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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">WrpWPnfqrP4rD87gFfDVzch</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2013003000012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(13)10100400012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20130187</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Desnerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica renal no tratamento da hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente : perspectivas atuais</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;a Araujo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campana</surname>
            <given-names>Erika Maria Gon&#231;alves</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Magalh&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Eliane Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ferreira</surname>
            <given-names>Esmeralci</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>101</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>364</fpage>
      <lpage>371</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>Os autores revisam o conceito de hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente e o envolvimento do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico na hipertens&#227;o arterial como base racional para a t&#233;cnica de desnerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica renal (DSR), realizada por via percut&#226;nea. A presente revis&#227;o &#233; resultado de uma busca ativa de artigos cient&#237;ficos com o nome "renal denervation" na base de dados Medline e PubMed. A t&#233;cnica e os dispositivos empregados no procedimento s&#227;o apresentados, bem como os resultados cl&#237;nicos em seis, 12 e 24 meses ap&#243;s a interven&#231;&#227;o com o cateter Symplicity. Observam-se redu&#231;&#245;es expressivas e progressivamente maiores da PAS e PAD ap&#243;s a DSR. A taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es foi m&#237;nima. Novos dispositivos para a DSR e respectivos estudos cl&#237;nicos em andamento s&#227;o citados. Em conclus&#227;o, a DSR apresenta-se como um procedimento efetivo e seguro para a abordagem da hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente. Resultados de estudos em andamento e tempo maior de seguimento desses pacientes s&#227;o aguardados para confirmar os resultados iniciais e colocar em perspectiva a amplia&#231;&#227;o da utiliza&#231;&#227;o do procedimento na abordagem da hipertens&#227;o arterial.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Press&#227;o Arterial</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Nervoso Simp&#225;tico</kwd>
        <kwd>Art&#233;ria Renal</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>13</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>Desnerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica renal no tratamento da hipertens&#227;o </p>
    <p> arterial resistente : perspectivas atuais</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Andr&#233;a Araujo Brand&#227;o; Erika Maria Gon&#231;alves Campana; Maria Eliane Campos Magalh&#227;es; Esmeralci Ferreira</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os autores revisam o conceito de hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente e o envolvimento do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico na hipertens&#227;o arterial como base racional para a t&#233;cnica de desnerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica renal (DSR), realizada por via percut&#226;nea. A presente revis&#227;o &#233; resultado de uma busca ativa de artigos cient&#237;ficos com o nome "<italic>renal denervation</italic>" na base de dados Medline e PubMed. A t&#233;cnica e os dispositivos empregados no procedimento s&#227;o apresentados, bem como os resultados cl&#237;nicos em seis, 12 e 24 meses ap&#243;s a interven&#231;&#227;o com o cateter <italic>Symplicity</italic>. Observam-se redu&#231;&#245;es expressivas e progressivamente maiores da PAS e PAD ap&#243;s a DSR. A taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es foi m&#237;nima. Novos dispositivos para a DSR e respectivos estudos cl&#237;nicos em andamento s&#227;o citados. Em conclus&#227;o, a DSR apresenta-se como um procedimento efetivo e seguro para a abordagem da hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente. Resultados de estudos em andamento e tempo maior de seguimento desses pacientes s&#227;o aguardados para confirmar os resultados iniciais e colocar em perspectiva a amplia&#231;&#227;o da utiliza&#231;&#227;o do procedimento na abordagem da hipertens&#227;o arterial.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Hipertens&#227;o/terapia; Press&#227;o Arterial/fisiologia; Sistema Nervoso Simp&#225;tico; Art&#233;ria Renal/inerva&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A press&#227;o arterial (PA) tem rela&#231;&#227;o direta com o risco de morte e de agravos aos sistemas cardiovascular e cerebrovascular, entre outros. De acordo com as VI Diretrizes Brasileiras de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial<sup>1</sup>, no Brasil essa doen&#231;a tem alta preval&#234;ncia, acima de 30%, e baixas taxas de controle, abaixo de 20%<sup>1</sup>. </p>
    <p>A despeito da recomenda&#231;&#227;o para que se realize rigoroso e efetivo controle dos n&#237;veis tensionais, muitas vezes essas metas n&#227;o s&#227;o atingidas de forma satisfat&#243;ria, acarretando maior risco de desenvolver complica&#231;&#245;es e elevando a mortalidade. V&#225;rias raz&#245;es podem estar implicadas na n&#227;o obten&#231;&#227;o desses resultados satisfat&#243;rios, de tal forma que apenas uma minoria de indiv&#237;duos hipertensos apresenta controle adequado da sua PA. Pelas raz&#245;es apontadas, a hipertens&#227;o arterial (HA) de dif&#237;cil controle constitui importante problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica<sup>1</sup>. Incluem-se nesse grupo os indiv&#237;duos portadores de hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente (HAR). Diferentes estudos demonstram que a preval&#234;ncia de HAR varia entre 3-30%<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nesse cen&#225;rio, a abordagem percut&#226;nea para a desnerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica renal (DSR) bilateral utilizando procedimento de abla&#231;&#227;o por radiofrequ&#234;ncia<sup>3</sup> tem se mostrado promissora entre as novas estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas dispon&#237;veis e se baseia no conhecimento de que, entre os diversos mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos envolvidos na refratariedade ao controle da HA, destaca-se a excessiva estimula&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico renal<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estimulado por essa nova modalidade de tratamento da HAR, o presente trabalho objetiva revisar o conceito de HAR, a participa&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico (SNS) na eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA e os resultados cl&#237;nicos com a DSR.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente: defini&#231;&#227;o e condi&#231;&#245;es associadas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o arterial resistente (HAR) &#233; firmado quando h&#225; manuten&#231;&#227;o de n&#237;veis elevados de PA (acima das metas press&#243;ricas adequadas: <underline>&gt;</underline> 140/90 mmHg para hipertensos em geral e &gt; 130/80 mmHg para pacientes de alto risco, como os diab&#233;ticos), apesar do uso de tr&#234;s ou mais anti-hipertensivos de diferentes classes, entre eles um diur&#233;tico, em doses otimizadas<sup>2</sup>. </p>
    <p>&#201; importante ressaltar que o diagn&#243;stico de HAR verdadeira pressup&#245;e a exclus&#227;o de causas secund&#225;rias da HA, al&#233;m de outras condi&#231;&#245;es associadas que possam interferir no adequado controle press&#243;rico, o que caracteriza a pseudorresist&#234;ncia<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Entre as principais condi&#231;&#245;es associadas &#224; HAR e pass&#237;veis de abordagem espec&#237;fica est&#227;o a escolha inadequada das medica&#231;&#245;es anti-hipertensivas e/ou utiliza&#231;&#227;o de doses insuficientes, a falha na t&#233;cnica de aferi&#231;&#227;o da PA, a falha de ades&#227;o &#224; medica&#231;&#227;o prescrita e/ou &#224;s mudan&#231;as de estilo de vida, o efeito do avental branco, a HA de causa secund&#225;ria n&#227;o identificada e/ou n&#227;o corrigida e as condi&#231;&#245;es associadas que podem dificultar o controle press&#243;rico, como obesidade, apneia do sono e uso de medica&#231;&#245;es concomitantes que elevam a PA<sup>1,2</sup>. </p>
    <p>O efeito do avental branco &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o particularmente importante e deve ser afastado obrigatoriamente atrav&#233;s da realiza&#231;&#227;o de monitora&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial (MAPA) antes de se confirmar o diagn&#243;stico de HAR<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Mais recentemente, tem sido destacada a associa&#231;&#227;o entre os dist&#250;rbios do sono, incluindo a apneia obstrutiva do sono (AOS), a HA n&#227;o controlada e as complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares em adultos<sup>1</sup>. A preval&#234;ncia de AOS em pacientes adultos com HAR tem sido estimada em 84%<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>O papel do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico no contexto da HA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A estimula&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico (SNS) eleva a PA em normotensos e hipertensos em decorr&#234;ncia do envolvimento de barorreceptores e quimiorreceptores, atrav&#233;s de mecanismos perif&#233;ricos e centrais que atuam sobre o cora&#231;&#227;o, os rins e a vasculatura perif&#233;rica, levando a aumento do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, a reten&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica e a aumento da resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica, que t&#234;m papel fundamental na fisiopatologia da HA<sup>5,6</sup>.</p>
    <p>O SNS est&#225; envolvido nas varia&#231;&#245;es agudas da PA, em situa&#231;&#245;es como exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico e varia&#231;&#227;o postural. Entretanto, os mecanismos respons&#225;veis pela presen&#231;a de hiperatividade simp&#225;tica na HA cr&#244;nica e o seu papel na manuten&#231;&#227;o da HA ainda permanecem desconhecidos<sup>5-7</sup>. Sabe-se que a atividade simp&#225;tica aumentada e a consequente libera&#231;&#227;o de catecolaminas pelos nervos simp&#225;ticos, al&#233;m de aumentar o t&#244;nus vascular nos vasos de resist&#234;ncia, nas fases iniciais da HA, poderia ser tamb&#233;m estimuladora de mecanismos tr&#243;ficos e hipertrofia vascular em longo prazo. &#201; poss&#237;vel que as altera&#231;&#245;es tr&#243;ficas da parede dos vasos &#233; que mantenham a eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA na fase cr&#244;nica da HA<sup>5-7</sup>. </p>
