs to perform surgery. However, many surgeons did not wait for this long<sup>37</sup>, and because some studies<sup>38,39</sup> suggest that 3 days are sufficient, this is the current recommendation of STS.</p>
      <p>ASA decreased the incidence of occlusion of venous grafts in the postoperative period. In the literature, there is a systematic review on the expansion of this concept to antiplatelet drugs<sup>43</sup>. Their systematic use after myocardial revascularization increases the incidence of reoperation caused by bleeding, and in view of currently available evidence, is not indicated. The use of P2Y12 receptor inhibitors is indicated in patients with some contraindication for the use of ASA in the postoperative period<sup>44</sup>. When its use is mandatory, it should be reintroduced 48 h after the end of surgery.</p>
      <p>The American Heart Association, together with the American Association for Thoracic Surgery and STS, in their 2011 guideline for the management of antiplatelet drugs in myocardial revascularization surgery, recommend the discontinuation of ticagrelor 5 days before the surgery and discontinuation of prasugrel 7 days before the procedure. In cases of emergency reoperations, it is recommended that, if possible, these drugs be discontinued at least 24 h before surgery<sup>5</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab04-body2">Table 4</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.2.5. Cilostazol</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This is a cAMP inhibitor with antiplatelet and vasodilating functions. It has been used with good results in patients with severe peripheral vascular disease and intermittent claudication<sup>45</sup> for the secondary prevention of stroke<sup>46</sup> and helps reduce intrastent restenosis in coronary disease<sup>47,48</sup>. It is used as part of the triple therapy associated with ASA and clopidogrel, and it decreases platelet aggregation in patients with AMI who undergo primary angioplasty<sup>49</sup>. Some studies have revealed that its combination with ASA does not increase the bleeding time<sup>50</sup>.</p>
      <p>Moreover, cilostazol affects the smooth muscle of vessels that appears to prevent the occurrence of hyperplasia<sup>51,52</sup>. This effect, in addition to preventing intrastent restenosis, decreases potential intimal hyperplasia that occurs at coronary anastomoses sites<sup>53</sup>.</p>
      <p>Onoda K et al.<sup>54</sup> revealed the benefits of combining cilostazol with ASA in patients undergoing myocardial revascularization without extracorporeal circulation. The authors mention that in surgeries without extracorporeal circulation, a state of hypercoagulation<sup>55,56 </sup>occurs and that cilostazol is beneficial in the immediate postoperative period. In this study, both cilostazol and ASA were discontinued 7 days before the surgery (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab05-body2">Table 5</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.2.6. Dipiridamol and triple therapy</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The articles on dipiridamol are outdated; the most recent publications are approximately 20 years old. In 1988, Teoh KH et al.<sup>57</sup> published a prospective and randomized study with 58 patients who underwent cardiac surgery with extracorporeal circulation. Forty patients who received dipiridamol, pre- and postoperatively, were compared with a control group of 18 patients. The preoperative administration of dipiridamol resulted in a significantly lower blood loss and lesser need for transfusion of blood concentrates. The authors concluded that dipiridamol leads to an increase in the number of platelets and reduces the postoperative risk for bleeding.</p>
      <p>In 1975, another study<sup>58</sup> compared 12 patients who underwent cardiac surgery with extracorporeal circulation and were treated with dipiridamol in the pre- and postoperative periods, with a control group of 38 patients. As observed in the first study, the results revealed an increase in the number of platelets, and increased bleeding in the postoperative period was not observed.</p>
      <p>In 1986, Chesebro and Fuster<sup>59</sup> conducted a study wherein the efficacy of dipiridamol in preventing early occlusion of the saphenous vein bridge was assessed. The authors reported that the agent decreased platelet deposition in the graft during surgery and that its use in the preoperative period is important. Similar to other studies, they did not observe increased postoperative bleeding.</p>
      <p>In 1978, another study<sup>60</sup> evaluated antithrombotic therapy in patients subjected to myocardial revascularization with the saphenous bridge and internal thoracic artery. In this series, the authors reported that there was a clear advantage in terms of reduction in the graft occlusion rate a year after the surgery in patients who received dipiridamol, without an increase in the incidence of bleeding immediately after the surgery<sup>60,61</sup>.</p>
      <p>The most recent article was published in 1993, and it refers to positive results in terms of reduction in the graft occlusion rate in the late postoperative period in patients who used dipiridamol. An increase in bleeding in the immediate postoperative period was not reported. In the 2011 guideline of STS<sup>62,63</sup> and the American Society of Anesthesiologists<sup>3</sup>, dipiridamol is not mentioned as an agent responsible for increased postoperative bleeding.</p>
      <p>With regard to triple therapy, there is no strong evidence to be considered; therefore, evidence regarding the individual drugs should be considered (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab06-body2">Table 6</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.3. Indications for anticoagulant agents in cardiac surgery</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.3.1. Heparin</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Patients with ACS may require surgical treatment for myocardial revascularization. When they are administered heparin, they exhibit higher risk for postoperative bleeding and higher need for revision surgery and blood transfusion<sup>64-73</sup>. Therefore, the potential clinical benefit of using heparin in the preoperative period should be weighed against the risk for major postoperative bleeding and higher need for blood transfusion that may lead to an increase in clinical complications and death at 30 days<sup>74,75</sup>. Both blood derivative transfusion and revision surgery result in deterioration of the patient's clinical evolution and in increased costs and hospitalization time (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab07-body2">Table 7</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>The management of patients who use anticoagulant drugs in the perioperative period depends on the patient's risk for developing thromboembolic events when the use of the drug is discontinued and on the bleeding risk if anticoagulation therapy is not interrupted. Anticoagulation in the perioperative period is associated with a 3.0% increase in severe bleeding. It has been shown that INR (international normalization ratio) &lt; 1.5 is not associated with perioperative major bleeding<sup>76-78</sup>. Adequate adjustment of anticoagulation therapy is important to minimize thrombotic and hemorrhagic events.</p>
      <p>Discontinuation of anticoagulant therapy increases the risk for embolic phenomena such as stroke and thrombosis of mechanical prostheses, and this risk varies according to the presence of other comorbidities. These events can have devastating clinical consequences: stroke can lead to significant incapacity or death in 70% of patients; mechanical prosthesis thrombosis can be fatal in 15% of patients<sup>76</sup>.</p>
      <p>According to risks for embolic events in the perioperative period and the associated comorbidities, the risk will be stratified into high, moderate, and low<sup>78</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab08-body2">Tables 8</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab09-body2">9</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
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      </p>
