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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">JYVFzj8xMDjVFhx4yK4YVSz</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2013002900013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(13)10100300013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20130162</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Receptores plaquet&#225;rios P2Y12: import&#226;ncia na interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Falc&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Felipe Jose de Andrade</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chan</surname>
            <given-names>Mark</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Cl&#225;udia Maria Rodrigues</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carvalho</surname>
            <given-names>Ant&#244;nio Carlos Camargo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Caixeta</surname>
            <given-names>Adriano Mendes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola Paulista de Medicina </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Singapore</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">National University of Singapore</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Yong Loo Lin School of Medicina </institution>
        <country country="SG">Singapore</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>101</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>277</fpage>
      <lpage>282</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>30</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>As plaquetas est&#227;o envolvidas em v&#225;rios processos biol&#243;gicos, desde o combate a agentes infecciosos at&#233; a coordena&#231;&#227;o do controle da permeabilidade vascular e angiog&#234;nese. Entretanto, o seu principal foco de a&#231;&#227;o consiste na modula&#231;&#227;o da cascata de coagula&#231;&#227;o. A interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea &#233; um procedimento com alto risco trombog&#234;nico, que induz a ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e de mon&#243;citos, devido &#224; les&#227;o direta do endot&#233;lio e pelo contato de estruturas trombog&#234;nicas com o sangue, levando ao aumento da atividade inflamat&#243;ria, tanto no local do dano vascular coronariano como de forma sist&#234;mica. Os receptores plaquet&#225;rios P2Y12 desempenham papel central na amplifica&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o induzida por todos os agonistas plaquet&#225;rios, como a adenosina difosfato, o col&#225;geno, tromboxano A2, adrenalina e serotonina. Por esse motivo, t&#234;m sido o principal alvo das drogas antiplaquet&#225;rias. Apesar de atuarem no mesmo receptor, caracter&#237;sticas farmacocin&#233;ticas e farmacodin&#226;micas distintas conferem peculiaridades a cada agente.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Agrega&#231;&#227;o de Receptores</kwd>
        <kwd>Agrega&#231;&#227;o Plaquet&#225;ria</kwd>
        <kwd>Interven&#231;&#227;o Coronariana Percut&#226;nea</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>06</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>Receptores plaquet&#225;rios P2Y<sub>12</sub>: import&#226;ncia na interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea </bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Felipe Jose de Andrade Falc&#227;o<sup>I</sup>; Leonardo Carvalho<sup>II</sup>; Mark Chan<sup>II</sup>; Cl&#225;udia Maria Rodrigues Alves<sup>I</sup>; Ant&#244;nio Carlos Camargo Carvalho<sup>I</sup>; Adriano Mendes Caixeta<sup>I</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - Escola Paulista de Medicina, S&#227;o Paulo, SP- Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>National University of Singapore - Yong Loo Lin School of Medicina, Singapore</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="enda">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As plaquetas est&#227;o envolvidas em v&#225;rios processos biol&#243;gicos, desde o combate a agentes infecciosos at&#233; a coordena&#231;&#227;o do controle da permeabilidade vascular e angiog&#234;nese. Entretanto, o seu principal foco de a&#231;&#227;o consiste na modula&#231;&#227;o da cascata de coagula&#231;&#227;o. A interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea &#233; um procedimento com alto risco trombog&#234;nico, que induz a ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e de mon&#243;citos, devido &#224; les&#227;o direta do endot&#233;lio e pelo contato de estruturas trombog&#234;nicas com o sangue, levando ao aumento da atividade inflamat&#243;ria, tanto no local do dano vascular coronariano como de forma sist&#234;mica. Os receptores plaquet&#225;rios P2Y<sub>12</sub> desempenham papel central na amplifica&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o induzida por todos os agonistas plaquet&#225;rios, como a adenosina difosfato, o col&#225;geno, tromboxano A2, adrenalina e serotonina. Por esse motivo, t&#234;m sido o principal alvo das drogas antiplaquet&#225;rias. Apesar de atuarem no mesmo receptor, caracter&#237;sticas farmacocin&#233;ticas e farmacodin&#226;micas distintas conferem peculiaridades a cada agente.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Agrega&#231;&#227;o de Receptores, Agrega&#231;&#227;o Plaquet&#225;ria, Interven&#231;&#227;o Coronariana Percut&#226;nea.