    <p>N&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de noradrenalina s&#227;o maiores em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos quando comparados aos normotensos, principalmente jovens, nos quais a hiperatividade simp&#225;tica parece ter um papel central no desenvolvimento da HA<sup>5,6</sup>. </p>
    <p>Os mecanismos reflexos de controle da atividade auton&#244;mica encontram-se deprimidos no contexto da HA. &#201; prov&#225;vel que a menor sensibilidade do barorreflexo observada em pacientes hipertensos seja a principal determinante da maior variabilidade da PA observada e, de forma indireta, das les&#245;es dos &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo associadas<sup>5,6</sup>. </p>
    <p>A atividade do SNS se associa a aumento da morbidade e mortalidade cardiovasculares nas primeiras horas da manh&#227;. Nesse per&#237;odo, ocorre um aumento da atividade alfa-simp&#225;tica, com aumento da PA, da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco presentes em muitos pacientes hipertensos nesse per&#237;odo do dia<sup>5-7</sup>.</p>
    <p>A exposi&#231;&#227;o ao estresse sabidamente aumenta a atividade simp&#225;tica. Essa situa&#231;&#227;o pode ser induzida em animais de laborat&#243;rio, gerando HA por exposi&#231;&#227;o a estresse. Em indiv&#237;duos jovens com predisposi&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica para desenvolver HA, observou-se maior resposta vasoconstritora aos testes de estresse mental ou exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico e maior chance de desenvolver HA<sup>5-7</sup>.</p>
    <p>In&#250;meras evid&#234;ncias t&#234;m apontado para o papel da hiperatividade simp&#225;tica no desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares e metab&#243;licas relacionadas &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o da PA como, por exemplo, a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, a hipertrofia vascular, a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, a arritmia card&#237;aca e a resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica<sup>5-7</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>O sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico renal</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A abundante inerva&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica nos rins e o SNS renal parecem modular a libera&#231;&#227;o de renina via receptores beta-adren&#233;rgicos e controlar a hemodin&#226;mica renal via receptores alfa-adren&#233;rgicos. Dessa forma, o aumento na atividade do SNS renal poderia contribuir para a fisiopatologia da HA atrav&#233;s de v&#225;rios mecanismos: aumento da reabsor&#231;&#227;o tubular de &#225;gua e s&#243;dio, aumento da secre&#231;&#227;o de renina e da forma&#231;&#227;o de angiotensina II, aumento da resist&#234;ncia vascular renal e redu&#231;&#227;o do ritmo de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular. De fato, o aumento da atividade do SNS renal tem sido demonstrado em v&#225;rios modelos de HA experimental<sup>5-7</sup>.</p>
    <p>A inerva&#231;&#227;o eferente simp&#225;tica do rim &#233; feita atrav&#233;s de uma rede densa de neur&#244;nios p&#243;s-ganglionares que inervam os rins; os ax&#244;nios desses neur&#244;nios saem do t&#243;rax e do tronco simp&#225;tico lombar, e chegam at&#233; os g&#226;nglios pr&#233;-paravertebrais simp&#225;ticos. Eles correm ao longo da art&#233;ria e do hilo renal, subdividindo-se e penetrando no c&#243;rtex e na &#225;rea justaglomerular. A estimula&#231;&#227;o do nervo simp&#225;tico renal aumenta a produ&#231;&#227;o e a libera&#231;&#227;o de noradrenalina, enquanto a interrup&#231;&#227;o da estimula&#231;&#227;o nervosa simp&#225;tica resulta na redu&#231;&#227;o da sua produ&#231;&#227;o e libera&#231;&#227;o. Quando os nervos simp&#225;ticos renais s&#227;o estimulados, os receptores beta-1 aumentam a secre&#231;&#227;o de renina e os alfa-1 receptores aumentam a reabsor&#231;&#227;o renal de s&#243;dio e de fluidos, promovem vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o renal e reduzem o fluxo sangu&#237;neo renal<sup>3,5-7</sup>.</p>
    <p> A ativa&#231;&#227;o dos nervos simp&#225;ticos renais aferentes resulta em sinais que atingem os centros de regula&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular e renal no sistema nervoso central. Assim, fibras aferentes simp&#225;ticas parecem contribuir de forma importante na regula&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica e no controle da PA<sup>3,5-7</sup> e, dessa maneira, o tratamento anti-hipertensivo deve levar em considera&#231;&#227;o a eficaz inibi&#231;&#227;o da atividade simp&#225;tica<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nesse sentido, os mecanismos pelos quais a DSR reduz a PA s&#227;o fascinantes, por&#233;m ainda n&#227;o completamente esclarecidos. Possivelmente h&#225; redu&#231;&#227;o das fibras nervosas simp&#225;ticas eferentes e uma redu&#231;&#227;o adicional das fibras sensoriais aferentes. Evid&#234;ncias sugerem a possibilidade de que as fibras nervosas simp&#225;ticas aferentes sensoriais tamb&#233;m participem da g&#234;nese da HA e que a sua desnerva&#231;&#227;o tenha efeitos terap&#234;uticos<sup>3,5-7</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Desnerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica renal</bold>
    </p>
    <p>M&#233;todos intervencionistas de incorpora&#231;&#227;o mais recente, como a estimula&#231;&#227;o barorreflexa ou a desnerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica renal<sup>3</sup>, t&#234;m sido destacados como novas estrat&#233;gias para enfrentar a HAR<sup>3,8</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>T&#233;cnica e dispositivos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Procedimentos invasivos para o tratamento da HA j&#225; haviam sido experimentados no passado. A simpatectomia lombar realizada h&#225; seis d&#233;cadas<sup>9</sup> em 1.266 pacientes hipertensos com HA maligna resultou em redu&#231;&#227;o importante e efetiva da PA, mas a elevada incid&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es, como hipotens&#227;o postural, s&#237;ncope e impot&#234;ncia, limitou o uso dessa t&#233;cnica na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. O advento de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos efetivos tamb&#233;m contribuiu para o abandono dessa t&#233;cnica.</p>
    <p>Recentemente, esfor&#231;os t&#234;m sido direcionados para realizar a abordagem bilateral dos nervos renais, inicialmente atrav&#233;s de t&#233;cnica intervencionista percut&#226;nea com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de cateter acoplado a um dispositivo de radiofrequ&#234;ncia. Disparos de radiofrequ&#234;ncia s&#227;o aplicados na parede arterial em v&#225;rios pontos, da parte distal para a parte proximal de ambas as art&#233;rias, em espiral. O procedimento pode ser realizado em art&#233;rias renais com di&#226;metro <underline>&gt;</underline> 4 mm e com pelo menos 20 mm de comprimento, antes de qualquer bifurca&#231;&#227;o dos ramos principais<sup>3,10,11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os estudos pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicos demonstraram que essa t&#233;cnica &#233; segura, eficiente e minimamente invasiva, associada a pouca incid&#234;ncia de efeitos colaterais e com tempo de recupera&#231;&#227;o curto<sup>3,10</sup>. Em su&#237;nos, a aplica&#231;&#227;o da radiofrequ&#234;ncia provoca agudamente les&#227;o transmural com coagula&#231;&#227;o, perda de superf&#237;cie endotelial e forma&#231;&#227;o de trombo, mas sem preju&#237;zo da perfus&#227;o renal. Em 10 dias, observou-se reendoteliza&#231;&#227;o da superf&#237;cie luminal arterial<sup>12</sup>. A avalia&#231;&#227;o histopatol&#243;gica de su&#237;nos ap&#243;s seis meses do procedimento revelou primariamente fibrose dos nervos renais. Os achados para a art&#233;ria renal mostraram fibrose de 10-25% da camada m&#233;dia e advent&#237;cia com leves rupturas da l&#226;mina el&#225;stica externa, sem altera&#231;&#245;es na camada muscular lisa, sem trombose ou estenose arterial. Nenhuma altera&#231;&#227;o nos rins ou bexiga foi encontrada<sup>13</sup>. </p>
    <p>At&#233; o momento, os resultados cl&#237;nicos s&#227;o muito favor&#225;veis e encorajadores. Revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica, incluindo 19 estudos e 683 indiv&#237;duos, concluiu que a DSR promoveu redu&#231;&#245;es da PA sist&#243;lica (PAS) que variaram de 18-36 mmHg e da PA diast&#243;lica (PAD) de 9-15 mmHg. Em cinco estudos, foi observado um efeito redutor da PA sustentado em 12 meses de acompanhamento. N&#227;o foi observada piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal e houve muito poucos eventos adversos relacionados ao procedimento, como pseudoaneurisma de art&#233;ria renal, hipotens&#227;o e bradicardia<sup>14</sup>. </p>
    <p>V&#225;rios dispositivos t&#234;m sido desenvolvidos para realizar a DSR<sup>8</sup>. O que apresenta resultados cl&#237;nicos em maior n&#250;mero de pacientes e com maior tempo de acompanhamento &#233; o cateter do sistema Symplicity (Medtronic Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota), que realiza disparos de radiofrequ&#234;ncia. A DSR por radiofrequ&#234;ncia tamb&#233;m &#233; poss&#237;vel com outros dispositivos, ainda em desenvolvimento, alguns j&#225; com experi&#234;ncia inicial em seres humanos e aprovados para uso na Europa, tais como o cateter EnligHTN (St. Jude Medical Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota), o cateter Vessix V2 (Vessix Vascular Inc., Laguna Hills, Calif&#243;rnia) e o cateter One Shot (Maya Medical Inc.,Campbell, Calif&#243;rnia). Os cateteres de radiofrequ&#234;ncia Thermocool (Biosense Webster Inc., Diamond Bar, Calif&#243;rnia) e Chilli II (Boston Scientific Inc., San Jose, Calif&#243;rnia) est&#227;o sendo utilizados em seres humanos, mas ainda n&#227;o est&#227;o aprovados para uso. Nova tecnologia envolvendo a abla&#231;&#227;o por ultrassom tamb&#233;m est&#225; dispon&#237;vel com o cateter Paradise (ReCor Medical Inc., Ronkonkoma, Nova Iorque), j&#225; em uso cl&#237;nico experimental<sup>8</sup>. </p>
    <p>A t&#233;cnica de DSR foi testada inicialmente em um estudo cl&#237;nico piloto aberto, o Symplicity HTN-1<sup>11</sup>, realizado com 45 pacientes portadores de HAR, com fun&#231;&#227;o renal preservada. Os pacientes usavam, em m&#233;dia, 4,7 f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos e tinham PA m&#233;dia basal de 177/101 mmHg. Os desfechos prim&#225;rios do estudo eram a seguran&#231;a do procedimento e a redu&#231;&#227;o da PA casual. Os desfechos secund&#225;rios eram os efeitos do procedimento na produ&#231;&#227;o de noradrenalina renal (<italic>spillover</italic>) e sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o renal. O seguimento dos pacientes ocorreu com um, tr&#234;s, seis, nove e 12 meses, sem ajuste do n&#250;mero de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, a menos que fosse necess&#225;rio<sup>11</sup>. </p>