      <p>When aiming for rapid INR normalization, replacements of deficient factors include fresh frozen plasma (FFP) and a prothrombin complex concentrate [Resolution RDC n. 10, of January 23, 2004, of the <italic>Ag&#234;ncia de Vigil&#226;ncia Sanit&#225;ria</italic> (ANVISA) determines that "for the correction of hemorrhages caused by the use of coumarin anticoagulants or rapid reversal of the effects of coumarin anticoagulants, the product of choice is the prothrombin complex. Because this type of concentrate is not yet widely available in Brazilian hospitals, FFP is an acceptable alternative."]<sup>79</sup>.</p>
      <p>The dosage of the prothrombin complex concentrate has not yet been standardized; however, its administration according to the patient's INR value is suggested (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab10-body2">Tables 10</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab11-body2">11</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
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      </p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.3.3. Fondaparinux</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Fondaparinux is a synthetic pentasaccharide that selectively inhibits factor Xa by binding to antithrombin. Fondaparinux has more affinity to antithrombin than the native pentasaccharide of UH or LMWH. This binding causes a conformational change in antithrombin that enhances (by a factor of 300) the natural inhibitory effect of antithrombin against factor Xa. This is how fondaparinux functions as an anticoagulant<sup>80-85</sup>.</p>
      <p>Fondaparinux has been studied in coronary disease, including unstable angina and AMI, and in patients subjected to PCI<sup>86,87</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients who are using fondaparinux and need elective surgery, the anticoagulant activity persists for approximately 3-5 half-lives after discontinuation of the agent; in patients with normal renal function, the anticoagulant activity persists for 2-4 days. A longer period would be necessary in patients with decreased renal function. There is no available antidote to reduce this waiting period. Some studies revealed that high doses of the recombinant factor VIIa (90 &#181;g/kg) were able to normalize, up to 6 h, partially prolonged aPTT, endogenous thrombin potential, and prothrombin activation <italic>in vivo</italic> in healthy volunteers who received 10 mg of fondaparinux<sup>85,88</sup>. Recently, to make the use of fondaparinux safer, a variant antithrombin was developed as an antidote for heparin derivatives<sup>89</sup>. However, there are no systematic studies that include patients with bleeding (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab12-body2">Table 12</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.3.4. Bivalirudin</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The safety and efficacy of bivalirudin have been investigated in a series of clinical trials in patients with ACS. compared with monotherapy with heparins, isolated or in combination with antiplatelet drugs, bivalirudin reduced the combined primary outcomes (death, myocardial infarction, and emergency revascularization). In addition, it significantly reduced hemorrhagic complications<sup>87-96</sup>. Based on the results of these studies and its beneficial effects, bivalirudin has been recommended, in the international guidelines, for use in patients with ACS treated in an invasive manner<sup>91,92</sup>.</p>
      <p>Bivalirudin has a linear anticoagulating dose-response behavior. The prothrombin time, aPTT, thrombin time, and activated clotting time linearly increase with an increase in the bivalirudin dose<sup>97</sup>. A dose of 0.2 mg/kg/h of bivalirudin increased the prothrombin time from 12 to 16 s, aPTT from 27 to 62 s, and thrombin time from 15 to 73 s<sup>98</sup>. The increase in the rate of bivalirudin infusion to 1 mg/kg/h resulted in a mean aPTT of 98 s, which returned to baseline within 4 h of infusion discontinuation<sup>99</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab13-body2">Table 13</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.3.5. Dabigatran</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Dabigatran is a drug that directly inhibits the thrombin enzyme, responsible for converting fibrinogen into fibrin. Its use was approved by the European Medicines Agency in 2008 and more recently by ANVISA in Brazil and by the American FDA. It is an oral agent that can be used in a single daily dose, and there is no need to monitor its effect. However, dabigatran does not have an antidote<sup>78</sup>.</p>
      <p>Dabigatran has a half-life between 11 and 22 h in patients with normal renal function; in patients with renal impairment, the half-life can reach 35 h. Therefore, in procedures with a high bleeding risk, dabigatran should be discontinued between 2 and 6 days before the surgery<sup>100,101</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the case of acute intervention, dabigatran should be temporarily discontinued and the surgery should be postponed at least 12 h after the last dose. If it is not possible to postpone the surgery, hemorrhagic risk should be considered. This risk should be weighed against the urgency of the intervention (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab14-body2">Table 14</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.3.6. Rivaroxaban</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This is an anticoagulant drug that directly inhibits activated factor X<sup>102</sup>. It is indicated for preventing VTE, stroke, and systemic embolism in patients with AF<sup>102,103</sup>. Rivaroxaban should not be used in patients with renal failure, in patients with liver disease associated with coagulopathy, and in patients using antimycotic drugs and protease inhibitors for HIV. It should not be administered to individuals younger than 18 years, pregnant women (because of the risk of toxicity as it crosses the placenta), and breastfeeding women (because the drug is excreted in the milk)<sup>100</sup>. Rivaroxaban has a mean half-life of 12 h and varies according to renal function<sup>100</sup>. In situations of emergency, where the anticoagulating effects of rivaroxaban need to be reversed, the 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate can be used at a dose of 50 IU/kg. Other products such as plasma and cryoprecipitates do not reverse the anticoagulating effect of this agent<sup>100</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab15-body2">Table 15</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.3.7. Apixaban</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Apixaban is one of the newest oral anticoagulant drugs that directly inhibits activated factor X. It has been shown to be effective and safe in the prevention and treatment of thromboembolism<sup>75,81,82,87</sup>. Few clinical studies exist, and the current recommendations are similar to those used for other direct inhibitors of activated factor X, such as dabigatran.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.4. Management of antiplatelet agents in noncardiac surgeries</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.4.1. ASA</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A large meta-analysis involving patients who underwent noncardiac surgery revealed that those receiving ASA exhibited up to 50% increase in the rate of perioperative bleeding. However, with the exception of neurosurgery and transurethral resection of the prostate, there was no increase in the occurrence of severe bleeding<sup>104</sup>.</p>
      <p>Till date, only one randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled study has been published on the perioperative use of ASA in noncardiac surgery. It included 220 patients with vascular disease who were already on ASA (i.e., patients on secondary prevention) and who were scheduled to have noncardiac surgical interventions. These patients were randomly assigned to stay on ASA or to discontinue this therapy in the perioperative period. The postoperative increase in troponin (primary goal) was lower in the group that stayed on ASA; however, the difference was not statistically significant, probably because of the number of patients in the study. However, there was a significant reduction in major cardiac events in patients who stayed on ASA in the perioperative period in comparison with patients who discontinued ASA (1.8% &#215; 9.0%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.02). Although this was not one of the aims of the study, it did not demonstrate a difference in the rate of hemorrhagic complications between the groups<sup>105</sup>.</p>