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria desempenha um importante papel nas complica&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas em pacientes submetidos &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea (ICP). Tanto a instabilidade da placa ateroscler&#243;tica como fatores decorrentes do pr&#243;prio procedimento (trauma endotelial e contato de estruturas trombog&#234;nicas com o sangue) s&#227;o respons&#225;veis pela exacerba&#231;&#227;o desse processo<sup>1</sup>. Apesar do tromboxano A2 e a adenosina difosfato(ADP) atuarem de maneira sin&#233;rgica na ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, a intera&#231;&#227;o do ADP com os seus receptores, principalmente os receptores P2, &#233; capaz de amplificar e manter esta ativa&#231;&#227;o. Por este motivo, esses receptores t&#234;m sido o principal alvo das drogas antiplaquet&#225;rias atuais<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ades&#227;o, ativa&#231;&#227;o e agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As plaquetas s&#227;o fragmentos anucleados de megacari&#243;citos que circulam na corrente sangu&#237;nea com o formato de disco achatado quando n&#227;o est&#227;o ativadas. Est&#227;o envolvidas em v&#225;rios processos biol&#243;gicos, desde o combate a agentes infecciosos at&#233; o in&#237;cio do reparo tecidual pela a ativa&#231;&#227;o do processo de angiog&#234;nese. Observa-se, portanto, que a sua fun&#231;&#227;o vai al&#233;m da participa&#231;&#227;o da cascata da coagula&#231;&#227;o, sendo relevante em toda a modula&#231;&#227;o que envolve o processo de reparo tecidual<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em condi&#231;&#245;es normais, as plaquetas n&#227;o s&#227;o ativadas pela superf&#237;cie endotelial. A camada endotelial monocelular atua como uma superf&#237;cie antitromb&#243;tica, na medida em que n&#227;o permite a intera&#231;&#227;o das plaquetas com as prote&#237;nas subendoteliais e pela produ&#231;&#227;o de prostaciclina I2 e &#243;xido n&#237;trico, ambos inibidores da ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria. As c&#233;lulas endoteliais tamb&#233;m expressam a enzima CD39, que converte adenosina trifosfato (ATP) em ADP e esta em adenosina monofosfato (AMP), evitando a ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria pelo ATP e ADP<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na presen&#231;a de inj&#250;ria ou trauma vascular, as prote&#237;nas subendoteliais, como o fator de Von Willebrand e o col&#225;geno, s&#227;o expostas e a ades&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria ocorre com a finalidade de promover a cicatriza&#231;&#227;o tecidual. A intera&#231;&#227;o entre estas prote&#237;nas e as plaquetas acontece atrav&#233;s de diversos receptores na superf&#237;cie plaquet&#225;ria (GPIb&#945;, GPVI &#945;2&#946;1) e, concomitante &#224; ades&#227;o, ocorre a ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria. M&#250;ltiplas vias metab&#243;licas s&#227;o estimuladas, causando um aumento na concentra&#231;&#227;o intracelular de c&#225;lcio. Este aumento ativa a fosfolipase A2 e a actina-miosina ATPase, levando a forma&#231;&#227;o de tromboxano A2 e a altera&#231;&#227;o na conforma&#231;&#227;o das plaquetas, respectivamente. Quando ativadas, as plaquetas liberam o conte&#250;do de seus gr&#226;nulos (ADP, ATP, serotonina, c&#225;lcio, fibrinog&#234;nio, fator de Von Willebrand, citocinas e fatores pr&#243;-tromb&#243;ticos), o que proporciona seu aumento volum&#233;trico e reatividade. A conex&#227;o entre as plaquetas para a forma&#231;&#227;o desse agregado ocorre atrav&#233;s da liga&#231;&#227;o entre o fibrinog&#234;nio e o receptor da glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>A deposi&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria na parede do vaso, o recrutamento de leuc&#243;citos e a migra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas promovem uma altera&#231;&#227;o na estrutura arterial denominada de remodelamento vascular. Este remodelamento juntamente com o estado inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico mediado pelas plaquetas consiste em uma etapa importante na forma&#231;&#227;o da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, hiperplasia intimal e reestenose de <italic>stents</italic><sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>ADP e receptores plaquet&#225;rios P2</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Secretado por eritr&#243;citos, c&#233;lulas endoteliais e pelos gr&#226;nulos plaquet&#225;rios, o ADP &#233; um importante mediador da ativa&#231;&#227;o e da amplifica&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria. O ADP interage com a superf&#237;cie plaquet&#225;ria atrav&#233;s dos receptores da fam&#237;lia P2, que possuem dois subtipos diferenciando-se pela via de ativa&#231;&#227;o intracelular: P2X (ligados a canais i&#244;nicos) e P2Y (acoplados a prote&#237;na G). Atualmente, h&#225; uma nova classifica&#231;&#227;o baseada no tipo de agonista:P2X<sub>1</sub>, ativados pelo ATP; P2Y<sub>1</sub> e P2Y<sub>12</sub>, ativados pelo ADP (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop_4889fig01">Figura 1</xref>)<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="aop_4889fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-03-0277-30162-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Os receptores P2X<sub>1</sub> s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por uma altera&#231;&#227;o conformacional transit&#243;ria nas plaquetas associada ao r&#225;pido influxo de c&#225;lcio. Portanto, s&#227;o incapazes de manter a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, mas contribuem durante a ativa&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo col&#225;geno<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os receptores P2Y<sub>1</sub> est&#227;o presentes em diversos tecidos, incluindo o cora&#231;&#227;o, vasos sangu&#237;neos, c&#233;lulas musculares lisas, tecido nervoso, test&#237;culo, pr&#243;stata e ov&#225;rio. Em resposta a ativa&#231;&#227;o mediada pelo ADP, ocorre a mobiliza&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio das reservas plaquet&#225;rias, o que acarreta uma altera&#231;&#227;o conformacional e uma transit&#243;ria agrega&#231;&#227;o. Este receptor