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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">pwpqvJwvrmkrPT8T3bk59Jj</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2013003200004</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(13)10100600004</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20130204</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas entre pacientes com cardiopatia cong&#234;nita</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Trevisan</surname>
            <given-names>Patr&#237;cia</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zen</surname>
            <given-names>Tatiana Diehl</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rosa</surname>
            <given-names>Rafael Fabiano Machado</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Juliane Nascimento da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Koshiyama</surname>
            <given-names>Dayane Bohn</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paskulin</surname>
            <given-names>Giorgio Adriano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zen</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Ricardo Gazzola</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Patologia </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Materno Infantil Presidente Vargas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Gen&#233;tica Cl&#237;nica </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Complexo Hospitalar Santa Casa de Porto Alegre </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Gen&#233;tica Cl&#237;nica</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>101</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>30</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: As anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas (ACs) representam importante causa de cardiopatia cong&#234;nita (CC). OBJETIVO: Determinar a frequ&#234;ncia, os tipos e as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de ACs identificadas em uma amostra prospectiva e consecutiva de pacientes com CC. M&#201;TODO: Nossa amostra foi composta por pacientes com CC avaliados em sua primeira hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em uma unidade card&#237;aca de tratamento intensivo de um hospital pedi&#225;trico de refer&#234;ncia do sul do Brasil. Todos os pacientes foram submetidos &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e citogen&#233;tica, atrav&#233;s do cari&#243;tipo de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o. Os defeitos card&#237;acos foram classificados segundo Botto e cols. Na an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica utilizou-se o qui-quadrado, o teste exato de Fisher e odds ratio (p &lt; 0,05). RESULTADOS: Nossa amostra foi composta de 298 pacientes, 53,4% do sexo masculino, com idades variando de um dia a 14 anos. Anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas foram observadas em 50 pacientes (16,8%), sendo que 49 deles eram sindr&#244;micos. Quanto &#224;s ACs, 44 delas (88%) eram num&#233;ricas (40 pacientes com +21, dois com +18, um com triplo X e um com 45,X) e seis (12%) estruturais [dois pacientes com der(14;21), +21, um com i(21q), um com dup(17p), um com del(6p) e um com add(18p)]. O grupo de CCs mais associado a ACs foi o do defeito de septo atrioventricular. CONCLUS&#213;ES: ACs detectadas pelo cari&#243;tipo s&#227;o frequentes entre pacientes com CC. Assim, os profissionais - especialmente aqueles que trabalham em servi&#231;os de cardiologia pedi&#225;trica - devem estar cientes das implica&#231;&#245;es que a realiza&#231;&#227;o do cari&#243;tipo pode trazer, tanto para o diagn&#243;stico, tratamento e progn&#243;stico desses pacientes como para o seu aconselhamento gen&#233;tico.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Cardiopatias Cong&#234;nitas</kwd>
        <kwd>Aberra&#231;&#245;es Cromoss&#244;nicas</kwd>
        <kwd>Sindrome de Down</kwd>
        <kwd>Cari&#243;tipo</kwd>
        <kwd>Met&#225;fase</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>22</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>Anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas entre pacientes com cardiopatia cong&#234;nita</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Patr&#237;cia Trevisan<sup>I</sup>; Tatiana Diehl Zen<sup>I</sup>; Rafael Fabiano Machado Rosa<sup>I,II,III</sup>; Juliane Nascimento da Silva<sup>I</sup>; Dayane Bohn Koshiyama<sup>I</sup>; Giorgio Adriano Paskulin<sup>I,III</sup>; Paulo Ricardo Gazzola Zen<sup>I,III</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Patologia da Universidade Federal e Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Gen&#233;tica Cl&#237;nica, Hospital Materno-Infantil Presidente Vargas (HMIPV), Porto Alegre, RS, - Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>III</sup>Gen&#233;tica Cl&#237;nica, Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA) e Complexo Hospitalar Santa Casa de Porto Alegre (CHSCPA), Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO:</bold> As anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas (ACs) representam importante causa de cardiopatia cong&#234;nita (CC). </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Determinar a frequ&#234;ncia, os tipos e as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de ACs identificadas em uma amostra prospectiva e consecutiva de pacientes com CC. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODO:</bold> Nossa amostra foi composta por pacientes com CC avaliados em sua primeira hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em uma unidade card&#237;aca de tratamento intensivo de um hospital pedi&#225;trico de refer&#234;ncia do sul do Brasil. Todos os pacientes foram submetidos &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e citogen&#233;tica, atrav&#233;s do cari&#243;tipo de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o. Os defeitos card&#237;acos foram classificados segundo Botto e cols. Na an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica utilizou-se o qui-quadrado, o teste exato de Fisher e odds ratio (p &lt; 0,05). </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> Nossa amostra foi composta de 298 pacientes, 53,4% do sexo masculino, com idades variando de um dia a 14 anos. Anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas foram observadas em 50 pacientes (16,8%), sendo que 49 deles eram sindr&#244;micos. Quanto &#224;s ACs, 44 delas (88%) eram num&#233;ricas (40 pacientes com +21, dois com +18, um com triplo X e um com 45,X) e seis (12%) estruturais [dois pacientes com der(14;21), +21, um com i(21q), um com dup(17p), um com del(6p) e um com add(18p)]. O grupo de CCs mais associado a ACs foi o do defeito de septo atrioventricular. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#213;ES:</bold> ACs detectadas pelo cari&#243;tipo s&#227;o frequentes entre pacientes com CC. Assim, os profissionais - especialmente aqueles que trabalham em servi&#231;os de cardiologia pedi&#225;trica - devem estar cientes das implica&#231;&#245;es que a realiza&#231;&#227;o do cari&#243;tipo pode trazer, tanto para o diagn&#243;stico, tratamento e progn&#243;stico desses pacientes como para o seu aconselhamento gen&#233;tico.