    <p>As redu&#231;&#245;es de PA em todos os momentos de acompanhamento foram expressivas. Assim, com um m&#234;s de acompanhamento, a redu&#231;&#227;o de PAS e PAD observada foi de -14/-10 mmHg, respectivamente, alcan&#231;ando -27/-17 mmHg com 12 meses ap&#243;s o procedimento. Seis dos 45 pacientes (13%) tiveram redu&#231;&#227;o da PAS &lt; 10 mmHg, sendo considerados n&#227;o responsivos, enquanto os cinco pacientes com HAR que n&#227;o realizaram o procedimento (grupo controle) apresentaram aumento da PA nas avalia&#231;&#245;es subsequentes. Ap&#243;s 12 meses do procedimento, 38% dos pacientes estavam com a PA controlada (PAS &lt; 140 mmHg) e 28% estavam com a PA parcialmente controlada (PAS 140-159 mmHg)<sup>11</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5534tab01">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5534tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-04-0364-30187-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Nesse estudo piloto, a presen&#231;a de intercorr&#234;ncias foi m&#237;nima, como a ocorr&#234;ncia de dor abdominal difusa periprocedimento, aliviada com analg&#233;sicos. O procedimento mostrou-se seguro e livre de complica&#231;&#245;es em 43 dos 45 pacientes (um paciente apresentou dissec&#231;&#227;o art&#233;ria renal que foi tratada e resolvida com a suspens&#227;o do procedimento de DSR e outro paciente apresentou pseudoaneurisma no local da pun&#231;&#227;o e foi tratado conservadoramente). As angiografias realizadas ap&#243;s o procedimento em 18 pacientes n&#227;o evidenciaram qualquer anormalidade nas art&#233;rias renais; da mesma forma, a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica realizada aos seis meses em 14 pacientes n&#227;o mostrou complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao procedimento<sup>11</sup>. </p>
    <p>A efici&#234;ncia do procedimento de DSR foi tamb&#233;m avaliada pela redu&#231;&#227;o da libera&#231;&#227;o de noradrenalina (<italic>spillover</italic>): em 10 pacientes estudados, essa redu&#231;&#227;o foi de 47%, e esses pacientes tiveram redu&#231;&#227;o da PA m&#233;dia aos seis meses de -22/-12 mmHg, semelhante ao grupo como um todo. A FC permaneceu inalterada em todos os momentos<sup>11</sup>. </p>
    <p>Os resultados favor&#225;veis desse estudo piloto inicial estimularam a proposi&#231;&#227;o de um novo estudo: o Symplicity HTN-2<sup>15</sup>, estudo multic&#234;ntrico, prospectivo, randomizado. Nesse estudo, 106 pacientes com HAR foram randomizados para DSR (n = 52, PA m&#233;dia inicial de 178/96 mmHg) ou manuten&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica medicamentosa pr&#233;via (n = 54, PA m&#233;dia inicial de 178/97 mmHg), tendo como desfecho principal a modifica&#231;&#227;o da PA casual em seis meses e como desfechos secund&#225;rios a seguran&#231;a do procedimento, a ocorr&#234;ncia de desfechos cardiovasculares e medidas adicionais da PA aos seis meses. </p>
    <p>Ao final de seis meses de acompanhamento, a PA casual no grupo DSR foi reduzida em -32/-12 mmHg em rela&#231;&#227;o ao basal. No grupo controle, a PA n&#227;o apresentou redu&#231;&#227;o (+1/0 mmHg). Dessa forma, a diferen&#231;a de PA entre os grupos DSR e controle aos seis meses foi de 33/11 mmHg. Redu&#231;&#245;es significativas tamb&#233;m foram observadas na medida residencial e na MAPA aos seis meses, por&#233;m menor em n&#250;meros absolutos &#224;s redu&#231;&#245;es da PA casual observadas<sup>15</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5534tab01">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
    <p>Dez pacientes (20%) tiveram redu&#231;&#227;o do n&#250;mero de medicamentos utilizados no grupo que sofreu interven&#231;&#227;o em compara&#231;&#227;o a tr&#234;s (6%) no grupo controle. Quatro pacientes (8%) tiveram aumento no n&#250;mero de f&#225;rmacos utilizados no grupo DSR contra seis (12%) no grupo controle<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ao final de seis meses, 41 pacientes (84%) que foram submetidos &#224; DSR apresentaram redu&#231;&#227;o de PAS <underline>&gt;</underline> 10 mmHg e foram considerados respondedores, em compara&#231;&#227;o com apenas 18 pacientes (35%) no grupo controle. O procedimento n&#227;o foi acompanhado de complica&#231;&#245;es ou efeitos colaterais<sup>15</sup>. Os pacientes que, nos primeiros seis meses, permaneceram apenas em uso de medicamentos e apresentavam controle insatisfat&#243;rio da PA, foram submetidos &#224; DSR, e o seguimento foi ent&#227;o estendido para um ano, com resultados sobre a PA semelhantes aos que sofreram a interven&#231;&#227;o no momento inicial<sup>16</sup>. Os resultados com um ano de acompanhamento dos pacientes submetidos &#224; DSR no estudo Symplicity HTN-2 mostraram manuten&#231;&#227;o da redu&#231;&#227;o da PAS (-28,1 mmHg), valor semelhante ao observado com seis meses de acompanhamento (-31,7 mmHg)<sup>16</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5534tab01">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
    <p>Entretanto, nos estudos Symplicity HTN-1<sup>11</sup> e Symplicity HTN-2<sup>15</sup>, foram observadas importantes limita&#231;&#245;es que merecem ser consideradas: a) os poss&#237;veis mecanismos respons&#225;veis pela redu&#231;&#227;o da PA na DSR n&#227;o foram pesquisados em nenhum dos estudos<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>; b) n&#227;o houve grupo controle no Symplicity HTN-1<sup>11</sup>, o que diminui a for&#231;a dos seus resultados; c) no Symplicity HTN-2<sup>15</sup>, devido &#224; complexidade do pr&#243;prio procedimento testado (interven&#231;&#227;o invasiva), o estudo n&#227;o pode ser cego, criando dessa forma um poss&#237;vel vi&#233;s de avalia&#231;&#227;o<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>; d) em ambos os estudos, os pacientes n&#227;o foram adequadamente avaliados para a possibilidade de HA secund&#225;ria (sabidamente at&#233; 10% dos pacientes com HAR t&#234;m aldosteronismo prim&#225;rio e, nesses pacientes, o tratamento invasivo da HAR poderia ser questionado); e) apenas pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes estava fazendo uso de terap&#234;utica cl&#237;nica consagrada para o tratamento da HAR, como a restri&#231;&#227;o de sal na dieta e o uso de espironolactona, levantando a d&#250;vida sobre se esses pacientes eram verdadeiramente resistentes ao tratamento. Assim, admite-se que crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o e exclus&#227;o mais r&#237;gidos devem ser aplicados em estudos futuros para testar essa t&#233;cnica de tratamento da HAR<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ainda como limita&#231;&#245;es, nos dois estudos alguns pacientes tiveram sua medica&#231;&#227;o alterada durante o seguimento, diminuindo o impacto do procedimento sobre a redu&#231;&#227;o da PA<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>. Outro aspecto foi a grande variabilidade da resposta hipotensora observada ao final de seis meses com os diferentes m&#233;todos de medida de PA utilizados nos dois estudos, tornando a an&#225;lise da efic&#225;cia do procedimento bastante heterog&#234;nea<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>. Vale ressaltar que, nos dois estudos, apenas parte dos pacientes foi submetida &#224; MAPA, e esse m&#233;todo complementar &#233; fundamental para afastar o efeito do avental branco. Nessa coorte, a redu&#231;&#227;o da PA na MAPA foi de cerca de 1/3 daquela obtida para a PA casual, sugerindo que os efeitos da DSR possam n&#227;o ser t&#227;o expressivos como pareceram inicialmente<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Uma preocupa&#231;&#227;o com essa t&#233;cnica est&#225; relacionada &#224; seguran&#231;a e &#224; durabilidade do efeito hipotensor em longo prazo, em decorr&#234;ncia da capacidade regenerativa do tecido nervoso<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>. Entretanto, o seguimento por 24 meses ap&#243;s o procedimento de 153 pacientes com HAR no estudo Symplicity HTN-1<sup>19</sup> mostrou redu&#231;&#245;es progressivamente maiores da PA casual p&#243;s-procedimento, atingindo -32/-14 mmHg aos 24 meses. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que a DSR resultou em redu&#231;&#227;o substancial e sustentada da PA em seguimento de dois anos, sem eventos adversos significativos.</p>
    <p>Vale ressaltar que cerca de 20% dos pacientes inicialmente selecionados para o procedimento n&#227;o participaram do estudo Symplicity HTN-2<sup>15</sup> por dificuldades na anatomia renal que impediram a realiza&#231;&#227;o do procedimento, o que pode limitar o uso cl&#237;nico dessa terap&#234;utica em larga escala<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Finalmente, nem todos os pacientes submetidos ao procedimento tiveram sucesso em reduzir a PA. Se considerarmos que a DSR obteve redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia da PAS de 20-25 mmHg e da PAD de 10-15 mmHg, ao final de 12 meses de acompanhamento, redu&#231;&#245;es semelhantes de PAS e PAD tamb&#233;m foram observadas em pacientes usando espironolactona como quarto f&#225;rmaco no tratamento da HAR. </p>
    <p>Por essa raz&#227;o, &#233; importante tentar identificar fatores que possam predizer o sucesso terap&#234;utico da interven&#231;&#227;o. A an&#225;lise univariada no Symplicity HTN-1<sup>11 </sup>n&#227;o identificou nenhuma condi&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-procedimento capaz de predizer o sucesso da DSR, enquanto no Symplicity HTN-2<sup>15</sup> os maiores valores de PAS e o uso de agentes simpaticol&#237;ticos centrais foram capazes de predizer sucesso do procedimento<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Devido &#224; pr&#243;pria natureza do procedimento, um olhar mais cuidadoso sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o renal dos pacientes submetidos &#224; DSR &#233; mandat&#243;rio<sup>17</sup>. Os resultados estendidos do Symplicity HTN-1 para 24 meses de acompanhamento<sup>19</sup> observaram redu&#231;&#227;o significativa da TFG (-16 ml/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>) em 10 pacientes; queda menor, mas tamb&#233;m significativa (-7,8 ml/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>) foi observada em cinco pacientes que n&#227;o estavam em uso de espironolactona ou outro diur&#233;tico no primeiro ano ap&#243;s o procedimento. Vale salientar que, mesmo com a redu&#231;&#227;o da TFG, nenhum paciente apresentou aumento da creatinina s&#233;rica ou evolu&#231;&#227;o para insufici&#234;ncia renal ou necessidade de di&#225;lise, e essa redu&#231;&#227;o da TFG foi tamb&#233;m inferior &#224; queda estimada se os pacientes tivessem mantido a PA inalterada em rela&#231;&#227;o ao in&#237;cio do protocolo<sup>19</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estudos cl&#237;nicos com outros dispositivos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O EnligHTN constitui um cateter multieletrodo como uma cesta e, ao se abrir dentro da art&#233;ria renal, permite a libera&#231;&#227;o de energia simultaneamente em quatro pontos na superf&#237;cie endoluminal arterial. Foi o cateter utilizado no estudo ARSENAL, cujos resultados preliminares foram apresentados em 2012, reportando uma redu&#231;&#227;o da PA de -28/-10 mmHg, um m&#234;s ap&#243;s a interven&#231;&#227;o, com 78% dos pacientes apresentando redu&#231;&#227;o da PA sist&#243;lica &gt; 10 mmHg. Eventos adversos ocorreram em n&#250;mero muito pequeno de casos (n = 6): hematomas no local da pun&#231;&#227;o arterial, resposta vasovagal na retirada da bainha e bradicardia p&#243;s-procedimento. Os resultados finais do estudo ser&#227;o conhecidos em 2013, ap&#243;s o seguimento de seis meses de 47 pacientes tratados com a DSR com o cateter EnligHTN<sup>8</sup>. </p>