tem papel chave no in&#237;cio da ativa&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo ADP, por&#233;m, para a efetiva estabiliza&#231;&#227;o do trombo plaquet&#225;rio, &#233; necess&#225;ria a ativa&#231;&#227;o de outros receptores<sup>4,5</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os receptores P2Y<sub>12</sub>, al&#233;m de presentes nas plaquetas, tamb&#233;m est&#227;o presentes na micr&#243;glia, c&#233;lulas endoteliais e musculares lisas. Esse receptor desempenha papel central na amplifica&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o induzida por todos os agonistas plaquet&#225;rios, como o col&#225;geno, trombina, tromboxano A2, adrenalina e serotonina. Entretanto, o agonista com maior afinidade, assim como nos receptores P2Y<sub>1</sub>, &#233; o ADP. A resposta intracelular a sua ativa&#231;&#227;o &#233; a inibi&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de AMPc (monofosfato de adenosina c&#237;clico), desfosforila&#231;&#227;o da fosfoprote&#237;na vasodilatadora (VASP) e ativa&#231;&#227;o da GTPase Rap1B e da 3-quinase fosfoinositol (PI 3-K). A ativa&#231;&#227;o dos dois receptores P2 &#233; importante para a agrega&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo ADP, pois a inibi&#231;&#227;o seletiva de um dos receptores resulta em uma acentuada redu&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Inibidores dos receptores P2Y<sub>12</sub></bold>
    </p>
    <p>As drogas antiplaquet&#225;rias s&#227;o essenciais no tratamento de pacientes submetidos a ICP. H&#225; tr&#234;s grupos de antiagregantes com efic&#225;cia cl&#237;nica comprovada: os inibidores da ciclo-oxigenase (AAS), os inibidores dos receptores P2Y<sub>12</sub>e os antagonistas da glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>O receptor P2Y<sub>12</sub> &#233; o principal alvo dos agentes inibidores orais, pois est&#225; envolvido ativamente na amplifica&#231;&#227;o da reatividade plaquet&#225;ria necess&#225;ria para a forma&#231;&#227;o do trombo. Existem tr&#234;s classes de inibidores destes receptores: os tienopirid&#237;nicos, os an&#225;logos do ATP e os ciclopentil-triazolopirimidinas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_4889tab01">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_4889tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-03-0277-30162-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tienopirid&#237;nicos </bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Clopidogrel</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A primeira e a segunda gera&#231;&#227;o de tienopirid&#237;nicos s&#227;o representadas pela ticlopidina e pelo clopidogrel, respectivamente. A ticlopidina possui seu uso limitado devido a maior incid&#234;ncia de efeitos adversos hematol&#243;gicos, como neutropenia e agranulocitose. O clopidogrel &#233; uma pr&#243;-droga que precisa ser metabolizada atrav&#233;s de duas etapas pelo citocromo P450 (CP450) hep&#225;tico em um metab&#243;lito ativo, que ir&#225; se ligar de maneira irrevers&#237;vel aos receptores P2Y<sub>12</sub>. A maior parte do clopidogrel absorvida (85-90%) &#233; hidrolisada em &#225;cido carbox&#237;lico inativo e o restante &#233; rapidamente metabolizado pelo CP450<sup>15</sup>. A dose de 75mg de clopidogrel tem in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s duas horas, mas s&#227;o necess&#225;rios de tr&#234;s a sete dias para alcan&#231;ar a inibi&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria m&#225;xima. O tempo para alcan&#231;ar o seu pico de a&#231;&#227;o, entretanto, pode ser reduzido com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de doses de ataque. Com a administra&#231;&#227;o de 300mg ou 600mg a inibi&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima &#233; atingida em doze e em tr&#234;s horas, respectivamente.</p>
    <p>Vale ressaltar que esses valores s&#227;o uma m&#233;dia populacional, o que n&#227;o reflete in&#250;meras vezes o grau de antiagrega&#231;&#227;o individualizada necess&#225;ria, visto que v&#225;rios estudos de farmacocin&#233;tica foram realizados em indiv&#237;duos normais, sem doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) e sem qualquer dano em &#243;rg&#227;os de excre&#231;&#227;o ou metaboliza&#231;&#227;o dos f&#225;rmacos. Doses maiores que 600mg n&#227;o resultaram em uma acentua&#231;&#227;o na antiagrega&#231;&#227;o, devido a incapacidade em aumentar a concentra&#231;&#227;o do metab&#243;lito ativo<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>O clopidogrel, apesar de demonstrar efic&#225;cia, n&#227;o pode ser considerado o antiagregante ideal. Apresenta como principais inconvenientes sua grande variabilidade individual, devido a diferen&#231;as no seu metabolismo, a inibi&#231;&#227;o irrevers&#237;vel dos receptores, aumentando o risco de sangramentos, principalmente em pacientes submetidos a procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos, e a sua lat&#234;ncia para atingir o pico de a&#231;&#227;o, o que reduz o seu benef&#237;cio nos pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA) em que se necessita r&#225;pida inibi&#231;&#227;o da atividade plaquet&#225;ria<sup>16</sup>.</p>
    <p>Cerca de 30% dos pacientes, ap&#243;s doses convencionais de clopidogrel, apresentam resist&#234;ncia ou s&#227;o hiporresposivos a esta droga, representando uma popula&#231;&#227;o clinicamente vulner&#225;vel e de alto risco para eventos cardiovasculares maiores, incluindo IAM, trombose de <italic>stent</italic> e morte<sup>17</sup>. V&#225;rios fatores influenciam esta variabilidade individual, podendo-se citar a presen&#231;a de muta&#231;&#245;es nos genes que codificam as enzimas do citocromo P450, a idade, a presen&#231;a de SCA, diabetes melito e a obesidade.</p>