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Cardiopatias Cong&#234;nitas; Aberra&#231;&#245;es Cromoss&#244;nicas; Sindrome de Down; Cari&#243;tipo; Met&#225;fase</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As malforma&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas s&#227;o defeitos encontrados com incid&#234;ncia que varia de 4-50 por 1.000 nascimentos<sup>1,2</sup>. Elas s&#227;o definidas como um conjunto de altera&#231;&#245;es que acometem o cora&#231;&#227;o e os grandes vasos<sup>2</sup>. Dependendo do tipo e da severidade da altera&#231;&#227;o, os pacientes poder&#227;o necessitar de diferentes interven&#231;&#245;es<sup>3</sup>, sendo que a necessidade de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em unidades de tratamento intensivo &#233; frequente entre os mesmos<sup>4</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, estudos demonstram o grande impacto que os defeitos card&#237;acos cong&#234;nitos apresentam com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; mortalidade em crian&#231;as<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>A etiologia das malforma&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas ainda &#233; pouco compreendida<sup>6</sup>, sendo que sua determina&#231;&#227;o &#233; um fator bastante importante para o adequado manejo e tratamento dos pacientes. Entre as causas conhecidas de cardiopatia cong&#234;nita destacam-se as anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas<sup>7</sup>. Foi a partir da segunda metade do s&#233;culo XX, com o desenvolvimento de novas t&#233;cnicas de cultivo celular associadas &#224; utiliza&#231;&#227;o da colchicina e de solu&#231;&#245;es hipot&#244;nicas no tratamento das met&#225;fases, que a citogen&#233;tica, que &#233; o estudo dos cromossomos, difundiu-se. Em 1970, Caspersson e cols.<sup>8</sup> desenvolveram uma t&#233;cnica de colora&#231;&#227;o que proporcionou a identifica&#231;&#227;o mais precisa de cada cromossomo atrav&#233;s do seu padr&#227;o &#250;nico de regi&#245;es de colora&#231;&#227;o mais ou menos intensa (bandas). Al&#233;m disso, com o surgimento de t&#233;cnicas de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o cromoss&#244;mica por Yunis<sup>9</sup>, em 1981, os cromossomos puderam ser estudados em uma etapa mais precoce da mitose (pr&#243;-met&#225;fase), fazendo com que as bandas cromoss&#244;micas pudessem ser mais detalhadas<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>V&#225;rios estudos foram desenvolvidos nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, com o objetivo de avaliar a frequ&#234;ncia e os tipos de altera&#231;&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas identificadas atrav&#233;s do cari&#243;tipo entre pacientes com cardiopatia cong&#234;nita. Os &#237;ndices observados usualmente variam entre 3-18%. Contudo, esses trabalhos s&#227;o retrospectivos na sua maioria e baseados em bancos de dados<sup>3,6,11-22</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, chama a aten&#231;&#227;o a quase inexist&#234;ncia de estudos relacionados desenvolvidos na Am&#233;rica Latina<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>Assim, o nosso estudo teve como objetivo determinar a frequ&#234;ncia, os tipos e as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas identificadas atrav&#233;s do cari&#243;tipo de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o em uma amostra prospectiva e consecutiva de pacientes com cardiopatia cong&#234;nita.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Pacientes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nossa amostra foi composta pelos pacientes pertencentes aos estudos de Rosa e cols.<sup>23</sup> e Zen e cols.<sup>24</sup>. Eles consistiram em uma coorte prospectiva e consecutiva de pacientes com cardiopatia cong&#234;nita hospitalizados em uma unidade card&#237;aca de tratamento intensivo de um hospital pedi&#225;trico de refer&#234;ncia do sul do pa&#237;s. Foram inclu&#237;dos apenas aqueles pacientes em sua primeira hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. O per&#237;odo total de avalia&#231;&#227;o foi de 1,5 ano. Este estudo foi aprovado pelos Comit&#234;s de &#201;tica em Pesquisa do hospital e da universidade. Somente foram inclu&#237;dos pacientes cujos familiares consentiram em participar do estudo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Protocolo cl&#237;nico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para cada paciente foi preenchida uma ficha de avalia&#231;&#227;o por geneticistas cl&#237;nicos participantes do estudo. Isso foi realizado atrav&#233;s de entrevista direta com os familiares, revis&#227;o do prontu&#225;rio hospitalar e avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica dos pacientes. Em nosso estudo, foram utilizados dados gerais, como sexo, idade dos pacientes, motivo da interna&#231;&#227;o, proced&#234;ncia e aspecto sindr&#244;mico. Quanto &#224; proced&#234;ncia, os pacientes foram divididos em procedentes de Porto Alegre (cidade onde foi desenvolvido o estudo), Grande Porto Alegre, restante do Rio Grande do Sul e outros estados. O diagn&#243;stico sindr&#244;mico foi realizado antes do resultado da an&#225;lise citogen&#233;tica e definido com base exclusivamente no exame f&#237;sico, levando-se em considera&#231;&#227;o tanto dados quantitativos (n&#250;mero de dismorfias menores e maiores) quanto qualitativos (tipos e padr&#227;o das dismorfias, presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#245;es neurol&#243;gicas)<sup>25</sup>.</p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico cardiol&#243;gico foi obtido a partir dos resultados dos exames ecocardiogr&#225;ficos, cirurgia e/ou cateterismo card&#237;aco. As cardiopatias cong&#234;nitas foram ent&#227;o definidas e classificadas de acordo com Botto e cols.<sup>26</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, as cardiopatias cong&#234;nitas foram classificadas em complexas e cian&#243;ticas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estudo citogen&#233;tico atrav&#233;s do cari&#243;tipo de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Uma amostra de sangue foi coletada de cada paciente, sendo realizado o cari&#243;tipo de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o (<underline>&gt;</underline> 550 bandas) conforme a t&#233;cnica modificada de Yunis<sup>9</sup>. Essa t&#233;cnica, diferentemente do cari&#243;tipo convencional, permite que os cromossomos possam ser analisados em uma etapa mais precoce da mitose, na pr&#243;-met&#225;fase, quando os cromossomos est&#227;o menos condensados. Assim, ela permite a melhor identifica&#231;&#227;o de anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas estruturais menores, como pequenas dele&#231;&#245;es. Em resumo, essa t&#233;cnica se baseia no procedimento de cultivo celular de linf&#243;citos estimulados com fito-hemaglutinina por 72 horas, sincroniza&#231;&#227;o com o uso de metotrexato/timidina e colora&#231;&#227;o por bandamento GTG. A an&#225;lise das l&#226;minas para cada caso foi realizada em microsc&#243;pio Axioskop Zeiss utilizando uma contagem de 25 placas metaf&#225;sicas, a qual exclui um grau de mosaicismo de at&#233; 12% para limite de confian&#231;a de 95%<sup>27</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O processamento e a an&#225;lise dos dados foram realizados atrav&#233;s dos programas SPSS para Windows (vers&#227;o 18.0), Microsoft<sup>&#174;</sup> Excel 2002 e PEPI (vers&#227;o 4.0). Os testes estat&#237;sticos utilizados foram o qui-quadrado e o teste exato de Fisher bicaudado, para compara&#231;&#227;o de frequ&#234;ncias, e o <italic>odds ratio</italic> para avaliar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre defeitos card&#237;acos e anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas. Foram considerados como significantes valores de p &lt; 0,05.