    <p>O sistema Vessix V2 de DSR tem um cateter com bal&#227;o de baixa press&#227;o, com eletrodos de radiofrequ&#234;ncia bipolar na superf&#237;cie do bal&#227;o, e est&#225; sendo testado no estudo REDUCE-HTN, com fechamento dos resultados planejado para agosto de 2014. Resultados preliminares em 10 pacientes mostraram redu&#231;&#245;es da PA de -30/-11 mmHg<sup>8</sup>. </p>
    <p>A primeira experi&#234;ncia em seres humanos com o sistema One Shot foi reportada. Trata-se de um cateter com bal&#227;o irrigado e eletrodos montados em forma helicoidal, de forma que o disparo de radiofrequ&#234;ncia pode ser feito em uma &#250;nica vez, tornando o procedimento mais r&#225;pido e preciso, sem necessidade de manipula&#231;&#227;o do cateter. As redu&#231;&#245;es de PA observadas com um m&#234;s p&#243;s-interven&#231;&#227;o foram similares &#224;s observadas nos estudos Symplicity<sup>20</sup>. </p>
    <p>O cateter ThermoCool est&#225; sendo utilizado no estudo SWAN HT e pretende incluir 800 pacientes hipertensos. Resultados de estudo piloto com 10 pacientes mostraram redu&#231;&#227;o da PA e de marcadores da atividade simp&#225;tica. Esse mesmo cateter e o sistema Chilli II est&#227;o sendo empregados no estudo SAVE, que tamb&#233;m planeja a inclus&#227;o de n&#250;mero expressivo de indiv&#237;duos - 500 pacientes<sup>8</sup>. </p>
    <p>O cateter Paradise est&#225; sendo testado no estudo REALISE. Resultados preliminares de 15 pacientes mostraram redu&#231;&#227;o da PA de -32/-16 mmHg com tr&#234;s meses de acompanhamento e foram apresentados em congresso em 2012<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos cl&#237;nicos que realizaram a DSR com cateteres de abla&#231;&#227;o por radiofrequ&#234;ncia irrigados, normalmente utilizados para abla&#231;&#227;o em tecido card&#237;aco, tamb&#233;m t&#234;m mostrado resultados favor&#225;veis. </p>
    <p>Dez pacientes submetidos &#224; DSR com esse tipo de dispositivo foram acompanhados por seis meses. As redu&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dias de PA observadas foram expressivas (-21/-11 mmHg) e todos os pacientes reduziram a PAS em 10 mmHg ou mais ao final desse per&#237;odo de observa&#231;&#227;o. N&#227;o ocorreram complica&#231;&#245;es na art&#233;ria renal, como aneurismas ou estenoses, e n&#227;o houve preju&#237;zo da fun&#231;&#227;o renal<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outra experi&#234;ncia com esse tipo de cateter confirmou o efeito sobre a PA, evidenciando redu&#231;&#245;es da m&#233;dia de PA de 24 h na MAPA de -24/-14 mmHg, tr&#234;s meses p&#243;s-procedimento, sem altera&#231;&#245;es da fun&#231;&#227;o renal ou albumin&#250;ria e sem complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Efeitos da DSR al&#233;m da redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial perif&#233;rica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O impacto favor&#225;vel da DSR sobre a hemodin&#226;mica central e a rigidez arterial foi recentemente reportado. A avalia&#231;&#227;o de 110 pacientes que realizaram DSR mostrou redu&#231;&#227;o da PA a&#243;rtica central de 167/92 mmHg no basal para 141/85 mmHg em seis meses. Nesse mesmo per&#237;odo, o <italic>augmentation index</italic> apresentou redu&#231;&#227;o de 5,3% e a velocidade de onda de pulso car&#243;tida-femoral caiu de 11,6 &#177; 3,2 m/s para 9,6 &#177; 3,1 m/s. Melhoras na hemodin&#226;mica central e na rigidez arterial podem ter importantes implica&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas, em especial em pacientes de alto risco cardiovascular, como os portadores de HAR<sup>23</sup>. </p>
    <p>A DSR tamb&#233;m foi capaz de reduzir a atividade simp&#225;tica medida atrav&#233;s da atividade nervosa simp&#225;tica muscular (MSNA) ap&#243;s tr&#234;s meses do procedimento, por mecanismos ainda n&#227;o bem elucidados. Os resultados da DSR foram mais evidentes para as fibras vasoconstritoras simp&#225;ticas &#250;nicas, demonstrando redu&#231;&#227;o substancial e r&#225;pida de sua atividade<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p> A associa&#231;&#227;o entre aumento da atividade simp&#225;tica renal e componentes da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica (SM) j&#225; foi demonstrada. Um grupo de 50 pacientes foi estudado<sup>25</sup>, com 37 sendo submetidos &#224; DSR e 13 mantidos em tratamento conservador. A PA m&#233;dia inicial em ambos os grupos era 178/96 mmHg. Ap&#243;s tr&#234;s meses de procedimento, foram observadas redu&#231;&#245;es significativas de PA (-32/-12 mmHg), da glicemia de jejum (de 118 mg/dl para 108 mg/dL), dos n&#237;veis de insulina (de 20,8 UI/ml para 9,3 UI/ml) e dos n&#237;veis de pept&#237;deo C (de 5,3 ng/ml para 3,0 ng/ml). Os autores testaram tamb&#233;m o impacto sobre a sensibilidade &#224; insulina, calculada atrav&#233;s do <italic>homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance</italic> (HOMA-IR), e observaram redu&#231;&#227;o no n&#237;vel de resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica com a DSR (de 6 para 2,4). A glicose, ap&#243;s duas horas de estimula&#231;&#227;o, tamb&#233;m apresentou melhora ap&#243;s o procedimento, com redu&#231;&#227;o de 27 mg/dL em compara&#231;&#227;o ao basal. N&#227;o houve modifica&#231;&#245;es da PA e dos par&#226;metros metab&#243;licos no grupo controle<sup>25</sup>.</p>
    <p>O impacto da DSR sobre a hemodin&#226;mica renal e a excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de albumina foi avaliado em estudo com 100 pacientes: 88 foram submetidos &#224; DSR e 12 constitu&#237;ram o grupo controle. Houve redu&#231;&#227;o do &#237;ndice de resistividade com tr&#234;s e seis meses de procedimento, mas n&#227;o houve modifica&#231;&#227;o na excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de albumina e nos valores de cistatina C. Entretanto, o n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos com microalbumin&#250;ria ou macroalbumin&#250;ria se reduziu com a DSR. N&#227;o foram observadas altera&#231;&#245;es nesses par&#226;metros no grupo controle<sup>26</sup>. </p>
    <p>Outro estudo<sup>27 </sup>avaliou o papel da DSR em 10 pacientes com HAR e apneia do sono. Ao final de seis meses observou-se redu&#231;&#227;o da PA (-34/-13 mmHg) e melhora do &#237;ndice de apneia/hipopneia no sono (de 16,3 para 4,5 eventos/hora). </p>
    <p>Mais uma evid&#234;ncia interessante relacionada &#224; DSR foi recentemente publicada, demonstrando a capacidade dessa t&#233;cnica em reduzir a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) e melhorar as fun&#231;&#245;es sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica ventricular em portadores de HAR. O estudo<sup>28</sup> envolveu 46 pacientes que foram submetidos &#224; DSR e &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecocardiograma em tr&#234;s momentos (basal, um m&#234;s e seis meses ap&#243;s o procedimento), com 18 pacientes compondo o grupo controle. Houve redu&#231;&#227;o da PA (-22,5/-7,2 mmHg ap&#243;s um m&#234;s e -27,8/-8,8 mmHg ap&#243;s seis meses do procedimento) e dos par&#226;metros de HVE: redu&#231;&#227;o da espessura do septo interventricular, do &#237;ndice de massa ventricular esquerda de 53,9 &#177; 15,6 g/m<sup>2,7</sup> (112,4 &#177; 33,9 g/m<sup>2</sup>) para 47,0 &#177; 14,2 g/m<sup>2,7</sup> (103,6 &#177; 30,5g/m<sup>2</sup>) e 44,7 &#177; 14,9g/m<sup>2,7</sup> (94,9 &#177; 29,8 g/m<sup>2</sup>) em um e seis meses, respectivamente. A melhora das fun&#231;&#245;es sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica ficou evidenciada pela redu&#231;&#227;o da rampa E/E' mitral e pelo aumento da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de 63,1 &#177; 8,1% para 70,1 &#177; 11,5% ao final de seis meses<sup>28</sup>.</p>
    <p>A DSR tamb&#233;m mostrou melhora importante em escores que avaliam a qualidade de vida tr&#234;s meses ap&#243;s o procedimento. No estudo, a avalia&#231;&#227;o subjetiva da qualidade de vida pelos hipertensos resistentes antes do procedimento era muito ruim. Vale ressaltar que a melhora na avalia&#231;&#227;o da qualidade de vida n&#227;o se associou diretamente &#224; magnitude da redu&#231;&#227;o da PA<sup>29</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estudos de custo-efetividade e estimativas de benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos em longo prazo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A partir dos resultados do estudo Symplicity HTN-2<sup>15</sup>, foi realizada uma an&#225;lise de custo-efetividade da DSR e do impacto cl&#237;nico em longo prazo da DSR. Comparada ao tratamento convencional, a DSR reduziu a probabilidade de desfechos cardiovasculares e renais (risco relativo - RR - em 10 anos/tempo de vida: 0,70/0,83 para AVE; 0,68/0,85 para IAM; 0,78/0,90 para todos os eventos coronarianos; 0,79/0,92 para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e 0,72/0,81 para doen&#231;a renal em est&#225;gio final). A mediana de sobrevida estimada no grupo DSR foi de 18,4 anos e no grupo de tratamento convencional de 17,1 anos. A raz&#227;o de custo-efetividade incremental descontada foi de U$ 3.071 por anos de vida ajustado para qualidade (QALY), tendo sido, portanto, considerada uma estrat&#233;gia custo-efetiva para a HAR<sup>30</sup>. </p>