    <p>Os pacientes que possuem genotipagem homozig&#243;tica para os alelos mutantes da enzima CYP2C19 apresentam um risco elevado de eventos cardiovasculares, principalmente de trombose de <italic>stent</italic><sup>2</sup>. Diante desta evid&#234;ncia, o &#243;rg&#227;o americano de vigil&#226;ncia, <italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic> (<italic>FDA</italic>), emitiu um alerta recomendando considerar o uso de outro agente antiagregante ou de doses n&#227;o usuais de clopidogrel nestes pacientes, personalizando a antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p>A terapia personalizada na cardiologia cl&#237;nica &#233; um fato comum. In&#250;meras classes de drogas t&#234;m suas doses norteadas pela resposta cl&#237;nica ou laboratorial do paciente, como anti-hipertensivos e anticoagulantes, respectivamente.</p>
    <p>&#201; necess&#225;rio, portanto, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de testes laboratoriais que permitam avaliar com maior precis&#227;o a variabilidade individual da resposta aos antiagregantes. Atualmente, h&#225; dispon&#237;veis dois grupos de testes para esta finalidade: os testes gen&#233;ticos e os de reatividade plaquet&#225;ria. Como o gen&#243;tipo &#233; algo constante, sua avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o &#233; capaz de mensurar adequadamente a influ&#234;ncia cumulativa e din&#226;mica dos v&#225;rios fatores que interferem na reatividade plaquet&#225;ria, sendo a avalia&#231;&#227;o do fen&#243;tipo final, apesar de ainda limitada por fatores t&#233;cnicos, mais apropriada que a avalia&#231;&#227;o genot&#237;pica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O padr&#227;o ouro para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria &#233; a agregometria por transmiss&#227;o de luz. No entanto, este &#233; um m&#233;todo de dif&#237;cil padroniza&#231;&#227;o, que demanda cerca de quatro horas para sua realiza&#231;&#227;o e requer treinamento espec&#237;fico. Testes realizados &#224; beira do leito, como o VerifyNow<sup>&#174;</sup>, t&#234;m se destacado pela facilidade do seu uso, r&#225;pido resultado e pela n&#227;o necessidade de preparo da amostra<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>V&#225;rios estudos utilizaram a curva ROC para defini&#231;&#227;o do valor ideal da reatividade plaquet&#225;ria que melhor se relacionaria com o risco tromb&#243;tico (mortalidade cardiovascular, trombose de <italic>stent</italic> e IAM n&#227;o fatal). A melhor combina&#231;&#227;o entre sensibilidade e especificidade foi obtida com o valor de 240 P2Y<sub>12 </sub><italic>reaction units </italic>(PRU)<sup>15</sup>. Mais recentemente, o estudo ADAPT-DES reportou que um PRU &gt; 208 e um percentual de inibi&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria menor ou igual a 11% foram vari&#225;veis independentes associadas a trombose de <italic>stent</italic><sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>A dose de clopidogrel guiada pelo VerifyNow<sup>&#174;</sup> foi avaliada no estudo GRAVITAS. Os pacientes com DAC cr&#244;nica submetidos &#224; angioplastia com <italic>stent</italic> considerados resistentes ao clopidogrel (PRU &gt; 240) eram randomizados para a dose dobrada (b&#243;lus e manuten&#231;&#227;o) ou dose padr&#227;o de clopidogrel. Apesar dos pacientes que utilizaram a dose mais elevada apresentarem um n&#237;vel mais reduzido de PRU, n&#227;o foi observada diferen&#231;a no desfecho prim&#225;rio (morte, IAM n&#227;o fatal e acidente vascular cerebral n&#227;o fatal)<sup>21</sup>. No estudo ARTIC, tamb&#233;m n&#227;o se obteve redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos com a terapia guiada por monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria ap&#243;s implante de <italic>stents</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos na popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com DAC cr&#244;nica<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>Entretanto, o ADAPT-DES demonstrou que em pacientes com SCA o valor do PRU foi capaz de avaliar o risco de trombose de <italic>stent</italic>, ratificando a import&#226;ncia do tipo de apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica (aguda/cr&#244;nica) na intensidade da antiagrega&#231;&#227;o<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outro m&#233;todo para avaliar a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria &#233; a quantifica&#231;&#227;o, por citometria de fluxo, da fosfoprote&#237;na estimulada por vasodilata&#231;&#227;o (VASP). A VASP &#233; uma prote&#237;na intracelular ativada a partir da liga&#231;&#227;o de agonistas aos receptores P2Y<sub>12</sub>. Em condi&#231;&#245;es basais, esta prote&#237;na n&#227;o se encontra fosforilada, sendo regulada pela via do AMPc, que &#233; ativada pela a&#231;&#227;o da prostaglandina E1 e inibida pelo ADP, atrav&#233;s dos receptores P2Y<sub>12</sub>. A fosforila&#231;&#227;o da VASP se associa a inibi&#231;&#227;o dos receptores P2Y<sub>12</sub>, ao passo que a forma n&#227;o fosforilada est&#225; associada &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o desses receptores. No entanto, esse m&#233;todo demanda um intenso trabalho laboratorial e alto custo<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>A dificuldade em simular a hemostasia <italic>in vitro</italic> consiste na principal barreira para a utiliza&#231;&#227;o desses testes<sup>23</sup>. A limita&#231;&#227;o em avaliar a intera&#231;&#227;o plaqueta-endot&#233;lio, plaqueta-leuc&#243;cito e a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de superf&#237;cies tromb&#243;ticas nos m&#233;todos como potenciais ativadores da agrega&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o podem ser desprezadas, al&#233;m disso, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de agonistas de forma separada e em concentra&#231;&#245;es fixas n&#227;o se assemelha ao processo fisiol&#243;gico. Outro ponto relevante a ser salientado &#233; que mensurar a agrega&#231;&#227;o de uma determinada al&#237;quota de sangue &#233; diferente de quantificar a atividade no local espec&#237;fico onde est&#225; o dano tecidual. Logo, o agonista pode estar ligado ao receptor, mas podem existir diferen&#231;as nas vias intracelulares repercutindo em diferentes respostas na aferi&#231;&#227;o da reatividade plaquet&#225;ria.