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Dados gerais da amostra</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em um per&#237;odo de um ano e seis meses, 333 pacientes portadores de cardiopatia cong&#234;nita preencheram o crit&#233;rio de inclus&#227;o no estudo. Por&#233;m, 31 deles n&#227;o participaram do mesmo, por terem ido a &#243;bito (n = 12) ou por terem tido alta hospitalar antes da aplica&#231;&#227;o do termo de consentimento informado (n = 4), ou porque os pais n&#227;o consentiram em participar (n = 15). Dos 302 pacientes com consentimento, o cari&#243;tipo foi realizado com sucesso em 298, sendo que estes compuseram a nossa amostra final. Desses 298 pacientes, 159 (53,4%) eram do sexo masculino, com idade variando de um dia de vida at&#233; 14 anos, sendo que pouco mais da metade (58,7%) encontrava-se no primeiro ano de vida. O principal motivo de interna&#231;&#227;o foi a cirurgia card&#237;aca (76,2%); entre os demais pacientes, cerca de metade ali estava para avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiol&#243;gica e metade para realiza&#231;&#227;o de cateterismo card&#237;aco. </p>
    <p>Quanto &#224; proced&#234;ncia, 13,8% eram de Porto Alegre, 21,1% da Grande Porto Alegre, 55% do restante do Rio Grande do Sul e 10,1% de outros estados. Quanto ao exame f&#237;sico, 29,5% dos pacientes foram classificados como sindr&#244;micos. Destes, 70,5% possu&#237;am fen&#243;tipo de uma s&#237;ndrome cl&#225;ssica.</p>
    <p>Os tipos anat&#244;micos de malforma&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca observados encontram-se expostos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5405tab01">Tabela 1</xref>. Comunica&#231;&#227;o interventricular (CIV) e interatrial (CIA) foram as altera&#231;&#245;es mais frequentes, observadas cada uma em 14,8% dos casos. Segundo a classifica&#231;&#227;o de Botto e cols.<sup>26</sup>, o principal grupo de defeitos card&#237;acos observado foi o septal (29,5% - <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5405tab01">Tabela 1</xref>). Cardiopatia complexa foi observada em 34,6% dos casos, e cian&#243;tica, em 35,2%.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5405tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-06-30204-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Altera&#231;&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas foram observadas em 50 indiv&#237;duos (16,8%), sendo a trissomia livre do cromossomo 21 a mais frequente delas (n = 40). Dos demais casos, quatro apresentavam altera&#231;&#245;es num&#233;ricas, e seis, altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop_5405fig01">Figura 1</xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5405tab01">Tabelas 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5405tab02">2</xref>). Apesar de a maioria dos pacientes com altera&#231;&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas ser origin&#225;ria do interior do estado, n&#227;o verificamos diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante (p = 0,998) quando avaliamos a presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o dessas altera&#231;&#245;es em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; proced&#234;ncia.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="aop_5405fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-06-30204-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5405tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-06-30204-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>A maioria dos pacientes com anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas foi hospitalizada na UTI para realiza&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia card&#237;aca (76,2%) e avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiol&#243;gica (11,7%). As principais caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas dos 50 pacientes com altera&#231;&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas encontram-se expostas nas<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5405tab01"> Tabelas 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5405tab02">2</xref>. Segundo a classifica&#231;&#227;o de Botto e cols.<sup>26</sup>, o grupo de defeitos card&#237;acos de nossa amostra mais associado a altera&#231;&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas foi o do defeito de septo atrioventricular (66,7%, OR: 16,929; IC95%: 7,434-38,55; p &lt; 0,001). As malforma&#231;&#245;es septais foram frequentes (19,3%), contudo, n&#227;o chegaram a apresentar associa&#231;&#227;o estatisticamente significante (OR: 1,284; IC95%: 0,673-2,452; p = 0,448). Os grupos dos defeitos card&#237;acos obstrutivos direitos e esquerdos, por outro lado, apresentaram associa&#231;&#227;o inversa, ou seja, foram estatisticamente n&#227;o associados a altera&#231;&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas. Quando se avaliaram os tipos anat&#244;micos pertencentes aos grupos classificados conforme Botto e cols.<sup>26</sup>, de forma separada, verificou-se que os defeitos de septo atrioventricular (66,7%; OR: 16,929; IC95%: 7,434-38,55; p &lt; 0,001) e os defeitos de septo ventricular (31,8%; OR: 2,826; IC95%: 1,368-5,839; p = 0,005) foram os mais associados com as anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop_5405fig02">Figura 2</xref>). Todos os casos de altera&#231;&#227;o cromoss&#244;mica associados ao defeito de septo atrioventricular foram compostos de pacientes com s&#237;ndrome de Down. Por outro lado, a D-transposi&#231;&#227;o das grandes art&#233;rias foi estatisticamente n&#227;o associada a altera&#231;&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas (nenhum dos casos desse defeito era portador da mesma; p = 0,0310 - <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5405tab01">Tabela 1</xref>). Ao exame f&#237;sico, 49 dos 50 pacientes com anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas foram considerados sindr&#244;micos (somente a paciente com triplo X era n&#227;o sindr&#244;mica - <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5405tab01">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="aop_5405fig02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-06-30204-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em nossa revis&#227;o da literatura, utilizando os bancos de dados PubMed e SciELO identificamos 14 estudos similares ao nosso, que avaliaram a frequ&#234;ncia e os tipos de anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas identificadas atrav&#233;s do cari&#243;tipo entre pacientes com cardiopatia cong&#234;nita<sup>3,6,11-22</sup>. Estudos como o de Schellberg e cols.