      <p>In most situations, risk-benefit analysis of antiplatelet therapy in coronary patients who undergo noncardiac intervention favors the maintenance of ASA. Situations of exception include neurological surgery (in which even small bleedings can be catastrophic), transurethral prostatectomy (a procedure without primary hemostasis), and other circumstances wherein the risk of bleeding prohibits its use. In these cases, a minimum period of 7 days should be respected for reversal of the antiplatelet agent effect (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab16-body2">Table 16</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.4.2. Thienopyridines</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In a systematic review of 37 studies on the use of thienopyridines in the perioperative period, Au et al.<sup>106</sup> concluded that this practice increased the need for reoperation because of bleeding [4.3% &#215; 1.8% (OR 2.62, 95% CI 1.96-3.46)] and mortality [3.7% &#215; 2.6% (OR 1.38, 95% CI 1.3-1.69)]. However, only six studies evaluated patients who underwent noncardiac surgery and, among these patients, the rate of events was too low to allow drawing definitive conclusions (six cases of bleeding that required reoperation among 230 patients and 14 deaths among 492 patients)<sup>106</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients who underwent vascular surgery, although a greater number of studies was available, they included a small number of patients or events or they were observational and retrospective, which also did not allow drawing definitive conclusions. Burdess et al.<sup>107</sup> evaluated 113 patients with critical limb ischemia who underwent lower extremity revascularization, amputation, or femoral endarterectomy and who were randomized to receive clopidogrel 600 mg from 4 to 28 h before the surgery or a placebo at a dose of 75 mg/day after the surgery. All the patients were taking ASA. There was no difference in life-threatening major bleeding events between the groups: seven (14%) in the clopidogrel group and six (10%) in the placebo group (<italic>p</italic> = 0.56). However, the patients in the clopidogrel group exhibited an increase in the number of nonlife-threatening major bleeding events: 11 (22%) in the clopidogrel group and four (7%) in the placebo group (<italic>p</italic> = 0.024). Furthermore, 20 patients (40%) who received clopidogrel required transfusion of an erythrocyte concentrate, while only eight patients (14%) required this in the placebo group (<italic>p</italic> = 0.0019). There was no difference between the groups with regard to minor bleeding events (<italic>p</italic> = 0.12) or the duration of the surgery (<italic>p</italic> = 0.6) or hospitalization (<italic>p </italic>= 0.72)<sup>107</sup>. De Borst et al.<sup>108</sup> evaluated three different strategies for antiplatelet therapy in 102 patients before carotid endarterectomy. The patients were divided into three groups: dipyridamole + ASA, dipyridamole + ASA + clopidogrel, and dipyridamole + ASA + dextran 40 mg. There was no difference among the groups with regard to the need for reoperation because of bleeding, which occurred in only five patients, thereby limiting the power of the study considerably<sup>108</sup>.</p>
      <p>Payne et al.<sup>109</sup> randomly assigned 100 patients, scheduled to undergo carotid endarterectomy, to receive 75 mg of clopidogrel or placebo in addition to ASA. There was no difference between the groups with regard to the need for blood transfusion (<italic>p</italic> = 1.0) and drainage volume (<italic>p</italic> = 0.65). However, there was an increase in the time to the closure of the surgical incision (<italic>p</italic> = 0.004) and a tendency for an increase in the occurrence of cervical hematoma (13% &#215; 6%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.47) and in the need for revision surgery (11% &#215; 6%) in the clopidogrel group, albeit without statistical significance<sup>109</sup>. Other observational studies that evaluated the use of clopidogrel in association with ASA in the perioperative period of carotid endarterectomy also included a small number of patients and events; therefore, no significant differences were observed between the groups<sup>110</sup>. Stone et al.<sup>111</sup> performed an observational study of 10,406 patients who underwent carotid endarterectomy, lower extremity revascularization, and conventional and endovascular abdominal aortic aneurysm repair. Among these patients, 2,010 (19.3%) did not receive antiplatelet therapy, 7,132 (68.5%) received ASA, 229 (2.2%) received clopidogrel, and 1,017 (9.7%) received double antiplatelet therapy. There was no difference between the groups with regard to reoperation because of bleeding (without antiplatelet therapy, 1.5%; ASA, 1.3%; clopidogrel, 0.9%; and ASA with clopidogrel, 1.5%; <italic>p</italic> = 0.74) or the need for transfusion (without antiplatelet therapy, 18%; ASA, 17%; clopidogrel, 0%; and ASA with clopidogrel, 24%; <italic>p</italic> = 0.1). Meanwhile, the number of patients who received clopidogrel in the groups that underwent aortic aneurysm repair was too small to allow drawing conclusions regarding the use of clopidogrel in this population<sup>111</sup>.</p>
      <p>Evidence is even scarcer for patients who underwent nonvascular surgery. A retrospective study compared 28 patients who received clopidogrel up to 6 days before undergoing general surgery with 22 patients in whom the treatment was discontinued 7 or more days prior to surgery. Patients who used clopidogrel exhibited a greater number of bleeding events that required transfusion than those who suspended clopidogrel 7 or more days before the surgery (21.4% &#215; 9.5%); however, this difference was not statistically significant (<italic>p</italic> = 0.53). Approximately 32% of the patients in the clopidogrel group and 40% of the patients in the clopidogrel discontinuation group were taking ASA. None of the patients presented bleeding that required reoperation, and there was no difference between the groups with regard to mortality or duration of hospitalization<sup>112</sup>.</p>
      <p>Sim et al.<sup>113</sup> retrospectively evaluated 21 patients who were taking clopidogrel and underwent femoral fracture surgical repair and compared them with 114 control patients; those authors showed that there was no difference between the groups with regard to the need for transfusion or the presence of hematoma in the surgical wound<sup>113</sup>. Recently, Chechik et al.<sup>114</sup> evaluated 60 patients with femoral fracture who were taking clopidogrel; among them, 30 patients underwent surgery during treatment with this agent and 30 patients underwent surgery only 5 days after the treatment was suspended. There was no difference between the groups with regard to the need for transfusion or mortality, although there was a tendency for a greater number of clinical complications related to immobility (PTE, pressure ulcers, pulmonary edema, and sepsis) in the group in which surgery was delayed because of the use of clopidogrel<sup>114</sup>. These data are important because early surgery in patients with femoral fracture reduces mortality, and delaying the surgery because of the use of clopidogrel may be more damaging than beneficial. Furthermore, the discontinuation of the administration of antiplatelet therapy in patients with coronary disease increases the risk of ACS<sup>115</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another retrospective study compared 142 patients who were taking clopidogrel with 1,243 control patients who underwent colonoscopic polypectomy with regard to the occurrence of immediate and delayed bleeding. Seventy-seven patients (54%) in the clopidogrel group were also taking ASA. Although there was no difference between the groups with regard to immediate bleeding (2.1% &#215; 2.1%), the patients who were taking clopidogrel exhibited a greater number of late bleeding events (3.5% &#215; 1.0%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.02) and a greater need for hospitalization, transfusion, or additional intervention (2.1% &#215; 0.4%, p = 0.04). We should consider that the eight patients in the clopidogrel group who exhibited bleeding were using ASA. In multivariate analysis, the independent variables that were related to bleeding were the use of double antiplatelet therapy (RR 3.69, 95% CI 1.6-8.52, <italic>p</italic> = 0.002) and the number of dried polyps (RR 1.28, 95% CI 1.19-138, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001)<sup>116</sup>.</p>