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Prasugrel</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A terceira gera&#231;&#227;o de tienopirid&#237;nicos &#233; representada pelo prasugrel, que possui perfil farmacocin&#233;tico semelhante ao clopidogrel por ser uma pr&#243;-droga, por&#233;m necessita de uma etapa a menos para ser convertido em seu metab&#243;lito ativo. Sua estrutura qu&#237;mica distinta permite uma menor depend&#234;ncia do CP450 para sua ativa&#231;&#227;o. Sua farmocin&#233;tica &#233; mais est&#225;vel em compara&#231;&#227;o ao clopidogrel, pois n&#227;o &#233; influenciada por muta&#231;&#245;es no CP450, resultando em um in&#237;cio de a&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pido, com seu pico de antiagrega&#231;&#227;o ocorrendo em 30 minutos<sup>16</sup>.</p>
    <p>No estudo randomizado TRITON-TIMI 38, o prasugrel, quando comparado ao clopidogrel, mostrou-se mais eficaz em reduzir significativamente as taxas de IAM (7,4% <italic>vs</italic>. 9,4%) e trombose de <italic>stent</italic> (2,4% <italic>vs</italic>.1,1%) em pacientes com SCA; entretanto, os pacientes tratados com prasugrel apresentaram maiores taxas de sangramentos (2,4 <italic>vs</italic>. 1,8%) e sem diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; mortalidade. Por ocasi&#227;o de an&#225;lise de subgrupos, n&#227;o &#233; recomendado seu uso em pacientes com passado de acidente vascular cerebral / acidente isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio (AVC / AIT), idosos com mais de 75 anos ou em pacientes com peso abaixo de 60 kg, por aumento no risco de sangramento. Naqueles com passado de AVC/AIT, houve dano l&#237;quido quando o prasugrel foi utilizado<sup>12</sup>. Nos pacientes com SCA sem supradesnivelamento ST mantidos em tratamento conservador e naqueles com DAC est&#225;vel, esta droga foi incapaz de reproduzir o benef&#237;cio em rela&#231;&#227;o ao clopidogrel<sup>24,25</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar de o prasugrel ser considerado um agente mais potente que o clopidogrel, estudos <italic>in vivo</italic> e <italic>in vitro </italic>demonstraram que os seus metab&#243;litos ativos apresentam pot&#234;ncias equivalentes. Logo, o seu benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico pode ser explicado por sua melhor farmacocin&#233;tica em convers&#227;o da pr&#243;-droga em compostos ativos que o clopidogrel. Consequentemente, a maioria dos pacientes tratados com essa droga tende a ter uma inibi&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pida da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria<sup>16</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Cangrelor</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os an&#225;logos do ATP s&#227;o representados pelo cangrelor. Esta droga &#233; um potente inibidor revers&#237;vel dos receptores P2Y<sub>12</sub>, n&#227;o necessita ser metabolizada para atuar e possui como via de administra&#231;&#227;o apenas a forma endovenosa. Por ser um metab&#243;lito ativo, o seu pico de a&#231;&#227;o &#233; alcan&#231;ado em dois ou 30 minutos quando utilizado em b&#243;lus ou n&#227;o, respectivamente. Apresenta uma meia vida plasm&#225;tica de seis minutos, o que proporciona um retorno &#224; agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria basal ap&#243;s uma a duas horas do t&#233;rmino da sua infus&#227;o. Os estudos que avaliaram o cangrelor em rela&#231;&#227;o ao clopidogrel, entretanto, n&#227;o demonstraram diferen&#231;a cl&#237;nica entre estas drogas<sup>14,26</sup>, com exce&#231;&#227;o do estudo CHAMPION PHOENIX</p>
    <p>O estudo BRIDGE comparou o uso do cangrelor em rela&#231;&#227;o ao placebo em pacientes que tinham o tienopirid&#237;nico suspenso, porque iriam ser submetidos &#224; revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica. O cangrelor foi capaz de manter a antiagrega&#231;&#227;o at&#233; o momento da interven&#231;&#227;o, sem, contudo, aumentar as taxas de sangramento cir&#250;rgico. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o do cangrelor neste cen&#225;rio, como ponte nos pacientes de alto risco de eventos tromb&#243;ticos que necessitam ser submetidos a um procedimento, parece ser promissora<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ticagrelor</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A classe mais recente dos inibidores dos receptores P2Y<sub>12 </sub>&#233; a dos ciclopentil-triazolopirimidinas, que possui como representante o ticagrelor. Ao contr&#225;rio dos tienopirid&#237;nicos, o ticagrelor n&#227;o precisa ser metabolizado pelo f&#237;gado, interage com os receptores plaquet&#225;rios de forma revers&#237;vel e possui in&#237;cio e pico de a&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pidos<sup>28</sup>. Nos pacientes n&#227;o respondedores ao clopidogrel, apresenta in&#237;cio e pico de a&#231;&#227;o semelhantes<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>A efic&#225;cia e a seguran&#231;a do ticagrelor foram avaliadas no estudo PLATO, onde 18.624 pacientes com SCA foram randomizados para receberem clopidogrel (75 mg / dia, com dose de ataque de 300 a 600mg) ou ticagrelor (90 mg 2x/dia, com dose de ataque de 180mg). O desfecho combinado prim&#225;rio (mortalidade por causas vasculares, IAM ou AVC) em 12 meses foi significativamente menor no grupo do ticagrelor (9,8% <italic>vs</italic>. 