    <p>Outra an&#225;lise avaliou a custo-efetividade em homens e mulheres de diferentes idades, e a DSR resultou em ganho de 0,98 QALYs em homens e 0,88 QALYs em mulheres de 60 anos com um custo adicional de &#8364;2.589 e &#8364;2.044, respectivamente, comparada &#224; terapia medicamentosa. Quanto mais jovem, maior o ganho em QALYs e menor o custo. Esse estudo destacou que a DSR seria custo-efetiva at&#233; a idade de 78 anos para homens e 76 anos para mulheres<sup>31</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Limita&#231;&#245;es do estudo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A presente revis&#227;o &#233; resultado de uma busca ativa de artigos cient&#237;ficos com o nome "<italic>renal denervation</italic>" na base de dados Medline e PubMed, contando com n&#250;mero limitado de artigos originais publicados e de ensaios cl&#237;nicos em andamento. Representa ainda uma fase explorat&#243;ria desse novo m&#233;todo de interven&#231;&#227;o e, portanto, um tema do conhecimento ainda em constru&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Perspectivas futuras com a DSR</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O sucesso inicial da t&#233;cnica de DSR na HAR, com o uso de radiofrequ&#234;ncia estimulou o aparecimento de outros tipos de dispositivos, com propostas bastante promissoras e mais simplificadas no manuseio e com desempenho mais homeg&#234;neo da DSR<sup>8,32</sup>. Outras t&#233;cnicas interessantes, como a infus&#227;o intra-arterial renal de guanetidina, ou a infus&#227;o periarterial renal de etanol,<sup>33</sup> ou a inje&#231;&#227;o de vincristina periarterial com o cateter Bullfrog de microinfus&#227;o<sup>8</sup> ainda ser&#227;o testadas para uso cl&#237;nico. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o dos cateteres n&#227;o dedicados, utilizados nas t&#233;cnicas de abla&#231;&#227;o de arritmias card&#237;acas, pode constituir uma forma de menor custo para o procedimento de DSR, entretanto ainda n&#227;o foi validada de forma cient&#237;fica para seu uso pleno<sup>22,23</sup>. Entre os desafios futuros est&#225; a possibilidade de se realizar tratamento de desnerva&#231;&#227;o de forma n&#227;o invasiva, atrav&#233;s de Doppler direcionado na art&#233;ria renal. </p>
    <p>Outra demanda para o futuro refere-se ao desenvolvimento de indicadores de avalia&#231;&#227;o imediata do sucesso do procedimento de DSR. </p>
    <p>A realiza&#231;&#227;o de estudos cegos randomizados robustos realizados em centros especializados em HA se faz necess&#225;ria para avaliar a efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a em longo prazo e o poss&#237;vel impacto na redu&#231;&#227;o da morbidade e mortalidade. O estudo Simplicity HTN-3<sup>34</sup> em andamento dever&#225; contribuir nessa dire&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>O desenvolvimento do conhecimento com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da DSR na HAR poder&#225; sugerir potencialmente a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o em outras condi&#231;&#245;es que cursem com hiperatividade simp&#225;tica, tais como: hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica isolada, diabetes, doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, arritmias card&#237;acas, apneia do sono e cirrose<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em fun&#231;&#227;o das limita&#231;&#245;es dos resultados de estudos cl&#237;nicos com a DSR at&#233; o momento e da aus&#234;ncia de estudos mais abrangentes sobre custo-efic&#225;cia do procedimento, sua aplica&#231;&#227;o em larga escala ainda n&#227;o deve ser recomendada; na atualidade, deve ser indicada apenas para hipertensos resistentes verdadeiros, grupo de muito alto risco cardiovascular<sup>35</sup>. Vale ressaltar que, independentemente do resultado cl&#237;nico favor&#225;vel da DSR na HAR, o tratamento m&#233;dico deve estar fundamentado na combina&#231;&#227;o de uso continuado de medicamentos, perda de peso e mudan&#231;a de estilo de vida para todos os pacientes<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos Autores</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa, Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados, An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados, Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual: Brand&#227;o AA, Campana EMG, Magalh&#227;es MEC, Ferreira E.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Andr&#233;a Araujo Brand&#227;o </p>
        <p> Rua General Tasso Fragoso, 24/503, Lagoa </p>
        <p> CEP 22470-170, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="aabrandao@cardiol.br">aabrandao@cardiol.br</email>; </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="andreaabrandao@terra.com.br">andreaabrandao@terra.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 15/3/13; revisado em 2/7/13; aceito em 3/7/13.</p>
  </body>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Renal sympathetic denervation for resistant hypertension treatment : current perspectives</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>The authors review the concept of resistant hypertension and the involvement of the sympathetic nervous system in hypertension as a rational basis for the technique of renal sympathetic denervation (RSD) performed percutaneously. This revision is the result of an active search for scientific articles with the term "renal denervation" in the Medline and PubMed databases. The techniques and devices used in the procedure are presented, as well as clinical outcomes at six, 12 and 24 months after the intervention with the Symplicity catheter. Significant decreases and progressively higher reductions of systolic and diastolic blood pressure were observed after RSD. The complication rate was minimal. New devices for RSD and its ongoing clinical studies are cited. In conclusion, the RSD presents itself as an effective and safe approach to resistant hypertension. Results from ongoing studies and longer follow-up of these patients are expected to confirm the initial results and put into perspective the expansion of the procedure use in hypertension approach.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Blood Pressure</kwd>
        <kwd>Sympathetic Nervous System</kwd>
        <kwd>Renal Artery</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="enda-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Renal sympathetic denervation for resistant hypertension treatment : current perspectives</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Andr&#233;a Araujo Brand&#227;o; Erika Maria Gon&#231;alves Campana; Maria Eliane Campos Magalh&#227;es; Esmeralci Ferreira</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The authors review the concept of resistant hypertension and the involvement of the sympathetic nervous system in hypertension as a rational basis for the technique of renal sympathetic denervation (RSD) performed percutaneously. This revision is the result of an active search for scientific articles with the term "renal denervation" in the Medline and PubMed databases. The techniques and devices used in the procedure are presented, as well as clinical outcomes at six, 12 and 24 months after the intervention with the Symplicity catheter. Significant decreases and progressively higher reductions of systolic and diastolic blood pressure were observed after RSD. The complication rate was minimal. New devices for RSD and its ongoing clinical studies are cited. In conclusion, the RSD presents itself as an effective and safe approach to resistant hypertension. Results from ongoing studies and longer follow-up of these patients are expected to confirm the initial results and put into perspective the expansion of the procedure use in hypertension approach.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Hypertension/therapy; Blood Pressure/innervation; Sympathetic Nervous System; Renal Artery/innervation.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The authors review the concept of resistant hypertension and the involvement of the sympathetic nervous system in hypertension as a rational basis for the technique of renal sympathetic denervation (RSD) performed percutaneously. This revision is the result of an active search for scientific articles with the term "renal denervation" in the Medline and PubMed databases. The techniques and devices used in the procedure are presented, as well as clinical outcomes at six, 12 and 24 months after the intervention with the Symplicity catheter. Significant decreases and progressively higher reductions of systolic and diastolic blood pressure were observed after RSD. The complication rate was minimal. New devices for RSD and its ongoing clinical studies are cited. In conclusion, the RSD presents itself as an effective and safe approach to resistant hypertension. Results from ongoing studies and longer follow-up of these patients are expected to confirm the initial results and put into perspective the expansion of the procedure use in hypertension approach.</p>
      <p>Blood pressure (BP) is directly related to the risk of death and impairment of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems, among others. According to IV Brazilian Guidelines on Arterial Hypertension<sup>1</sup>, in Brazil this disease has high prevalence, over 30%, and low control rates, below 20%<sup>1</sup>. </p>
      <p>Despite the recommendation to carry out a strict and effective control of tensional levels, frequently these goals are not satisfactorily achieved, resulting in greater risk of developing complications and increasing mortality. Many reasons might be involved in obtaining these non-satisfactory results, in a way that only a minority of hypertensive individuals present a proper control of their BP. For these reasons, arterial hypertension (AH) that is difficult to control is a relevant public health issue<sup>1</sup>. Included in this group are individuals with resistant arterial hypertension (RAH). Different studies show the RAH prevalence ranges between 3-30%<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
      <p>In this scenario, percutaneous approach for bilateral renal sympathetic denervation (RSD) using radiofrequency ablation procedure<sup>3</sup> has shown promise among new available therapeutic strategies and is based on the knowledge that, among the many physiopathological mechanisms involved in refractoriness to AH control, the excessive stimulation of renal sympathetic nervous system is distinctive<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>Stimulated by new treatment for RAH, this study aims at reviewing RAH concept, involvement of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) in BP increase, and clinical results with RSD.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Resistant arterial hypertension: definition and associated conditions</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Resistant arterial hypertension (RAH) diagnosis is confirmed when there is maintenance of increased BP levels (above adequate BP goals): <underline>&gt;</underline> 140/90 mmHg for hypertensive individuals in general and &gt; 130/80 mmHg for high risk patients, such as diabetics), despite the use of three or more antihypertensive drugs of different classes, including a diuretic at optimal doses<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>Importantly, the diagnosis of true RAH requires the exclusion of secondary causes of AH, in addition to any other associated condition that may interfere in the proper BP control, characterizing pseudo-resistance<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