<sup>28</sup>, que exclu&#237;ram pacientes com altera&#231;&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas frequentes (como a trissomia do cromossomo 21) da amostra, n&#227;o foram inclu&#237;dos na nossa an&#225;lise. A grande maioria dos estudos similares foi desenvolvida nos Estados Unidos e na Europa. Apenas um deles (Amorim e cols.<sup>20</sup>) foi realizado na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Brasil. Contudo, chama a aten&#231;&#227;o que, diferentemente de n&#243;s, a maior parte dos estudos (incluindo o de Amorim e cols.<sup>20</sup>) foi realizada de forma retrospectiva, a partir, principalmente, de bancos de dados. Devido a isso, em muitos estudos o cari&#243;tipo n&#227;o foi realizado de forma padronizada (a sua testagem muitas vezes pareceu se limitar, principalmente, &#224;queles casos com suspeita de anormalidade cromoss&#244;mica)<sup>12,18</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, o nosso estudo foi o &#250;nico no qual um geneticista examinou e realizou a classifica&#231;&#227;o sindr&#244;mica dos pacientes com base nos dados do exame f&#237;sico e dismorfol&#243;gico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5405tab02">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
    <p>A frequ&#234;ncia das cromossomopatias identificadas atrav&#233;s do cari&#243;tipo em nosso estudo (16,8%) foi similar &#224; dos trabalhos de Ferencz e cols.<sup>11</sup>, Pradat<sup>13</sup>, Harris e cols.<sup>19</sup> e Amorim e cols.<sup>20</sup>, que encontraram &#237;ndices de 12,9-23,1%. Diferen&#231;as significativas foram verificadas em rela&#231;&#227;o aos trabalhos de Stoll e cols.<sup>12</sup>, Hanna e cols.<sup>14</sup>, Goodship e cols.<sup>15</sup>, Grech e Gatt<sup>3</sup>, Meberg e cols.<sup>16</sup>, Roodpeyma e cols.<sup>6</sup>, Bosi e cols.<sup>17</sup>, Calzolari e cols.<sup>18</sup>, Dadvand e cols.<sup>21</sup> e Hartman e cols.<sup>22</sup>, que apresentaram &#237;ndices de 3-12,1% (p &lt; 0,05). Estes se caracterizaram por possuir amostras distintas, tanto pelo n&#250;mero como pelas caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de seus pacientes. Em nossa amostra, a frequ&#234;ncia de anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas n&#227;o diferiu quanto &#224; proced&#234;ncia dos pacientes, sugerindo que talvez n&#227;o tenha havido uma sele&#231;&#227;o associada &#224;s cromossomopatias. Isto &#233;, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre a frequ&#234;ncia de pacientes com altera&#231;&#227;o grave advinda da capital em rela&#231;&#227;o ao interior do estado.</p>
    <p>A s&#237;ndrome de Down, especialmente atrav&#233;s da trissomia livre do cromossomo 21, foi a anormalidade cromoss&#244;mica mais observada em nossa s&#233;rie de pacientes (14,4%), o que &#233; concordante com a literatura. A trissomia livre do cromossomo 18 constituiu a segunda altera&#231;&#227;o mais frequente e recorrente entre os pacientes com cardiopatia cong&#234;nita. Outra condi&#231;&#227;o frequentemente descrita nos estudos, mas ausente em nossa amostra, foi a trissomia do cromossomo 13<sup>11-13,16-22</sup>. Quanto &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais, somente a dele&#231;&#227;o do bra&#231;o curto do cromossomo 6 foi observada tamb&#233;m em outro estudo<sup>22</sup>. O paciente com duplica&#231;&#227;o do bra&#231;o curto do cromossomo 17 foi descrito em detalhes por Paskulin e cols.<sup>29</sup>. A frequ&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais observada em nossa amostra (12%) foi similar &#224; da maioria dos demais estudos (4,2-16,7%), diferindo apenas em rela&#231;&#227;o a Ferencz e cols.<sup>11</sup> que encontrou frequ&#234;ncia inferior (4,4%). Chama a aten&#231;&#227;o que esse estudo foi o mais antigo, desenvolvido no in&#237;cio da d&#233;cada de 1980, em uma &#233;poca em que a t&#233;cnica de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o estava sendo descrita<sup>10</sup>. Em nossa s&#233;rie, apesar da contagem de 25 placas metaf&#225;sicas (a qual exclui grau de mosaicismo de at&#233; 12% para um limite de confian&#231;a de 95%)<sup>27</sup>, n&#227;o observamos casos de mosaicismo. Estes foram descritos em baixa frequ&#234;ncia apenas nos estudos de Goodship e cols.<sup>15</sup> e Hartman e cols.<sup>22</sup>. Apesar disso, a frequ&#234;ncia total de altera&#231;&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas foi inferior &#224; de nosso estudo.</p>
    <p>Quanto &#224; rela&#231;&#227;o das cromossomopatias com os tipos de defeitos card&#237;acos, observamos, de acordo com Botto e cols.<sup>26</sup> uma associa&#231;&#227;o bastante significativa com o defeito do septo atrioventricular, &#224; custa, principalmente, dos pacientes com s&#237;ndrome de Down (nossa frequ&#234;ncia foi de 66,7%). Esse achado &#233; concordante com a literatura, que descreve &#237;ndices de 40-50%<sup>30</sup>. Assim, quando estamos diante de um paciente com defeito de septo atrioventricular, existe grande probabilidade (que chega a ser de cerca de um em dois) de que ele tenha s&#237;ndrome de Down. </p>
    <p>Chamou-nos a aten&#231;&#227;o a aus&#234;ncia de associa&#231;&#227;o de cromossomopatias com alguns grupos de defeitos, no caso, obstrutivos direitos e esquerdos (que incluem defeitos como a estenose pulmonar e a coarcta&#231;&#227;o de aorta). Isoladamente, observamos isso apenas em rela&#231;&#227;o a um defeito de via de sa&#237;da, a D-transposi&#231;&#227;o das grandes art&#233;rias. Apesar de n&#227;o termos observado associa&#231;&#227;o entre cromossomopatias e defeitos septais, separadamente encontramos uma rela&#231;&#227;o com defeitos do septo ventricular. Na literatura, anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas foram descritas em cerca de 4,6-18,2% dos pacientes com defeitos do septo ventricular<sup>11,18,19</sup> e, em nossa amostra, essa frequ&#234;ncia foi de 31,8%. </p>
    <p>Apesar de o nosso estudo ser o &#250;nico a ter descri&#231;&#227;o de classifica&#231;&#227;o sindr&#244;mica por um geneticista cl&#237;nico, com base apenas nos achados do exame f&#237;sico dismorfol&#243;gico dos pacientes, nossa frequ&#234;ncia de pacientes s&#237;ndr&#244;micos (29,5%) foi similar &#224; descrita por Calzolari e cols.<sup>18</sup> e Amorim e cols.<sup>20</sup>. Diferentemente do nosso, nesses estudos os pacientes foram retrospectivamente divididos em sindr&#244;micos ou n&#227;o, ap&#243;s o conhecimento do resultado da avalia&#231;&#227;o cariot&#237;pica e da presen&#231;a de outras anormalidades em &#243;rg&#227;os internos. Altera&#231;&#245;es cromoss&#244;micas s&#227;o frequentes entre indiv&#237;duos sindr&#244;micos. Em nossa amostra, somente um dos 50 pacientes com anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas foi considerado n&#227;o sindr&#244;mico, sendo um indiv&#237;duo com triplo X. Esse achado &#233; condizente com a literatura, uma vez que indiv&#237;duos com triplo X muitas vezes passam despercebidos em meio &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, pois usualmente n&#227;o apresentam achados maiores associados. Em nosso caso, n&#227;o podemos descartar a possibilidade de que a associa&#231;&#227;o com cardiopatia cong&#234;nita possa ter sido mera coincid&#234;ncia, uma vez que ambas as condi&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o relativamente frequentes (o triplo X ocorre em um em 1.000 nascidos vivos do sexo feminino)<sup>31</sup>. </p>