      <p>It is possible that isolated antiplatelet therapy using clopidogrel does not represent a great risk for bleeding; however, there is no current evidence in support of this contention.</p>
      <p>The decision regarding the continuation or discontinuation of antiplatelet therapy should always be reached after a risk-benefit multidisciplinary discussion among the cardiologist/clinician, the anesthesiologist, and the surgeon (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab17-body2">Table 17</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.4.3. Patients with coronary artery stents</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Approximately 5% of patients who undergo coronary angioplasty with stent placement require noncardiac surgery within 1 year<sup>117</sup>. The premature discontinuation of double antiplatelet therapy is the main risk factor for stent thrombosis, with a thrombosis-related mortality that can reach 45%<sup>118</sup>. Other risk factors for thrombosis of the drug-eluting Stents (DES) are advanced age, stent placement because of acute coronary syndrome (ACS), diabetes mellitus, reduced left ventricular ejection fraction, chronic renal failure, and angiographic characteristics (ostial lesions, long stents, bifurcations, and small vessels)<sup>119</sup>. Patients who undergo angioplasty with placement of stent must take ASA indefinitely, and thienopyridines should be used for a minimum of 1 month for conventional stents and 12 months for DES<sup>120</sup>. In approximately 30%-40% of patients in whom double antiplatelet therapy was prematurely discontinued, the reason for the discontinuation was surgical intervention<sup>121</sup>.</p>
      <p>The performance of noncardiac operations less than 2 weeks after angioplasty with conventional stent placement is associated with prohibitive rates of perioperative complications (AMI or hemorrhagic complications)<sup>122</sup>. Nuttall et al.<sup>123</sup> retrospectively evaluated 899 patients who underwent noncardiac surgery up to 1 year after angioplasty with conventional stent placement. Forty-seven patients (5.2%) exhibited a cardiovascular event (death, AMI, and need for revascularization). The rate of cardiovascular events was 10.5% when the surgery was performed less than 30 days after angioplasty, 3.8% between 31 and 90 days, and 2.8% after 91 days. Therefore, the risk for cardiovascular complications significantly decreased with every 30 days that passed between the angioplasty and the surgery (<italic>p</italic> = 0.003)<sup>123</sup>. In contrast, a study using the same design that evaluated 520 patients who underwent angioplasty with DES placement showed that the rate of cardiovascular events was constant during the first year after the angioplasty. A decrease in the rate of cardiovascular events was observed only after the first year after angioplasty with DES <sup>124</sup>. Therefore, elective noncardiac surgery should be postponed for at least 1 month after angioplasty with conventional Stent placement and 1 year after angioplasty with DES <sup>78,121</sup>.</p>
      <p>Eisenberg et al.<sup>125</sup> conducted retrospective analysis of 161 cases of DES thrombosis to determine the average time between the discontinuation of double antiplatelet therapy and thrombosis. The average time for the occurrence of stent thrombosis was 7 days after the simultaneous or sequential discontinuation of ASA and clopidogrel, whereas it was 122 days for patients who discontinued only clopidogrel therapy and continued taking ASA. Moreover, among the 94 patients who continued ASA therapy and discontinued clopidogrel therapy, Stent thrombosis occurred within the first 10 days only in six cases<sup>125</sup>. Therefore, in patients with an indication for the discontinuation of clopidogrel before a surgical procedure, this drug should be reintroduced as quickly as possible, preferably before 10 days after its discontinuation, to avoid stent thrombosis<sup>78</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab18-body2">Table 18</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.4.4. Glycoprotein (GP) IIb/IIIa inhibitors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A preliminary study evaluated the efficacy and safety of tirofiban as a bridging therapy in the perioperative period in patients with DES who underwent surgery within 1 year and thus required discontinuation of clopidogrel. The study included 30 patients who required emergency surgery with DES placement less than 6 months or less than 1 year prior to the surgery but who had risk factors for stent thrombosis. Clopidogrel was discontinued 5 days before the procedure and tirofiban was started 4 days before the surgery. The infusion of tirofiban was stopped 4 h before the procedure (8 h if CrCl was less than 30 ml/min), restarted 3 h after the procedure, and discontinued 4 h after the administration of a dose of clopidogrel. Clopidogrel was restarted using a loading dose of 300 mg right after the patient was allowed oral ingestion. There were no cardiovascular events during hospitalization. One patient exhibited major bleeding (proctorrhagia on the 7th postoperative day) and required transfusion; this symptom was reversed after colonoscopic clipping. Two patients exhibited minor bleeding and required transfusion<sup>126</sup>. This was a pilot study that included few patients and no ischemic events, which does not allow recommending bridging therapy with tirofiban as a routine procedure; however, it can be used in patients at a very high risk of stent thrombosis.</p>
      <p>It should be stressed that the use of UH or LMWH as bridging therapy for preventing stent thrombosis is not indicated because these agents not only protect against stent thrombosis but also yield a rebound prothrombotic effect after their discontinuation.</p>
      <p>Abciximab is a universal platelet inhibitor with an action that lasts for 7 days; therefore, there is no indication for its use in the perioperative period in noncardiac surgeries, given its high risk of hemorrhage<sup>118</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab19-body2">Table 19</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.4.5. Cilostazol</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cilostazol has a half-life of approximately 10 h. In general, its administration is discontinued because of a high level of occurrence of side effects, such as headache and gastrointestinal disturbances. In addition, it is contraindicated in patients with heart failure because of its potential to induce ventricular arrhythmias<sup>127</sup>.</p>
      <p>No studies have evaluated the benefits or potential damaging effects of the use of cilostazol in the perioperative period of noncardiac surgeries. Based on the potential increase in bleeding and absence of evidence that corroborate the benefits of its continuation in this context, it is recommended that cilostazol be discontinued on the day before the planned noncardiac surgery (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab20-body2">Table 20</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.4.6. Dipyridamole</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Similar to cilostazol, dipyridamole has a half-life of approximately 10 h. Although it exerts reversible effects on platelet function, dipyridamole is associated with an increase in the risk of bleeding, particularly when co-administered with ASA<sup>128-130</sup>.</p>