11,7%). N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa quanto &#224;s taxas de sangramentos maiores, quando utilizado o crit&#233;rio de sangramento maior do estudo. Entretanto, quando utilizado o crit&#233;rio TIMI de sangramento maior, houve maior taxa de sangramento nos pacientes n&#227;o submetidos a cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica no grupo do ticagrelor (2,8% <italic>vs.</italic> 2,2%; p = 0,03). A an&#225;lise isolada das taxas de IAM, mortalidade vascular e mortalidade por todas as causas demonstrou redu&#231;&#227;o significativamente estat&#237;stica nos usu&#225;rios do ticagrelor. Neste estudo, os principais efeitos adversos foram a dispneia e a bradicardia<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <p>Uma hip&#243;tese poss&#237;vel para explicar a redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade obtida com o ticagrelor &#233; que esta droga possui efeitos al&#233;m da a&#231;&#227;o antiplaquet&#225;ria. O ticagrelor inibe a recapta&#231;&#227;o de adenosina pelas hem&#225;cias e possui uma semelhan&#231;a estrutural que sugere que a adenosina poderia ser um dos seus metab&#243;litos. A adenosina apresenta propriedades citoprotetoras, anti-inflamat&#243;rias, antifibr&#243;ticas e cardioprotetoras, o que poderia justificar a a&#231;&#227;o ben&#233;fica do ticagrelor. A adenosina tamb&#233;m pode justificar os principais efeitos adversos desta droga como a dispneia e as pausas ventriculares. &#201; necess&#225;rio, no entanto, mais evid&#234;ncias para confirmar esta associa&#231;&#227;o direta entre o ticagrelor e a adenosina<sup>30,31</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por apresentar uma meia vida reduzida, ap&#243;s a n&#227;o administra&#231;&#227;o de 3 a 4 doses, a reatividade plaquet&#225;ria retorna ao basal. Isto &#233; importante naqueles pacientes com necessidade de interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica. Entretanto, a m&#225; ades&#227;o &#224; medica&#231;&#227;o exp&#245;e rapidamente o paciente ao risco de eventos isqu&#234;micos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Prasugrel <italic>vs</italic>. Ticagrelor</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; estudos comparando clinicamente estas duas drogas, logo cautela deve ser utilizada ao extrapolar dados de diferentes trabalhos. O TRITON randomizou grande parte (99%) de seus pacientes ap&#243;s o conhecimento da anatomia coron&#225;ria, ao contr&#225;rio do PLATO, onde a randomiza&#231;&#227;o ocorreu na sala de emerg&#234;ncia. A dose de clopidogrel permitida nos dois estudos tamb&#233;m foi diferente. Cerca de 50% dos pacientes do PLATO estavam em uso de inibidor de bomba de pr&#243;ton e 33% no TRITON. O diagn&#243;stico final de SCA com supradesnivelamento ST foi de 37% no PLATO e de 26% no TRITON. No PLATO, com exce&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes submetidos &#224; tromb&#243;lise, todas as formas terap&#234;uticas foram avaliadas (intervencionista, cir&#250;rgica e cl&#237;nica), enquanto que no TRITON, os pacientes eram randomizados ap&#243;s a inten&#231;&#227;o de tratamento intervencionista<sup>12,13</sup>. Portanto, os dois estudos apresentam popula&#231;&#245;es e desenhos diferentes, n&#227;o sendo poss&#237;vel avaliar uma droga em detrimento da outra.</p>
    <p>Biondi-Zoccai e cols.<sup>32</sup> avaliaram esses dois f&#225;rmacos em uma metan&#225;lise indireta e demonstraram que o prasugrel apresentou benef&#237;cio em rela&#231;&#227;o a trombose de <italic>stent</italic> e o ticagrelor em rela&#231;&#227;o a sangramentos maiores relacionados &#224; revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; mortalidade, IAM ou AVC<sup>32</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em uma an&#225;lise de farmacodin&#226;mica em 44 pacientes com SCA que apresentavam alta reatividade plaquet&#225;ria ap&#243;s a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de clopidogrel, Alexopoulos e cols.<sup>33 </sup>evidenciaram que o ticagrelor proporcionou uma maior inibi&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria que o prasugrel (32,9 PRU <italic>vs.</italic> 101,3 PRU; p&lt;0,001).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#245;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria &#233; essencial no tratamento dos pacientes submetidos &#224; ICP. O risco de sangramentos e de eventos tromb&#243;ticos deve nortear a intensidade da terapia antiagregante. Quanto mais intensa a antiagrega&#231;&#227;o, maior o risco de sangramentos peri e p&#243;s procedimento. Este risco deve sempre ser avaliado, visto que as complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas por si s&#243; acarretam em um pior progn&#243;stico<sup>34</sup>. No grupo de pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal cr&#244;nica, por exemplo, o uso da dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria aumenta de forma importante os eventos hemorr&#225;gicos, reduzindo ou at&#233; mesmo tornando nulo a m&#233;dio prazo o benef&#237;cio decorrente da ICP<sup>35</sup>. O risco de sangramento pode ser avaliado por escores cl&#237;nicos de predi&#231;&#227;o, como o CRUSADE, por&#233;m estes escores n&#227;o apresentam um bom valor preditivo, o que limita a avalia&#231;&#227;o adequada do risco hemorr&#225;gico<sup>36</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nos pacientes com SCA, o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es tromb&#243;ticas &#233; elevado, sendo o cen&#225;rio ideal para uma antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria precoce e intensa, o que n&#227;o ocorre com os pacientes com DAC cr&#244;nica e, por isso, n&#227;o devem ser expostos a um elevado risco hemorr&#225;gico.</p>