    <p>Apesar dos avan&#231;os ocorridos na citogen&#233;tica nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, com o desenvolvimento de t&#233;cnicas moleculares, como a hibridiza&#231;&#227;o <italic>in situ</italic> fluorescente (FISH) e a hibridiza&#231;&#227;o gen&#244;mica comparativa (CGH), o cari&#243;tipo continua sendo uma ferramenta fundamental e b&#225;sica dentro da avalia&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica<sup>10</sup>. Em nosso meio, ele constitui um dos poucos exames dispon&#237;veis para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes atendidos pelo Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de, o sistema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blico do Brasil. Apesar de suas limita&#231;&#245;es na detec&#231;&#227;o de pequenos rearranjos cromoss&#244;micos, como microdele&#231;&#245;es ou microduplica&#231;&#245;es, &#233; marcante a frequ&#234;ncia de anormalidades cromoss&#244;micas detectadas atrav&#233;s do cari&#243;tipo entre pacientes portadores de cardiopatia cong&#234;nita. Assim, os profissionais, especialmente aqueles que trabalham em servi&#231;os de cardiologia pedi&#225;trica, devem estar cientes das implica&#231;&#245;es que a realiza&#231;&#227;o do cari&#243;tipo pode trazer, tanto para o diagn&#243;stico, tratamento e progn&#243;stico desses pacientes como para o aconselhamento gen&#233;tico de suas fam&#237;lias.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Agradecimentos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Agradecemos &#224; Coordena&#231;&#227;o de Aperfei&#231;oamento de Pessoal de N&#237;vel Superior (Capes) e ao Programa de Inicia&#231;&#227;o Cient&#237;fica da Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre (PIC-UFCSPA) pelas bolsas de estudo recebidas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados, An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados, An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica, Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Trevisan P, Zen TD, Rosa RFM, da Silva JN, Koshiyama DB, Paskulin GA, Zen PRG; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual: Trevisan P, Rosa RFM, Paskulin GA, Zen PRG.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela CAPES e PIC-UFCSPA.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Patr&#237;cia Trevisan, Rafael Fabiano Machado Rosa e Paulo Ricardo Gazzola Zen pela Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Paulo Ricardo Gazzola Zen </p>
        <p> Rua Sarmento Leite, 245/403, Centro </p>
        <p> CEP 90050 170, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="paulozen@ufcspa.edu.br">paulozen@ufcspa.edu.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 30/1/13; revisado em 19/6/13; aceito em 24/6/13.</p>
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          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B31">
        <mixed-citation>31. Jones KL. Smith's recognizable patterns of human malformation. 6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2006.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="book">
          <source>Smith's recognizable patterns of human malformation</source>
          <date>
            <year>2006</year>
          </date>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Jones</surname>
              <given-names>KL</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Chromosomal abnormalities in patients with congenital heart disease</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Chromosomal abnormalities (CAs) are an important cause of congenital heart disease (CHD). OBJECTIVE: Determine the frequency, types and clinical characteristics of CAs identified in a sample of prospective and consecutive patients with CHD. METHOD: Our sample consisted of patients with CHD evaluated during their first hospitalization in a cardiac intensive care unit of a pediatric referral hospital in Southern Brazil. All patients underwent clinical and cytogenetic assessment through high-resolution karyotype. CHDs were classified according to Botto et al. Chi-square, Fisher exact test and odds ratio were used in the statistical analysis (p &lt; 0.05). RESULTS: Our sample consisted of 298 patients, 53.4% males, with age ranging from 1 day to 14 years. CAs were observed in 50 patients (16.8%), and 49 of them were syndromic. As for the CAs, 44 (88%) were numeric (40 patients with +21, 2 with +18, 1 with triple X and one with 45,X) and 6 (12%) structural [2 patients with der(14,21), +21, 1 with i(21q), 1 with dup(17p), 1 with del(6p) and 1 with add(18p)]. The group of CHDs more often associated with CAs was atrioventricular septal defect. CONCLUSIONS: CAs detected through karyotyping are frequent in patients with CHD. Thus, professionals, especially those working in Pediatric Cardiology Services, must be aware of the implications that performing the karyotype can bring to the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis and for genetic counseling of patients and families.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Heart Defects</kwd>
        <kwd>Congenital</kwd>
        <kwd>Chromosome Aberrations</kwd>
        <kwd>Down Syndrome</kwd>
        <kwd>Karyotype</kwd>
        <kwd>Metaphase</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="enda-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Chromosomal abnormalities in patients with congenital heart disease</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Patr&#237;cia Trevisan<sup>I</sup>; Tatiana Diehl Zen<sup>I</sup>; Rafael Fabiano Machado Rosa<sup>I,II,III</sup>; Juliane Nascimento da Silva<sup>I</sup>; Dayane Bohn Koshiyama<sup>I</sup>; Giorgio Adriano Paskulin<sup>I,III</sup>; Paulo Ricardo Gazzola Zen<sup>I,III</sup></bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Patologia da Universidade Federal e Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre, RS</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Gen&#233;tica Cl&#237;nica, Hospital Materno-Infantil Presidente Vargas (HMIPV), Porto Alegre, RS</p>
      <p><sup>III</sup>Gen&#233;tica Cl&#237;nica, Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA) e Complexo Hospitalar Santa Casa de Porto Alegre (CHSCPA), Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND:</bold> Chromosomal abnormalities (CAs) are an important cause of congenital heart disease (CHD).</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE:</bold> Determine the frequency, types and clinical characteristics of CAs identified in a sample of prospective and consecutive patients with CHD.</p>