      <p>A study analyzed the rate of postoperative cerebral embolism detected by transcranian Doppler in 120 patients who underwent carotid endarterectomy and were on three different antiplatelet regimens, all of which included a combination of ASA and dipyridamole. There was no difference in embolic events between the groups (despite the low number of patients analyzed); however, a higher rate of bleeding than that usually detected in this type of procedure was observed in all the groups<sup>128-130</sup>. Because of a potential increase in risk for bleeding, it seems prudent to discontinue dipyridamole on the day before noncardiac surgery. Risk-benefit evaluation for the continuation of ASA must be performed at the individual level (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab21-body2">Table 21</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.5. Management of anticoagulants in noncardiac surgeries</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.5.1. Heparin</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.5.1.1. Anticoagulation bridging therapy during the perioperative period</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the absence of randomized studies evaluating the risks and benefits of anticoagulation bridging therapy, the transition regimens of oral anticoagulation during the perioperative period considerably vary among different departments. Therefore, there is no established regimen for the management of anticoagulation during the perioperative period. The main goal of this bridging therapy is the maximal minimization of the risk for arterial thromboembolic events in patients with metallic prosthetic valves and risk for AF and to avoid the recurrence of previous thromboembolic events. Therefore, the indication for the transition from oral anticoagulation to parenteral or subcutaneous anticoagulation is based on two main factors: risk for thromboembolic events after the discontinuation of anticoagulation and risks for bleeding and the proposed surgery<sup>78</sup>.</p>
      <p>The existing directives recommend the estimation of the risk for thromboembolism and the evaluation of the risk for perioperative bleeding for managing perioperative anticoagulation<sup>78,131</sup>. The appraisal of the risk for perioperative thromboembolic events is mainly based on the three clinical conditions that result in the indication of oral anticoagulation: the presence of a mechanical prosthetic valve, presence of atrial fibrillation (AF), and previous history of ventous thromboembolism (VTE). Both the perioperative guideline of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia) and the latest update of the American College of Chest Physicians similarly classify the estimation of the risk of thromboembolic events during the perioperative period (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab08-body2">Table 8</xref>)<sup>78,131</sup>.</p>
      <p>In general, in surgical procedures with a low risk for bleeding, it is not necessary to discontinue oral anticoagulation. The procedures can be performed at therapeutic INR<sup>78,131</sup>. In patients classified as being at low risk for thromboembolic events, there is no need to maintain full anticoagulation during the whole perioperative period because of the low incidence of arterial thromboembolic events in this population. The temporary discontinuation of oral anticoagulant therapy and the use of a prophylactic dose of heparin to prevent thromboembolic events during the perioperative period are indicated. In patients who are considered as being at high risk for thromboembolic events who are scheduled to undergo surgical procedures with moderate to high risk of bleeding, oral anticoagulation bridging therapy is recommended in the perioperative period. In patients at moderate risk, the two approaches mentioned above are used and well accepted. Usually, the indication for a transition from oral anticoagulant therapy is decided by medical evaluation.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.5.1.2. Mechanical prosthetic valve</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Patients with a mechanical prosthetic valve are considered as a group at high risk for thromboembolic events because the rate of events reaches approximately 8% in patients without anticoagulation therapy. The discontinuation of oral anticoagulant drugs in the perioperative period can lead to thromboembolic events such as stroke, systemic embolism, and/or prosthesis thrombosis.</p>
      <p>There are no randomized clinical studies with adequate methods that have assessed strategies for anticoagulation bridging therapy in patients with a mechanical prosthetic valve. The existing studies that have evaluated perioperative anticoagulation in patients with mechanical prostheses are scarce and limited. The first studies comprised retrospective series and a single prospective study with a small number of patients who discontinued perioperative anticoagulation or were on unfractionated heparin (UH)<sup>132-134</sup>. Thus, perioperative anticoagulation was interrupted (patients with a mechanical prosthetic valve in the aortic position) or performed using UH (patients with a mechanical prosthetic valve in the mitral position). The results of these studies were very limited because there was no established system for anticoagulation management and the follow-up results were not adequately recorded<sup>132-134</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the absence of scientific evidence regarding the best strategy for perioperative anticoagulation management in patients with indication for bridging therapy, the adopted standard was patient hospitalization and transition to UH in the perioperative period. This choice of anticoagulation approach was confirmed by a Canadian study that assessed the preference for this type of heparin as anticoagulation bridging therapy in patients with a mechanical prosthetic valve, wherein the physicians preferred to use UH for its safety and effectiveness<sup>135</sup>.</p>
      <p>In recent years, this practice has been replaced by the use of low-molecular weight heparin (LMWH) because this form of treatment can be administered out of the hospital. Few studies have assessed the use of LMWH as perioperative anticoagulation bridging therapy in patients with a mechanical prosthetic valve. A review study by Spyropoulos et al.<sup>136</sup> included five studies assessing the efficacy and safety of changing anticoagulation therapy to LMWH in 749 patients with a mechanical prosthetic valve. The rate of cardioembolic complications was 0.4% and the bleeding rate was 2.8%, which showed that it was safe to use LMWH in patients with a mechanical prosthetic valve <sup>136</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients for whom maintenance of perioperative anticoagulation is indicated, oral anticoagulation therapy with warfarin is usually discontinued 5 days before the surgical procedure and short-term heparin bridging therapy is initiated. This transition can be performed both with intravenous UH and with subcutaneous LMWH, at the therapeutic dose, and the last doses of heparin before the surgery should be in accordance with the half-life of the drug used. The use of UH as an oral anticoagulation bridging requires the patient to be hospitalized before the surgical procedure. In addition, the use of intravenous heparin requires monitoring of aPTT to adjust the therapeutic dose (with target aPTT between 1.5 and 2.5). Its use is usually reserved for patients for whom the use of LMWH is contraindicated, such as patients with severe renal failure or those undergoing dialysis. Anticoagulation transition to LMWH appears to be a good alternative because it can be administered out of the hospital and there is no need to perform laboratory monitoring of the therapeutic level. However, its use should be avoided in some situations, particularly in patients with renal failure (CrCl &lt; 30 ml/min).</p>
      <p>There are no randomized studies in the literature comparing different perioperative anticoagulation management strategies and analyzing the best procedure for anticoagulation transition. Most existing studies are prospective and retrospective observational studies that evaluated different forms of anticoagulation transition.</p>