    <p>Outra op&#231;&#227;o, mais ainda n&#227;o avaliada em estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados, seria a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de inibidores dos receptores P2Y<sub>12</sub> mais potentes (prasugrel ou ticagrelor) na fase aguda do evento coronariano, sendo realizada em seguida a troca (<italic>bridge)</italic> para o clopidogrel, com o intuito de reduzir o risco de sangramento a m&#233;dio e longo prazo. Por&#233;m, quanto tempo, ou se isso seria realmente eficaz do ponto de vista cl&#237;nico, ainda &#233; uma inc&#243;gnita e n&#227;o deve ser recomendado na pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica di&#225;ria.</p>
    <p>A sele&#231;&#227;o do antiplaquet&#225;rio deve ser, portanto, avaliada de forma criteriosa, levando-se em considera&#231;&#227;o todos seus efeitos adversos, pois a suspens&#227;o dessa medica&#231;&#227;o imp&#245;e um risco aumentado de eventos isqu&#234;micos aos pacientes submetidos &#224; ICP. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da reatividade plaquet&#225;ria pode permitir a individualiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento antiagregante. Entretanto, os testes para avaliar a reposta a antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria ainda apresentam baixa sensibilidade, custo elevado e necessitam de evid&#234;ncias robustas que demonstrem benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos autores</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa: Chan M; Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito: Falc&#227;o FJA, Carvalho L; Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual: Alves CMR, Carvalho ACC, Caixeta AM.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="enda" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Felipe Jose de Andrade Falc&#227;o </p>
        <p> Rua Isaac Salazar, 102/902, Tamarineira </p>
        <p> CEP 52060-105, Recife, PE - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="felipejaf@gmail.com">felipejaf@gmail.com</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="caroline.oliveira@gmail.com">caroline.oliveira@gmail.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 14/05/12; revisado em 30/05/12; aceito em 25/03/13.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">P2Y12 platelet receptors: importance in percutaneous coronary intervention</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Apart from their role in hemostasis and thrombosis, platelets are involved in many other biological processes such as wound healing and angiogenesis. Percutaneous coronary intervention is a highly thrombogenic procedure inducing platelets and monocytes activation through endothelial trauma and contact activation by intravascular devices. Platelet P2Y12 receptor activation by adenosine diphosphate facilitates non-ADP agonist-mediated platelet aggregation, dense granule secretion, procoagulant activity, and the phosphorylation of several intraplatelet proteins, making it an ideal drug target. However, not all compounds that target the P2Y12 receptor have similar efficacy and safety profiles. Despite targeting the same receptor, the unique pharmacologic properties of each of these P2Y12 receptor-directed compounds can lead to very different clinical effects.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Receptor Aggregation</kwd>
        <kwd>Platelet Aggregation</kwd>
        <kwd>Percutaneous Coronary Intervention</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>P2Y<sub>12</sub> platelet receptors: importance in percutaneous coronary intervention</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Felipe Jose de Andrade Falc&#227;o<sup>I</sup>; Leonardo Carvalho<sup>II</sup>; Mark Chan<sup>II</sup>; Cl&#225;udia Maria Rodrigues Alves<sup>I</sup>; Ant&#244;nio Carlos Camargo Carvalho<sup>I</sup>; Adriano Mendes Caixeta<sup>I</sup></bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - Escola Paulista de Medicina, S&#227;o Paulo, SP- Brazil</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>National University of Singapore - Yong Loo Lin School of Medicina, Singapore</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Apart from their role in hemostasis and thrombosis, platelets are involved in many other biological processes such as wound healing and angiogenesis. Percutaneous coronary intervention is a highly thrombogenic procedure inducing platelets and monocytes activation through endothelial trauma and contact activation by intravascular devices. Platelet P2Y<sub>12</sub> receptor activation by adenosine diphosphate facilitates non-ADP agonist-mediated platelet aggregation, dense granule secretion, procoagulant activity, and the phosphorylation of several intraplatelet proteins, making it an ideal drug target. However, not all compounds that target the P2Y<sub>12</sub> receptor have similar efficacy and safety profiles. Despite targeting the same receptor, the unique pharmacologic properties of each of these P2Y<sub>12 </sub>receptor-directed compounds can lead to very different clinical effects.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Receptor Aggregation; Platelet Aggregation; Percutaneous Coronary Intervention.