      <p><bold>METHOD:</bold> Our sample consisted of patients with CHD evaluated during their first hospitalization in a cardiac intensive care unit of a pediatric referral hospital in Southern Brazil. All patients underwent clinical and cytogenetic assessment through high-resolution karyotype. CHDs were classified according to Botto et al. Chi-square, Fisher exact test and odds ratio were used in the statistical analysis (p &lt; 0.05).</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> Our sample consisted of 298 patients, 53.4% males, with age ranging from 1 day to 14 years. CAs were observed in 50 patients (16.8%), and 49 of them were syndromic. As for the CAs, 44 (88%) were numeric (40 patients with +21, 2 with +18, 1 with triple X and one with 45,X) and 6 (12%) structural [2 patients with der(14,21), +21, 1 with i(21q), 1 with dup(17p), 1 with del(6p) and 1 with add(18p)]. The group of CHDs more often associated with CAs was atrioventricular septal defect.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSIONS:</bold> CAs detected through karyotyping are frequent in patients with CHD. Thus, professionals, especially those working in Pediatric Cardiology Services, must be aware of the implications that performing the karyotype can bring to the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis and for genetic counseling of patients and families.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Heart Defects, Congenital; Chromosome Aberrations; Down Syndrome; Karyotype; Metaphase.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The incidence of congenital heart defects ranges from 4-50 per 1,000 births<sup>1,2</sup>. They are defined as a group of alterations that affect the heart and great vessels<sup>2</sup>. Depending on the type and severity of the alteration, patients may require different interventions<sup>3</sup>, and the need for intensive care unit (ICU) admission is frequently observed<sup>4</sup>. Furthermore, studies have shown the great impact that congenital heart defects have on mortality in children<sup>5</sup>. </p>
      <p>The etiology of cardiac malformations is still little understood<sup>6</sup> and their determination is a very important factor for adequate patient management and treatment. Among the known causes of congenital heart disease, chromosomal abnormalities are highlighted<sup>7</sup>. It was from the second half of the twentieth century, with the development of new cell culture techniques associated with the use of colchicine and hypotonic solutions in the treatment of metaphases, that cytogenetics, i.e., is the study of chromosomes, disseminated. </p>
      <p>In 1970, Caspersson et al<sup>8</sup> developed a staining technique that yielded a more precise identification of each chromosome through its unique more or less intense region staining patterns (bands). Moreover, with the emergence of high-resolution chromosome analysis by Yunis<sup>9</sup>, in 1981, chromosomes could be investigated at an early stage of mitosis (prometaphase), allowing chromosomal bands to be more detailed<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>Several studies have been developed in recent decades, aiming to evaluate the frequency and types of chromosomal abnormalities identified through karyotype in patients with congenital heart disease. The observed rates usually range from 3-18%. However, these studies are mostly retrospective and based on databases<sup>3,6,11-22</sup>. Moreover, it is noteworthy the virtual lack of studies carried out in Latin America<sup>20</sup>. </p>
      <p>Thus, our study aimed to determine the frequency, type and clinical characteristics of chromosomal abnormalities identified by high-resolution karyotype in a prospective and consecutive sample of patients with congenital heart disease.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Patients</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Our sample consisted of patients from to the studies by Rosa et al<sup>23</sup> and Zen et al<sup>24</sup>. They comprised a prospective and consecutive cohort of patients with congenital heart disease hospitalized in the ICU of a pediatric referral hospital in southern Brazil. Only those patients at their first hospitalization were included. The total evaluation period was 1.5 year. This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the hospital and the university. We only included patients whose families agreed to participate in the study. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Clinical protocol</bold>
      </p>
      <p>An evaluation form was completed by clinical geneticists for each subject participating in the study. This was accomplished through direct interviews with family members, review of hospital records and clinical evaluation of patients. In our study, we used general data such as gender, patient age, reason for admission, origin and syndromic appearance. As for origin, the patients were divided into those who came from Porto Alegre (the city where the study was carried out), Porto Alegre suburbs, from other cities in the state of Rio Grande South and other states.</p>
      <p>The syndromic diagnosis was made before the results of cytogenetic analysis and was defined solely on physical examination, taking into account both quantitative (number of minor and major anomalies) and qualitative (types and pattern of dysmorphic features, presence of neurological alterations) data<sup>25</sup>. The cardiac diagnosis was obtained from the results of echocardiographic examinations, surgery and/or cardiac catheterization. Congenital heart defects were then defined and classified according to Botto et al<sup>26</sup>. Furthermore, congenital heart defects were classified as complex and cyanotic. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cytogenetic study through high-resolution karyotype</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A blood sample was collected from each patient, and high-resolution karyotype (<underline>&gt;</underline> 550 bands) was performed according to the modified technique of Yunis<sup>9</sup>. This technique, unlike conventional karyotyping, allows the chromosomes to be analyzed at a very early stage of mitosis, in prometaphase, when chromosomes are less condensed. Thus, it allows better identification of minor structural chromosomal abnormalities, such as small deletions. In summary, this technique is based on the procedure of cell culture of lymphocytes stimulated with phytohemagglutinin for 72 hours, synchronization with methotrexate/thymidine and GTG-banding staining. The analysis of the slides in each case was performed in an Axioskop Zeiss microscope using a count of 25 metaphase plates, which excludes a degree of mosaicism of up to 12% for a 95% confidence level<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Statistical Analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Data processing and analysis were performed using SPSS for Windows (release 18.0), Microsoft <sup>&#174;</sup> Excel 2002 and PEPI (release 4.0). The statistical analysis used the chi-square and Fisher's exact two-tailed tests for comparison of frequencies, and odds ratios to assess the association between cardiac defects and chromosomal abnormalities. Values were considered significant when p &lt; 0.05.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>General sample data</bold>