      <p>The aim of the REGIME study was to assess perioperative anticoagulation management using two forms of heparin. This was a multicenter, prospective, and observational study involving 14 American and Canadian centers where information on perioperative anticoagulation was collected. The physician in-charge was responsible for deciding what type of bridging therapy would be used for the transition. The 901 patients were divided into two groups: one group received UH as an anticoagulation bridging (180 patients) and another group received LMWH administered twice daily (721 patients). The percentage of patients who received the dose of postoperative heparin was similar in both the groups (91.1% UH &#215; 92.6% LMWH, <italic>p</italic> = 0.49). The rate of thromboembolic events was low in both the groups (2.4% in the UH group &#215; 0.9% in the LMWH group). There was no statistically significant difference in the rate of major bleeding between the two groups (5.5% UH &#215; 3.3% LMWH, <italic>p</italic> = 0.25). The group of patients who received anticoagulation bridging therapy with LMWH underwent more procedures as outpatients or was hospitalized for less than 24 h (63.6% &#215; 6.1%, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001). Among the patients hospitalized for surgeries, the LMWH group was also hospitalized for a shorter time than the UH group (4.6 &#215; 10.3 days, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001). Although this was the first study to compare anticoagulation transition therapies, it presented important limitations such as not being randomized and not having a control group. The results revealed that the two strategies were as effective and safe as the oral anticoagulation bridging therapy; however, LMWH had the advantage of being administered outside the hospital<sup>137</sup>.</p>
      <p>With the aim of assessing the efficacy and safety of LMWH as anticoagulation bridging therapy, Douketis et al.<sup>138</sup> conducted a study involving 650 patients with a mechanical prosthetic valve, AF, and history of stroke. Warfarin was discontinued 5 days before the surgical procedure, and the patients received anticoagulation transition therapy with dalteparin 100 IU/kg twice daily, which was started on average 3 days before the surgery. The last dose of preoperative dalteparin was administered at least 12 h before the surgery to avoid bleeding. In patients subjected to procedures classified as having high risk for bleeding, the postoperative dalteparin dose was not administered. The main outcomes analyzed were thromboembolism, major bleeding, and mortality. Oral anticoagulation was restarted the day after the surgery. In a mean follow-up period of 13.8 days, there was a low incidence of thromboembolic events (0.4%) and bleeding (0.7% and 1.8%) in this group<sup>138</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another multicenter prospective cohort study published in the same year also aimed to assess the safety and efficacy of bridging therapy with LMWH. The study included patients at high risk for arterial thromboembolism (patients with a mechanical prosthetic valve and AF). The study included 224 patients, 112 of which had a mechanical prosthetic valve and 112 had AF. The oral anticoagulant drug was discontinued 5 days before the surgery, and anticoagulation therapy transition was performed with LMWH, which was started 3 days before the surgery and was maintained for 4 days postoperatively. The preoperative dose of dalteparin administered was 200 IU/kg daily. On the day before the surgery, the patients received a dose of 100 IU/kg. In the postoperative period, warfarin was restarted on the first day after the surgery together with a dose of 200 IU/kg of dalteparin; patients at high risk for bleeding were administered a fixed dose of 5000 IU. The rate of thromboembolic events was 3.6% and that of bleeding was 6.7%. The authors concluded that the transition to LMWH was possible but that randomized and controlled studies were required to better define the strategy<sup>139</sup>.</p>
      <p>Further assessing the use of LMWH as anticoagulation bridging therapy, the PROSPECT study aimed to evaluate the safety of oral anticoagulation transition with a dose of 1.5 mg/kg of enoxaparin administered daily at home. This was a multicenter prospective cohort study with 260 patients with AF or VTE, and the primary outcome of the study was bleeding incidence. The rate of major bleeding observed in the study was 3.5%; however, analysis of bleeding risk according to the type of surgical procedure revealed that the bleeding rate was higher in the group of patients subjected to major surgeries (orthopedic, cardiovascular, and general surgeries) than in the group of patients subjected to minor procedures (20% vs. 0.7%)<sup>140</sup>.</p>
      <p>In 2009, a prospective cohort study analyzed patients who were on chronic oral anticoagulation therapy and were subjected to different regimens of anticoagulation bridging therapy in surgical procedures. Warfarin was discontinued 5 days before the surgery and LMWH was initiated (nadroparin or enoxaparin) 4 days before the surgery. The last dose of LMWH was administered at least 12 h before the surgery. Two strategies were adopted for anticoagulation therapy transition. The patients classified as being at high risk for thromboembolic events received bridging therapy with a full dose of LMWH twice daily. All the remaining patients classified as being at moderate or low risk received only a prophylactic dose of LMWH once daily. Of the 1,262 patients included in the study, 23.4% were considered as being at high risk for thromboembolic events and received transition therapy with a full dose of heparin, whereas 76.6% of patients received only a prophylactic dose of heparin. In terms of efficacy, only five cases of thromboembolic events occurred in the high-risk group, with an incidence of 0.4% (95% CI 0.1-0.9). The incidence of major bleeding, in this study was 1.2%, and it was higher in the high-risk group than in the moderate/low risk group (2.7% vs. 0.7%, <italic>p</italic> = 0.011). The rate of minor bleeding was 4.2% and more significant in the group of patients who received transition therapy with full dose heparin<sup>141</sup>.</p>
      <p>A pharmacoeconomics study that compared the cost of both regimens of perioperative anticoagulation transition therapy revealed that the use of LMWH was the best choice because its cost was lower than that of intravenous heparin, given the possibility of administering the drug outside the hospital, with a reduction in hospitalization costs<sup>77</sup>.</p>
      <p>In conclusion, the studies showed a preference for anticoagulation bridging therapy with LMWH because of its ease of administration, without the need for patient hospitalization and therefore lower cost. On the other hand, when the use of LMWH is contraindicated, UH remains the indicated therapy.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.5.1.3. Timing of heparin discontinuation before surgery</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There are no studies assessing the heparin discontinuation time in the preoperative period. The indication is mainly based on the half-life of heparin. Because of its short half-life, with elimination between 30 and 120 min, it is safe to discontinue UH between 4 and 6 h before the surgery<sup>131</sup>.</p>
      <p>With regard to LMWH, observational clinical studies revealed that discontinuation of LMWH 12 h before the surgery did not increase bleeding during surgery. However, studies that assessed the substitute outcomes such as anti-Xa level dosage revealed that &gt; 90% of patients who received the last dose of heparin 12 h before the surgery still exhibited the anticoagulating effect and &gt; 34% of patients maintained a therapeutic level of anticoagulation. These findings are the basis for the current indication for LMWH to be discontinued at least 24 h before the surgery<sup>131</sup>.</p>
      <p>For restarting LMWH in the postoperative period, the effectiveness of hemostasis and risk for bleeding should be taken into account. In surgeries with high risk for bleeding, the reintroduction of LMWH should be performed at least 24 h after the end of the surgery, ideally 48-72 h. In procedures with low or moderate risk for bleeding, reintroduction can be performed within 24 h after the surgery<sup>131</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab22-body2">Table 22</xref>).</p>