      <p>Among the main conditions associated to RAH and subject to specific approach are the inappropriate choice of antihypertensive drugs and/or use of insufficient dosage, failure to measure BP, adherence failure to prescribed medication and/or changes in lifestyle, white-coat effect, AH resulted from a non-identified and/or non-treated secondary cause, and associated conditions that may complicate the BP control, such as obesity, sleep apnea and the use of concomitant medications that increase the BP<sup>1,2</sup>. </p>
      <p>White-coat effect is a particularly important condition and it must be removed through ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) before confirming the RAH diagnosis<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
      <p>More recently, it has been highlighted the association between sleep disorders, including sleep obstructing apnea (SOA), non-controlled AH and cardiovascular complications in adults<sup>1</sup>. The prevalence of SOA in adult patients with RAH has been estimated at 84%<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>The role of sympathetic nervous system in context of AH</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) increases BP in normotensive and hypertensive due to the involvement of baroreceptors and chemoreceptors, through peripheral and central mechanisms that have an effect on the heart, kidneys and peripheral vasculature, leading to a cardiac output, water retention, and increased peripheral vascular resistance, which has a major role in AH physiopathology<sup>5,6</sup>.</p>
      <p>SNS is involved in BP acute variations, in situations like exercising and postural variation. However, the mechanisms responsible for the presence of sympathetic hyperactivity in chronic AH and its role in AH maintenance remain unknown<sup>5-7</sup>. It is known that the increased sympathetic activity and the consequent release of catecholamine by sympathetic nerves, in addition to increasing vascular tone in resistance vessels, in early stages of AH, could also be stimulating trophic mechanisms and vascular hypertrophy in the long-term. It is possible that trophic alterations on vessel walls are maintaining BP increase in the chronic stage of AH<sup>5-7</sup>. </p>
      <p>Noradrenaline serum levels are higher in hypertensive individuals when compared to normotensive ones, primarily in young people, in which sympathetic hyperactivity seems to have a central role in the development of AH<sup>5,6</sup>. </p>
      <p>Reflex mechanisms of the control of an autonomic activity are suppressed in the context of AH. It is probable that the minor baroreflex sensitivity observed in hypertensive patients is the primary determinant of the BP variability observed and, indirectly, of the injuries on associated target organs<sup>5,6</sup>. </p>
      <p>SNS activity is related to increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the early morning hours. In this period, there is an increase in alpha-sympathetic activity, with high BP, of the heart rate and cardiac output present in many hypertensive patients in this period of the day<sup>5-7</sup>.</p>
      <p>Exposure to stress in known to increase the sympathetic activity. This situation could be induced in laboratory animals, developing AH by exposure to stress. In young individuals with genetic predisposition to develop AH, it was observed higher vasoconstrictor response to mental stress or physical exercise tests and higher chance to develop AH<sup>5-7</sup>.</p>
      <p>Plenty of evidence has pointed to the role of sympathetic hyperactivity in the development and progression of cardiovascular and metabolic complications related to increased BP, such as left ventricular hypertrophy, vascular hypertrophy, endothelial dysfunction, heart arrhythmia, and insulin resistance<sup>5-7</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Renal sympathetic nervous system</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The abundant adrenergic innervation in kidneys and renal SNS appear to modulate the renin release via beta-adrenergic receptors and control renal hemodynamics via alpha-adrenergic receptors. Thus, the increased renal SNS activity could contribute to AH physiopathology through many mechanisms: increased tubular reabsorption of water and sodium, increased secretion of renin and production of angiotensin II, increased renal vascular resistance, and reduced glomerular filtration. In fact, the increased renal SNS activity has been demonstrated in several models of experimental AH<sup>5-7</sup>.</p>
      <p>Sympathetic efferent innervation of the kidney is carried out through a dense network of postganglionic neurons that innervate the kidneys; axons of these neurons exit chest and lumbar sympathetic trunk and reach the pre-paravertebral sympathetic ganglia. They run throughout the artery and renal hilum, subdividing itself and penetrating the cortex and juxtaglomerular area. Stimulating the renal sympathetic nerve increases the production and release of noradrenaline, while interrupting the sympathetic nervous stimulation results in reducing its production and release. When renal sympathetic nerves are stimulated, beta-1 receptors increase renin secretion and alpha-1 receptors increase renal reabsorption of sodium and fluids, promote renal vasoconstriction and reduce renal blood flow<sup>3,5-7</sup>.</p>
      <p>Triggering afferent renal sympathetic nerves results in signals that reach the cardiovascular and renal regulation centers in the central nervous system. Thus, afferent sympathetic fibers appear to strongly contribute in the regulation of the systemic vascular resistance and BP control<sup>3,5-7</sup> and, therefore, antihypertensive treatment must consider the effective inhibition of sympathetic activity<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>Thus, mechanisms through which RSD reduces BP are fascinating, although not yet completely understood. Probably there is a reduction of efferent sympathetic nervous fibers and an additional reduction of afferent sensory fibers. Evidence suggests the possibility that sensory afferent sympathetic nervous fibers also participate in AH genesis and its denervation has therapeutic effects<sup>3,5-7</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Renal sympathetic denervation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Interventional methods more recently implemented, such as baroreflex stimulation or renal sympathetic denervation<sup>3</sup>, have been pointed out as new strategies to treat RAH<sup>3,8</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Technique and devices</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Invasive procedures for the treatment of AH had already been tried before. Lumbar sympathectomy performed six decades ago<sup>9</sup> in 1,266 hypertensive patients with malign AH resulted in relevant and effective decrease of BP, but the increased incidence of complications, such as postural hypotension, syncope and impotence, limited the use of this technique in clinical practice. The development of effective antihypertensive medications also contributed to stop using this technique.</p>
      <p>Recently, efforts have been directed to conduct a bilateral approach of renal nerves, initially through a percutaneous interventional technique using a catheter embedded to a radiofrequency device. Radiofrequency pulses are fired on the arterial wall in several points, from the distal part to the proximal part of both arteries, in spiral. The procedure can be conducted in renal arteries with <underline>&gt;</underline> 4 mm diameter and at least 20 mm length, before any bifurcation of the main branches<sup>3,10,11</sup>.</p>
      <p>Pre-clinical studies demonstrated that this technique is safe, efficient and minimally invasive, associated with little incidence of side effects and short recovery time<sup>3,10</sup>. In pigs, the radiofrequency application causes acute transmural lesion with coagulation, loss of endothelial surface and thrombus formation, but without impairment of the renal perfusion. In 10 days, it was observed a reendothelization of arterial luminal surface<sup>12</sup>. Histopathological evaluation of pigs, six months after the procedure, primarily revealed renal nerves fibrosis. Findings for renal artery have shown 10-25% fibrosis of medial and adventitial layer with mild ruptures of the external elastic lamina, without changes on smooth muscular layer, without thrombosis or arterial stenosis. No changes on kidneys or bladder were found<sup>13</sup>. </p>
      <p>To date, clinical results are very positive and encouraging. Systematic review, including 19 studies and 683 individuals, concluded that RSD promoted decreases of systolic BP (SBP) which varied between 18-36 mmHg and diastolic BP (DBP) ranging between 9-15 mmHg. In five studies, it was observed a BP-lowering effect sustained in 12 months of follow-up. There was no worsening of renal function and there were very few side effects related to the procedure, such as pseudo-aneurysm of renal artery, hypotension and bradicardia<sup>14</sup>. </p>
      <p>Several devices have been developed to conduct RSD<sup>8</sup>. What presents clinical results with larger number of patients and longer follow-up period is the Symplicity (Medtronic Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota) catheter system, which fires radiofrequency pulses. Radiofrequency RSD is also possible with other devices, in ongoing development, some have already been tried in human beings and approved for use in Europe, such as the catheters EnligHTN (St. Jude Medical Inc., St. Paul, Minnesota), Vessix V2 (Vessix Vascular Inc., Laguna Hills, California), and One Shot (Maya Medical Inc.,Campbell, California) catheter. The radiofrequency catheters Thermocool (Biosense Webster Inc., Diamond Bar, California) and Chilli II (Boston Scientific Inc., San Jose, California) are being used for human beings, but have not been approved for use yet. New technology involving ultrasound ablation is also available with Paradise (ReCor Medical Inc., Ronkonkoma, New York) catheter, already in experimental clinical use<sup>8</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Simplicity studies: results and limitations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>RSD technique was initially tested in an open-label pilot clinical study, Symplicity HTN-1<sup>11</sup>, conducted with 45 patients with RAH, with preserved renal function. Patients administrated, in average, 4.7 antihypertensive drugs and had mean baseline BP of 177/101 mmHg. Primary outcomes of the study were procedure safety and decrease of casual BP. Secondary outcomes were procedure effects on the production of renal noradrenaline (spillover) and renal function. Patients' follow-up occurred with one, three, six, nine and twelve months, without adjusting the quantity of antihypertensive medications, unless necessary<sup>11</sup>. </p>