      </p>
      <p>During a period of one year and six months, 333 patients with congenital heart disease met the criteria for inclusion in the study. However, 31 of them did not participate in the study, due to death (n = 12) or because they had been discharged prior to the application of informed consent (n = 4), or because their parents did not agree to participate (n = 15). Of 302 patients with consent, the karyotype was successfully performed in 298, and these comprised our final sample. Of these 298 patients, 159 (53.4%) were males, ranging in age from one day to 14 years of age, with just over half of them (58.7%) in the first year of life. The main reason for admission was cardiac surgery (76.2%); among the remaining patients, about half was there for cardiac evaluation and half for cardiac catheterization. </p>
      <p>As for the origin, 13.8% were from the city of Porto Alegre, 21.1% were from the city suburbs, 55% were from other cities in the state of Rio Grande do Sul and 10.1% were from other states. As for the physical examination, 29.5% of patients were classified as syndromic. Of these, 70.5% had a classic syndrome phenotype.</p>
      <p>The anatomical types of cardiac malformation observed are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5405tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>. Ventricular (VSD) and atrial (ASD) septal defect were the most frequent alterations, each observed in 14.8% of cases. According to the classification of Botto et al<sup>26</sup>, the main group of observed cardiac alterations was septal defects (29.5% - <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5405tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>). Complex heart disease was observed in 34.6% of cases, and cyanotic disease, in 35.2%. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop5405tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-06-30204-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Chromosomal alterations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Chromosomal abnormalities were observed in 50 subjects (16.8%) and the full trisomy of chromosome 21 was the most frequent of them (n = 40). Of the remaining cases, four had numerical and six structural abnormalities (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop5405fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5405tab01-body2">Tables 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5405tab02-body2">2</xref>). Although most patients with chromosomal abnormalities were from the countryside of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, there was no statistically significant difference (p = 0.998) when evaluating the presence or absence of these alterations regarding patient origin. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop5405fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-06-30204-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop5405tab02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-06-30204-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Most patients with chromosomal abnormalities were admitted at the ICU for cardiac surgery (76.2%) and cardiac evaluation (11.7%). The main clinical characteristics of the 50 patients with chromosomal abnormalities are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5405tab01-body2">Tables 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5405tab02-body2">2</xref>. According to the classification by Botto et al<sup>26</sup>, the group of heart defects in our sample more often associated with chromosomal abnormalities was atrioventricular septal defect (66.7%, OR: 16.929, 95% CI: 7.434 to 38.55, p &lt; 0.001). Septal malformations were frequent (19.3%); however, they did not show a statistically significant association (OR: 1.284, 95% CI: 0.673 to 2.452, p = 0.448). Right and left obstructive cardiac defects, on the other hand, showed an inverse association, i.e., they were statistically not associated with chromosomal abnormalities. </p>
      <p>When evaluating anatomic types belonging to the groups classified according to Botto et al<sup>26</sup> separately, it was observed that the atrioventricular septal defects (66.7%, OR = 16.929, 95% CI: 7.434 to 38.55, p &lt; 0.001) and ventricular septal defects (31.8%; OR: 2.826, 95% CI: 1.368 to 5.839, p = 0.005) were more often associated with chromosomal abnormalities (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop5405fig02-body2">Figure 2</xref>). All cases of chromosomal alteration associated with atrioventricular septal defect consisted of patients with Down syndrome. On the other hand, D-transposition of the great arteries was statistically not associated with chromosomal abnormalities (none of the cases with this defect had the latter, p = 0.0310 - <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5405tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>). On physical examination, 49 of 50 patients with chromosomal abnormalities were considered syndromic (only the patient with triple X was nonsyndromic - <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5405tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>). </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop5405fig02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-06-30204-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In our review of the literature using the PubMed and SciELO databases, we identified 14 studies similar to ours, which evaluated the frequency and types of chromosomal abnormalities identified through karyotype in patients with congenital heart disease<sup>3,6,11-22</sup>. Studies such as the one by Schellberg et al<sup>28</sup>, which excluded patients with frequent chromosomal alterations (such as trisomy 21) from the sample, were not included in our analysis. The vast majority of similar studies were developed in the United States and Europe. Only one (by Amorim et al<sup>20</sup>) was carried out in Latin America and Brazil. However, it is noteworthy that, unlike us, most studies (including the one by Amorim et al<sup>20</sup>) were performed retrospectively, based mainly on databases. Due to this fact, the karyotype was not performed in a standardized way in many studies (the testing often appeared to be limited primarily to the cases with suspected chromosomal abnormality)<sup>12,18</sup>. Furthermore, our study was the only one in which a geneticist assessed and carried out the syndromic classification of patients based on data from the physical and dysmorphologic assessment (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5405tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>). </p>