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      <p>
        <bold>9.5.2. Warfarin</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of anticoagulant agents in the perioperative period depends on the patient's risk for developing thromboembolic events when the agent is discontinued and on the bleeding risk if anticoagulation therapy is not interrupted. Discontinuation of the anticoagulant drug increases the risk for embolic phenomena, such as stroke and mechanical prosthesis thrombosis, and this risk varies according to the presence of other comorbidities and risk factors<sup>77,78,81,142</sup>. These events can lead to devastating clinical consequences: stroke leads to significant incapacity or death in 70% of patients; mechanical prosthesis thrombosis is fatal in 15% of patients<sup>77</sup>.</p>
      <p>Similar to cardiac surgery, according to risks for embolic events in the perioperative period and comorbidities, risk should be stratified into high, moderate, and low risk, according to the recommendations of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology in the II Perioperative Guideline (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab08-body2">Table 8</xref>)<sup>78</sup>.</p>
      <p>The recommendations for discontinuation of warfarin in the perioperative period are shown in the tables below. In the case of surgery with reintroduction of the drug, urgency/emergency, or need for rapid reversal of the effect of warfarin, the recommendations mentioned for cardiac surgery should be followed (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab23-body2">Table 23</xref>).</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.5.2.1. Procedures with low risk of bleeding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The following procedures are considered as exhibiting low risk for bleeding: cataract surgery, minor dermatological procedures, and dental procedures (e.g., hygiene, simple extraction, restoration, endodontic, and prosthetic procedures). In these cases, the recommendations in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab24-body2">Table 24</xref> should be followed.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_9tab24-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt63-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.5.3. Fondaparinux</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There are two double-blind randomized studies that assessed the efficacy of fondaparinux as preventive therapy in the perioperative period of general surgery. In the first study, fondaparinux was compared with dalteparin in patients at high risk for VTE undergoing abdominal surgery. In total, 2,927 randomized patients were selected from 131 centers in 22 countries. Fondaparinux was administered 6 h after the end of the surgery. The first dose of dalteparin (2,500 IU) was administered 2 h before the surgery and the second dose was administered 12 h after the end of the surgery. On subsequent days, the administered dose of dalteparin was 5,000 IU per day. The primary outcome of efficacy was the occurrence of VTE (symptomatic or symptomatic). The safety outcome adopted in the study was major bleeding. The rate of VTE was 4.6% in the fondaparinux group and 6.1% in the dalteparin group, with a 24.6% reduction in relative risk (95% CI 9.0-47.9); however, the difference was not statistically significant (<italic>p</italic> = 0.14). There was no statistically significant difference in bleeding between the two groups (3.4% in the fondaparinux group vs. 2.4% in the dalteparin group, <italic>p</italic> = 0.12). The results revealed that fondaparinux was not superior to dalteparin as prevention therapy in general surgery; however, analysis of noninferiority revealed that it was at least as effective as LMWH<sup>143</sup>.</p>
      <p>In another double-blind, randomized, and placebo-controlled study on intra-abdominal general surgery, patients were randomly assigned to receive prevention therapy with fondaparinux at a dose of 2.5 mg started between 6 and 8 h postoperatively in combination with intermittent pneumatic compression or intermittent pneumatic compression alone. The primary outcome was the occurrence of venous thromboembolic events at the 10th day after the surgery. In total, 1,309 patients were selected from 50 centers. The group of patients that received fondaparinux exhibited a lower rate of VTE (1.7% vs. 5.3%, RR 69.8%, 95% CI 27.9-87.3, <italic>p</italic> = 0.004). Moreover, fondaparinux reduced the rate of proximal PVT by 86.2% (<italic>p</italic> = 0.037); however, there was no difference in the rate of symptomatic VTE or mortality between the two groups. Major bleeding was 1.6% in the fondaparinux group and 0.2% in the control group (<italic>p</italic> = 0.006). Among the cases of bleeding, there was no fatal bleeding or critical organ. Most bleeding resulted from surgical wounds<sup>144</sup>.</p>
      <p>These studies revealed that fondaparinux is effective in perioperative thromboprophylaxis, both in general and orthopedic surgeries. However, its use is associated with higher risk for bleeding.</p>
      <p>In previous meta-analyses, thromboprophylaxis with UH was shown to be effective in the reduction of mortality<sup>145</sup>, whereas the use of LMWH did not produce the same results<sup>146</sup>. For analyzing the effect of fondaparinux on mortality in studies on VTE prevention, the following meta-analysis was performed. Eight randomized, double-blind, phase III studies were included, with a total of 13,085 patients. The studies focused on the prevention of TEV using fondaparinux at a dose of 2.5 mg daily compared with that using LMWH (in five studies) or a placebo (in three studies). The main objective of the study was to analyze the effect of fondaparinux on mortality at 30 days; day 1 was the day of randomization. Of the eight studies included in meta-analysis, seven were performed in a perioperative context (abdominal or orthopedic surgeries), with a total of 12,236 patients, and one was performed with medical patients. The first dose of fondaparinux in the surgical studies was administered 6 &#177; 2 h after the surgery and the second dose was administered at least 12 h after the first dose and 24 h before the end of the surgery. The results of meta-analysis revealed a 21% reduction in the risk for mortality in the group that received fondaparinux in comparison with the control group; however, the reduction was not statistically significant (1.6% vs. 2.1%, RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.6-1.01, <italic>p</italic> = 0.058). This result was consistent both when fondaparinux was compared with LMWH (fondaparinux 1.5% &#215; LMWH 1.9%, OR 0.78, 95% CI 0.58-1.06, <italic>p</italic> = 0.11) and with a placebo (2.0% vs. 2.6%, RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.46-1.26, <italic>p</italic> = 0.3). Thus, in the analyzed studies, fondaparinux did not have an effect on perioperative mortality<sup>147</sup>.</p>
      <p>Based on the previous meta-analysis, the authors analyzed of the association between the occurrence of bleeding and mortality at 30 days and identified the risk factors associated with the risk for bleeding. The risk factors identified as predictors of higher risk for bleeding were age, male gender, low weight, low CrCl, hip surgery or any type of surgery, absence of history of VTE, and treatment with fondaparinux. The mortality rate in the group with some type of bleeding was almost sevenfold higher than that in the group without bleeding (RR 6.83, 95% CI 4.57-10.22, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.001), regardless of the prevention therapy administered. This was the first study to establish a relationship between bleeding and increased mortality in studies on the prevention of VTE<sup>148</sup>.</p>
      <p>The results of these studies showed that fondaparinux is effective as a thromboprophylactic strategy in the perioperative period in noncardiac surgery. In these studies, fondaparinux was as effective as or more effective than LMWH. However, the use of fondaparinux is associated with a higher rate of nonfatal bleeding and therefore with the need for more blood transfusions in the perioperative period.</p>