      <p>BP decreases were significant in all periods of the follow-up. Thus, with one month of follow-up, the observed SBP and DBP decrease was of -14/-10 mmHg, respectively, reaching -27/-17 mmHg with 12 months after procedure. Six of the 45 patients (13%) had SBP reduction &lt; 10 mmHg, being considered as non-responsive, while the five patients with RAH who were not subjected to the procedure (control group) had BP increased in subsequent evaluations. Twelve months after the procedure, 38% of patients had BP controlled (SBP &lt; 140 mmHg) and 28% had BP partially controlled (SBP 140-159 mmHg)<sup>11 -</sup><xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5334tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop5334tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-04-0364-30187-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>In this pilot, the presence of intercurrences was minimal, such as the occurrence of periprocedural diffuse abdominal pain, relieved with analgesics. The procedure proved to be safe and free from complications in 43 of the 45 patients (one patient had renal artery dissection that was treated and resolved by interrupting the RSD procedure and another patient had pseudo-aneurysm at the injection site and was treated conservatively). Angiographies conducted after the procedure in 18 patients have not demonstrated any abnormality of renal arteries; thus, magnetic resonance conducted after six months in 14 patients had not demonstrated complications related to the procedure<sup>11</sup>. </p>
      <p>The efficiency of the RSD procedure was also evaluated by the decreased noradrenaline release (spillover): in 10 study patients, this decrease was of 47%, and these patients had a decreased mean BP after six months of -22/-12 mmHg, similar to the group as a whole. Heart rate remained unaltered at all moments<sup>11</sup>. </p>
      <p>Positive results of this initial pilot study stimulated the proposal for a new study: the Symplicity HTN-2<sup>15</sup>, randomized, prospective, multicenter study. In this study, 106 patients with RAH were randomized for RSD (n = 52, initial mean BP of 178/96 mmHg) or maintenance of the previous drug therapy (n = 54, initial mean BP of 178/97 mmHg), having as main outcome the modification of casual BP in six months and as secondary outcomes the procedure safety, occurrence of cardiovascular outcomes, and additional measures of BP after six months. </p>
      <p>At the end of the sixth month of follow-up, casual BP in the RSD group was reduced in -32/-12 mmHg in relation to baseline. In the control group, BP had no decrease (+1/0 mmHg). Thus, the difference of BP between RSD and control groups after six months was of 33/11 mmHg. Significant decreases were also observed in residential measurement and ABPM and BP at six months, although smaller in absolute numbers to decreased casual BP observed<sup>15</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5334tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>Ten patients (20%) reduced the number of medications administered in the group subjected to intervention against three (6%) in the control group. Four patients (8%) increased the number of drugs used in the RSD group against six (12%) in the control group<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>At the end of six months, 41 patients (84%) who were subjected to RSD showed a decreased SBP <underline>&gt;</underline> 10 mmHg and were considered responsive, against only 18 patients (35%) in the control group. The procedure had not complications or side effects<sup>15</sup>. The patients who, during the first six months, continued administering medications and had an unsatisfactory control of BP, were submitted to RSD, and the follow-up was extended to one year, with BP results similar to those who underwent the intervention at baseline<sup>16</sup>. One-year results of the follow-up of patients who underwent RSD in Symplicity HTN-2 study showed decrease maintenance of SBP (-28.1 mmHg), value similar to that observed with six months of follow-up (-31.7 mmHg)<sup>16</sup> - <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop5334tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>.</p>
      <p>However, in Symplicity HTN-1<sup>11</sup> and Symplicity HTN-2 (HR11)<sup>15</sup> studies, we observed important limitations that need to be considered: a) possible mechanisms responsible for reducing BP at RSD were not investigated in any of the studies<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>; b) there was no control group for Symplicity HTN-1<sup>11</sup>, reducing the relevance of its results; c) at Symplicity HTN-2<sup>15</sup>, due to the complexity of the tested procedure (invasive intervention), the study could not be blind, thus creating a possible evaluation bias<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>; d) in both studies, patients were not properly evaluated for the possibility of secondary AH (it is known that up to 10% of patients with RAH have primary aldosteronism and, in these patients, RAH invasive treatment could be considered; e) only a small number of patients was administering the appropriate clinical therapy for RAH treatment, such as the restriction of salt in diet and use of spironolactone, raising the question whether these patients were really treatment-resistant. Thus, it is believed that more rigorous inclusion and exclusion criteria must be applied in future studies in order to test this RAH treatment technique<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>.</p>
      <p>Still with limitations, in both studies some patients had their medication changed during the follow-up, reducing the impact of the procedure on BP decrease<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>. Another aspect was the wide variability of hypotensive response observed at the end of six months with different methods of BP measurement used in both studies, making the efficacy analysis of the procedure quite heterogeneous<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>. It is worth noting that in both studies, only part of the patients was subjected to ABPM, and this supplemental method is crucial to remove the white-coat effect. In this cohort, BP decrease in ABPM was of approximately 1/3 from that obtained for casual BP, suggesting the RSD effects may not be as significant as they initially appeared<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>.</p>
      <p>A concern with this technique is related to safety and durability of hypotensive effect in the long-term, due to the regenerative ability of the nervous tissue<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>. However, the follow-up of 24 months after the procedure of 153 patients with RAH in the study Symplicity HTN-1<sup>19</sup> showed progressively greater decreases of casual BP after procedure, reaching -32/-14 mmHg at 24 months. The authors concluded that RSD resulted in substantial decrease and sustained of BP with two-year follow-up, without significant adverse events.</p>
      <p>It is worth noting that about 20% of patients initially selected for the procedure did not participate in the study Symplicity HTN-2<sup>15</sup> for difficulties in renal anatomy that prevented the procedure from being carried out, which could limit the clinical use of this therapy on a large scale<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>.</p>
      <p>Ultimately, not all patients subjected to the procedure managed to reduce the BP. If we consider that RSD had a mean decrease of SBP of 20-25 mmHg and DBP of 10-15 mmHg, at the end of 12 months of follow-up, similar decreases in SBP and DBP were also observed in patients administering spironolactone as the fourth drug in RAH treatment. </p>
      <p>For this reason, it is important to try to identify factors that may predict the therapeutic success of the intervention. Univariate analysis in Symplicity HTN-1<sup>11 </sup>did not identify any pre-procedure condition capable of predicting RSD success, while in Symplicity HTN-2<sup>15</sup> the highest SBP values and use of central sympatholytic agents were capable of predicting the procedure success<sup>6,11,15,17,18</sup>.</p>
      <p>Due to the nature of the procedure, a more detailed analysis on renal function of patients undergoing RSD is mandatory<sup>17</sup>. Extended results of Symplicity HTN-1 for 24 months of follow-up<sup>19</sup> observed a significant decrease of TGF (-16 ml / min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>) in 10 patients; smaller decrease, but also significant (-7,8 ml / min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>) was observed in five patients who were not administering spironolactone or any other diuretic in the first year after procedure. It is worth noting that, even with TGF decrease, no patient showed increase in serum creatinine or evolution to renal insufficiency or need for dialysis, and this TGF decrease was also lower than that estimated if patients had maintained BP unchanged from the protocol start<sup>19</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Clinical studies with other devices</bold>
      </p>
      <p>EnligHTN is a multi-electrode catheter with a basket and, when it opens inside the renal artery, it allows energy release simultaneously in four points of the arterial endoluminal surface. It was the catheter used in ARSENAL study, which preliminary results were presented in 2012, reporting a BP decrease of -28/-10 mmHg, one month after the intervention, with 78% of patients showing a decreased systolic BP &gt; 10 mmHg. Adverse events occurred in very few cases (n = 6): bruising on the arterial puncture site, vasovagal response on sheath withdrawal and bradycardia after procedure. Study final results will be recognized in 2013, after the six months follow-up of 47 patients treated with RSD using EnligHTN<sup>8</sup> catheter. </p>
      <p>Vessix V2 system of DSR has a catheter with a low-pressure balloon, with bipolar radiofrequency electrodes on the balloon surface, and it is being tested in the REDUCE-HTN study, with closure of results scheduled for August, 2014. Preliminary results in 10 patients showed BP decreases of -30/-11 mmHg<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>The first experience in human beings with One Shot system was reported. It is a catheter with an irrigated balloon and electrodes mounted helically, in a way that radiofrequency pulse can to be conducted only once, making the procedure faster and more accurate, without the need of handling the catheter. BP decreases observed one month after intervention were similar to those observed in the Symplicity<sup>20</sup> study. </p>