      <p>The frequency of chromosomal abnormalities identified through karyotyping in our study (16.8%) was similar to that found in the studies of Ferencz et al<sup>11</sup>, Pradat<sup>13</sup>, Harris et al<sup>19</sup> and Amorim et al<sup>20</sup>, who found rates of 12.9-23.1%. Significant differences were observed in relation to the work of Stoll et al<sup>12</sup>, Hanna et al<sup>14</sup>, Goodship et al<sup>15</sup>, Grech and Gatt<sup>3</sup>, Meberg et al<sup>16</sup>, Roodpeyma et al<sup>6</sup>, Bosi et al<sup>17</sup>, Calzolari et al<sup>18</sup> Dadvand et al<sup>21</sup> and Hartman et al<sup>22</sup>, who found rates of 3-12.1% (p &lt; 0.05). These were characterized by having distinct samples, both regarding the number and the clinical characteristics of their patients. In our sample, the frequency of chromosomal abnormalities did not differ regarding the origin of patients, suggesting that perhaps there was no selection associated with chromosomal abnormalities. That is, there was no difference between the frequency of patients with severe alterations that came from the city capital compared to those that came from the countryside of the state. </p>
      <p>Down syndrome, especially in individuals with full trisomy of chromosome 21, was the most frequently observed chromosomal abnormality in our series of patients (14.4%), which is consistent with the literature. The full trisomy of chromosome 18 was the second most frequent one and recurrent among patients with congenital heart disease. Another condition often described in the studies, but absent from our sample was trisomy of chromosome 13<sup>11-13,16-22</sup>. </p>
      <p>Regarding structural changes, only the deletion of the short arm of chromosome 6 was also observed in another study<sup>22</sup>. The patient with duplication of the short arm of chromosome 17 has been described in detail by Paskulin et al<sup>29</sup>. The frequency of structural alterations observed in our sample (12%) was similar to the one in most other studies (4.2 to 16.7%), differing only in relation to Ferencz et al<sup>11</sup>, who found a lower frequency (4.4%). It is noteworthy that this study was the oldest, developed in the early 1980s, at a time when the high-resolution technique was being described<sup>10</sup>. In our series, in spite of the count of 25 metaphase slides (which excludes a degree of mosaicism of up to 12% for a 95% confidence level)<sup>27</sup>, no cases of mosaicism were observed. These have been reported in low frequencies only in the studies by Goodship et al<sup>15</sup> and Hartman et al<sup>22</sup>. Nevertheless, the overall frequency of chromosomal abnormalities was lower than the one in our study.</p>
      <p>As for the association of chromosomal alterations with types of heart defects, we observed, according to Botto et al<sup>26</sup>, a very significant association with atrioventricular septal defect, at the expense mainly of patients with Down syndrome (our frequency was 66.7%). This finding is consistent with the literature, which describes rates of 40-50%<sup>30</sup>. Thus, when assessing a patient with atrioventricular septal defect, there is a high probability (of up to one in two) that the patient has Down syndrome. </p>
      <p>It was noteworthy the lack of association of chromosomal alterations with some defect groups, such as, left and right obstructive defects (including defects such as pulmonary stenosis and aortic coarctation). Alone, that was observed only in relation to an outflow tract defect, D-transposition of the great arteries. Although we did not observe an association between chromosomal abnormalities and septal defects, separately we found an association with ventricular septal defects. In the literature, chromosomal abnormalities have been described in approximately 4.6 to 18.2% of patients with ventricular septal defects<sup>11,18,19</sup> and in our sample, this frequency was 31.8%.</p>
      <p>Although our study was the only one that had the syndromic classification description made by a clinical geneticist, based only on the dysmorphologic physical examination findings of patients, our frequency of syndromic patients (29.5%) was similar to that reported by Calzolari et al<sup>18</sup> and Amorim et al<sup>20</sup>. Unlike ours, in these studies the patients were retrospectively divided into syndromic or not after the karyotype evaluation results and the presence of abnormalities in other organs. Chromosomal abnormalities are frequent in syndromic individuals. In our sample, only one of 50 patients with chromosomal abnormalities was considered nonsyndromic, who was an individual with triple X syndrome. This finding is consistent with the literature, as individuals with triple X often go unnoticed amid the general population, as they usually do not have associated major findings. In our case, we cannot rule out the possibility that the association with congenital heart disease may have been coincidental, as both conditions are relatively frequent (triple X occurs in one in 1,000 live female births)<sup>31</sup>. </p>
      <p>In spite of the advances in cytogenetics that occurred in recent decades with the development of molecular techniques, such as fluorescent <italic>in situ</italic> hybridization (FISH) and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), karyotyping remains a crucial and basic tool in genetic evaluation<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>In our country, it is one of the few tests available for the evaluation of patients treated by the Unified Health System, the public health system of Brazil. Despite its limitations in detecting small chromosomal rearrangements such as microdeletions or microduplications, the frequency of chromosomal abnormalities detected by karyotyping in patients with congenital heart disease is remarkable. Thus, professionals, especially those working in pediatric cardiology services, should be aware of the implications that karyotype assessment can bring, both for the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of these patients, as well as for genetic counseling of their families.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgements</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We thank Coordena&#231;&#227;o de Aperfei&#231;oamento de Pessoal de N&#237;vel Superior (Capes) and the Scientific Initiation Program of Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre (PIC-UFCSPA) for the grants received. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Author contributions</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Conception and design of the research, Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of the data, Statistical analysis, Obtaining funding and Writing of the manuscript: Trevisan P, Zen TD, Rosa RFM, da Silva JN, Koshiyama DB, Paskulin GA, Zen PRG; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Trevisan P, Rosa RFM, Paskulin GA, Zen PRG</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by CAPES and PIC-UFCSPA.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Patr&#237;cia Trevisan, Rafael Fabiano Machado Rosa e Paulo Ricardo Gazzola Zen from Universidade Federal de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de de Porto Alegre.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