      <p>No studies have assessed the use of fondaparinux as anticoagulation bridging therapy, probably because of its long half-life and risk for perioperative bleeding (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab25-body2">Table 25</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_9tab25-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt64-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.5.4. Dabigatran</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In patients with normal renal function, dabigatran can be discontinued 48 h before to ensure adequate hemostasis. In procedures with low risk for bleeding, dabigatran can be discontinued 24 h before the surgery. These procedures include catheterism, ablation, endoscopy, colonoscopy without polyp removal, simple laparoscopy, and small orthopedic surgical procedures<sup>100</sup>. In major elective surgical procedures in patients with normal renal function, it is recommended to discontinue the agent for 1-2 days<sup>100</sup>. In patients with compromised renal function, the discontinuation period should be longer<sup>101</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients with moderate renal impairment, patients aged &gt; 75 years, and those receiving amiodarone, it is recommended to reduce the standard dose to 150 mg/day (initial dose of 75 mg, followed by a standard dose of 150 mg, once daily)<sup>78</sup>.</p>
      <p>Precaution should be taken when the treatment is temporarily discontinued owing to interventions, and coagulation monitoring should be ensured. This should be taken into account in any procedure. A coagulation test can help determine whether hemostasis is still altered.</p>
      <p>In the case of an acute intervention, dabigatran should be temporarily discontinued and the surgery should be postponed until at least 12 h after the last dose<sup>100</sup>. If it is not possible to postpone the surgery, risks for hemorrhage should be weighed against the urgency of the surgery<sup>100</sup>.</p>
      <p>Reintroduction of medication exclusively depends on risks for postoperative bleeding<sup>100</sup>. In the case of abdominal urological surgery with incomplete hemostasis, the agent should only be reintroduced when there are no signs of active bleeding. In the case of small procedures with good hemostasis, the agent can be started between 4 and 6 h after the procedure and the use of a half dose (75 mg), followed by maintenance of the usual dose, is suggested<sup>100</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab26-body2">Table 26</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_9tab26-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt65-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.5.5. Rivaroxaban</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Discontinuation of the agent should follow the same recommendations indicated for dabigatran. However, the adequate discontinuation time is shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_9tab27-body2">Table 27</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_s03_9tab27-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-3suppl3-0001-3S009-gt66-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>In emergency situations where reversal of the anticoagulation effect of rivaroxaban is required, 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrates can be used at a dose of 50 UI/kg<sup>100</sup>. Other products such as plasma and cryoprecipitates do not reverse the anticoagulating effect of this agent<sup>100</sup>.</p>
      <p>With regard to reintroduction of the agent in the postoperative period, a strategy similar to that used for dabigatran can be used for rivaroxaban. The drug should be started at a dose of 10 mg (first dose), and following this, the usual dose should be maintained<sup>100</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>9.5.6. Apixaban</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Apixaban is one of the newest oral anticoagulant agents, and it has been shown to be effective and safe in the treatment of thromboembolism<sup>149</sup>. After an extensive literature review, most questions regarding the perioperative period could not be answered according to the class of recommendation and level of evidence because this agent has not yet been tested in clinical trials.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>2.4. Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
      </p>
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      <p content-type="ref-to-delete">26. ISIS-3: a randomised comparison of streptokinase <italic>versus</italic> tissue plasminogen activator <italic>versus</italic> anistreplase and of aspirin plus heparin <italic>versus</italic> aspirin alone among 41,299 cases of suspected acute myocardial infarction. ISIS-3 (Third International Study of Infarct Survival) Collaborative Group. Lancet. 1992;339(8796):753-70. </p>
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      <p>
        <bold>3.4. Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
      </p>
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      <p>149. Riva N, Donadim MP, Bozzato S, Ageno W. Novel oral anticoagulats for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in surgical patients. Thromb Res. 2013;131(Suppl 1):S67-70.      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>10. Specificities of antiplatelet and anticoagulant agents</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>10.1. Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In recent years, advances have been made with regard to the treatment of heart diseases, particularly acute coronary syndromes (ACS,) and more recently, in the prevention of thromboembolic phenomena in atrial fibrillation (AF). Recent studies and new evidence have shown that cardiologists are increasingly familiarized with the new drugs.</p>
      <p>The introduction of new antiplatelet and anticoagulant drugs makes it appropriate to study all the specificities of these agents and to review and update the older agents that are still in use in our daily practice.</p>
      <p>In this chapter, we aim to review the mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, therapeutic indications, precautions, contraindications, drug interactions, bleeding risk, and particularities of special groups to allow the reader to use these drugs with maximum efficacy and safety.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>10.2. Specificities of antiplatelet agents</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_10tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_10tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_10tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_10tab04a-body2">Table 4a</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_10tab04b-body2">Table 4b</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_10tab05-body2">Table 5</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_10tab06-body2">Table 6</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_10tab07-body2">Table 7</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_10tab08-body2">Table 8</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>10.3. Specificities of anticoagulant agents</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_11tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_11tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_11tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_11tab04-body2">Table 4</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_11tab05-body2">Table 5</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_11tab06-body2">Table 6</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_s03_11tab07-body2">Table 7</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing Address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</p>
          <p> Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 - Centro </p>
          <p> Rio de Janeiro - Postal Code: 20020-907</p>
          <p> e-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="scb@cardiol.br">scb@cardiol.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
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