      <p>ThermoCool catheter is being used in SWAN HT study and intends to include 800 hypertensive patients. Pilot study results with 10 patients have shown decreases in BP and in markers of sympathetic activity. This same catheter and Chilli II system are being implemented in SAVE study, which also aims at including a relevant number of individuals - 500 patients<sup>8</sup>. </p>
      <p>Paradise catheter is being tested in REALISE study. Preliminary results of 15 patients have shown BP decrease of -32/-16 mmHg with three months of follow-up and were presented in congress in 2012<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>Clinical studies that conduced RSD with irrigated radiofrequency ablation catheters, generally used for ablation in heart tissue, have also demonstrated positive results. </p>
      <p>Ten patients subjected to RSD with this type of device were followed-up for six months. Mean BP decreases observed were significant (-21/-11 mmHg) and all patients reduced their BP in 10 mmHg or more by the end of this observation period. There were no complications on renal artery, such as aneurysms or stenoses, and there were no renal function impairments<sup>21</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another experiment with this type of catheter confirmed the effect on BP, evidencing decreases in mean BP of 24h on ABPM of -24/-14 mmHg, three months after the procedure, without changes on renal function or albuminuria and without vascular complications<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>RSD effects besides the decreased peripheral arterial pressure</bold>
      </p>
      <p>RSD positive impact on the central hemodynamics and arterial rigidity was recently reported. Evaluation of 110 patients who underwent RSD showed a decrease in central aortic BP from 167/92 mmHg at baseline to 141/85 mmHg in six months. In this same period, the augmentation index presented a decrease of 5.3% and the carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity decreased from 11.6 &#177; 3.2 m/s to 9.6 &#177; 3.1 m/s. Improvements in central hemodynamics and arterial rigidity may be important prognostic implications, particularly in patients with cardiovascular high-risk, such as patients with RAH<sup>23</sup>. </p>
      <p>RSD was also capable of reducing the sympathetic activity measured through muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) after three months from procedure, with mechanisms not yet elucidated. RSD results were more evident for single sympathetic vasoconstrictor fibers, demonstrating substantial and rapid decrease of its acitivity<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p> The association between increased renal sympathetic activity and components of metabolic syndrome (MS) was already demonstrated. A group of 50 patients was evaluated<sup>25</sup>, with 37 being subjected to RSD and 13 maintained under conservative treatment. Initial mean BP in both groups was of 178/96 mmHg. After three months of procedure, we observed significant decreases in BP (-32/-12 mmHg), fasting blood glucose (from 118 mg/dl to 108 mg/dL), of insulin levels (from 20.8 UI/ml to 9.3 UI/ml) and levels of C-peptide (from 5.3 ng/ml to 3.0 ng/ml). Authors also tested the impact on insulin sensitivity, calculated through homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and observed the decreased level of insulin resistance with RSD (from 6 to 2.4). Glucose, after two hours of stimulation, also improved after the procedure, with a decrease of 27 mg/dl compared to baseline. There were no changes on BP and metabolic parameters in the control group<sup>25</sup>.</p>
      <p>RSD impact on renal hemodynamics and urinary excretion of albumin was assessed in a study with 100 patients: 88 were subjected to RSD and 12 constituted the control group. There was a decrease in resistivity index with three and six months of procedure, but there was no change in urinary excretion of albumin or C-cystatin values. However, the number of individuals with microalbuminuria or macroalbuminuria was reduced with RSD. There were no changes in these parameters in the control group<sup>26</sup>. </p>
      <p>Another study<sup>27 </sup>evaluated the role of RSD in 10 patients with RAH and sleep apnea. At the end of six months, it was observed a decrease in BP (-34/-13 mmHg) and improvement in sleep apnea (from 16.3 to 4.5 events/hour). </p>
      <p>Another interesting evidence related to RSD was recently published, demonstrating the capacity of this technique to reduce left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and improve ventricular systolic and diastolic functions in patients with RAH. The study<sup>28</sup> included 46 patients who underwent RSD and echocardiogram in three stages (baseline, one month and six months after the procedure), with 18 patients comprising the control group. There was decrease in BP (-22.5/-7.2 mmHg after one month and -27.8/-8.8 mmHg after six months from procedure) and LVH parameters: reduction of the width of interventricular septum, left ventricular mass index from 53.9 &#177; 15.6 g/m<sup>2,7</sup> (112.4 &#177; 33.9 g/m<sup>2</sup>) to 47.0 &#177; 14.2 g/m<sup>2,7</sup> (103.6 &#177; 30.5g/m<sup>2</sup>) and 44.7 &#177; 14.9g/m<sup>2,7</sup> (94.9 &#177; 29.8 g/m<sup>2</sup>) in one and six months, respectively. The improvement of systolic and diastolic functions was evidenced by the reduction of E/E&#162; mitral scale and for the increase in ejection fraction from 63.1 &#177; 8.1% to 70.1 &#177; 11.5% at the end of six months<sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p>RSD has also shown a relevant improvement in scores evaluating the quality of life three months after procedure. In the study, the subjective evaluation on the quality of life of resistant hypertensive patients before the procedure, was quite negative. It is worth noting that the improvement in the quality of life was not directly associated with the magnitude of BP decrease<sup>29</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cost-effectiveness studies and estimates on clinical benefits in the long-term</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Based on the results of the study Symplicity HTN-2<sup>15</sup>, it was carried out an analysis of RSD cost-effectiveness and its clinical impact in the long-term. Compared to conventional treatment, RSD reduced the probability of cardiovascular and renal outcomes (relative risk - RR - in 10 years/lifetime: 0.70/0.83 for CVA; 0.68/0.85 for AMI; 0.78/0.90 for all coronary events; 0.79/0.92 for heart insufficiency and 0.72/0.81 for renal disease in the final stage). Estimated mean survival in RSD group was of 18.4 years and in conventional treatment group was of 17.1 years. The ratio of discounted incremental cost-effectiveness was of U$3,071 per quality-adjusted life-year (QALY), and was, therefore considered a cost-effective strategy for RAH<sup>30</sup>. </p>
      <p>Another analysis revealed the cost-effectiveness in men and women of different ages, and RSD resulted in a gain of 0.98 QALYs for men and 0.88 QALYs in women aged 60, with an additional cost of &#8364;2,589 and &#8364;2,044, respectively, compared to drug therapy. The younger the patient, the greater the gain in QALYs and the lower the cost. This study pointed out that RSD would be cost-effective until 78 years old for men and 76 years old for women<sup>31</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study limitations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This review is a result of an active research of scientific articles named "<italic>renal denervation</italic>" at Medline e PubMed databases, considering a limited number of published original articles and ongoing clinical trials. It represents an exploratory phase of this new intervention method and, therefore, a knowledge theme still in construction.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Future perspectives with RSD</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The initial success of RSD technique on RAH, using radiofrequency stimulated the appearance of other types of device, with very promising proposals and more simplified handling and with a more homogeneous performance of RSD<sup>8,32</sup>. Other interesting techniques, such as renal intra-arterial infusion of guanethidine, or renal periarterial infusion of ethanol<sup>33</sup>, or periarterial vincristine injection with Bullfrog micro-infusion catheter<sup>8</sup> are still being tested for clinical use. Using non-specific catheters, used in ablation techniques for heart arrhythmias, may represent lower cost to RSD procedure, however, it has not yet been validated for its full scientific use<sup>22,23</sup>. Among future challenges, is the possibility of performing a non-invasive denervation treatment, using Doppler pointed at renal artery. </p>
      <p>Another demand for the future concerns the development of indicators for immediate evaluation of the success of RSD procedure. </p>
      <p>Conducting robust, randomized, blinded studies in centers specialized in AH is required to evaluate the long-term efficacy and safety and the possible impact on the reduction of morbidity and mortality. Simplicity HTN-3<sup>34</sup> ongoing study must contribute this matter. </p>
      <p>Development of knowledge with the use of RSD for RAH could suggest potential use in other conditions concurrent with sympathetic hyperactivity, such as: isolated systolic hypertension, diabetes, chronic renal disease, heart insufficiency, heart arrhythmias, sleep apnea and cirrhosis<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>On the basis of limitations of clinical study results with RSD up to this moment and the absence of more comprehensive studies on cost-effectiveness of the procedure, its application in large scale is not yet to be recommended; currently, it must be indicated only for true resistant hypertensive patients, group of very high cardiovascular risk<sup>35</sup>. It is worth noting that, regardless of a positive clinical result of RSD for RAH, the medical treatment must be based on the combination of continued administration of medications, weight loss and change of lifestyle for all patients<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Author contributions</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Conception and design of the research, Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of the data, Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Brand&#227;o AA, Campana EMG, Magalh&#227;es MEC, Ferreira E.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>This study is not associated with any post-graduation program.</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hypertension/therapy; Blood Pressure/innervation; Sympathetic Nervous System; Renal Artery/innervation.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