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Platelet aggregation exerts an important role in ischemic complications in patients submitted to percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Both the atherosclerotic plaque instability and factors related to the procedure itself (endothelial trauma) and contact of thrombogenic structures and the blood are responsible for this process exacerbation<sup>1</sup>. Despite thromboxane A2 and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) act sinergistically in platelet activation, ADP interaction with its receptors, specially P2 receptors, enhances and sustains this activation. For this reason, these receptors have been the main target of current antiplatelet drugs<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Platelet adhesion, activation and aggregation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Platelets are non-nucleated fragments of megakaryocytes that circulate in the blood stream and have a flattened disk conformation when not activated. They participate in a number of biological processes, from fighting infectious agents to initiating tissue repair by activating angiogenesis. Thus, their functions go well beyond the participation in the coagulation cascade, and they play a key role in modulating the whole tissue repair process<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>In normal conditions, platelets are not activated by the endothelial surface. The endothelial monolayer acts as an antithrombotic surface, since it does not allow the interaction of platelets and sub endothelial proteins and produces prostacyclin I2 and nitric oxide, which are, both, platelet activation inhibitors. Endothelial cells also express the CD39 enzyme, which converts adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to ADP and ADP to adenosine monophosphate (AMP), avoiding platelet activation by ATP and ADP<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the presence of vascular injury or trauma, sub endothelial proteins, such as Von Willebrand factor and collagen, are exposed and platelet adhesion occurs with the objective of promoting tissue healing. The interaction between these proteins and platelets is mediated by a number of receptors at the platelet surface (GPIb&#945;, GPVI &#945;2&#946;1), and platelet activation occurs concomitantly to adhesion. Multiple metabolic pathways are stimulated, leading to an increase in calcium intracellular concentration. This increase activates phospholipase A2 and actin-myosin ATPase, leading to thromboxane A2 formation and platelet conformational change, respectively. When activated, platelets release their granules (containing ADP, ATP, serotonin, calcium, fibrinogen, Von Willebrand factors, cytokines and pro-thrombotic factors), increasing their volume and reactivity. In order to form this aggregate, platelets interact through the binding of fibrinogen and glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>Platelet deposition at the vessel wall, leucocyte recruitment and smooth muscle cell migration promote an alteration in the arterial structure, known as vascular remodeling. This remodeling, together with the chronic inflammatory state mediated by platelets, consists in a key step in atherosclerotic plaque formation, intimal hyperplasia and stent restenosis<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ADP and P2 platelet receptors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Secreted by red blood cells, endothelial cells and released in platelet granules, ADP is an important mediator of the activation and platelet aggregation amplification. ADP interacts with the platelet surface through receptors of the P2 family, whose two subtypes can be differentiated by the intracellular activation pathway: P2X (binded to ion channels) and P2Y (coupled to G protein). There is currently a new classification based on the agonist type: P2X<sub>1</sub>, activated by ATP; P2Y<sub>1</sub> and P2Y<sub>12</sub>, activated by ADP (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop_4889fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>)<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop_4889fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-03-0277-30162-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>The P2X<sub>1</sub> receptors are responsible for a transient conformational change in platelets, which is associated to the rapid calcium influx. Thus, though not capable of sustaining platelet aggregation, they contribute to collagen-induced activation<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>P2Y<sub>1</sub> receptors can be found in multiple tissues, including the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscular cells, nervous tissues, testicles, prostate and ovaries. In response to ADP-mediated activation, calcium is mobilized from platelet storage, leading to conformational change and transient aggregation. This receptor has a key role in the beginning of ADP-induced activation, but, for the effective stabilization of platelet thrombus, the activation of other receptors is required<sup>4,5</sup>.</p>
      <p>P2Y<sub>12</sub> receptors, besides being found in platelets, are also present in the microglia, endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells. These receptors have a central role in the amplification of the aggregation induced by all platelet agonists, such as collagen, thrombin, thromboxane A2, adrenaline and serotonin. Despite that, the agonist with the highest affinity, as observed with P2Y<sub>1</sub> receptors, is ADP. The intracellular response to its activation is the inhibition of cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) production, vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) dephosphorylation and GTPase Rap1B and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-K) activation. The activation of both P2 receptors is important to ADP-induced aggregation, since the selective inhibition of one receptor leads to an important reduction in platelet aggregation<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>P2Y<sub>12</sub> receptor inhibitors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Antiplatelet drugs are essential in the management of patients submitted to PCI. There are three groups of antiaggregation drugs with proven clinical efficacy: cyclooxygenase inhibitors (AAS), P2Y12<sub>receptor</sub> inhibitors and glycoprotein IIb/IIIa antagonists<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>The P2Y<sub>12</sub> receptor is the main target of oral inhibitory agents, since it is directly involved in the amplification of the platelet reactivity required for thrombus formation. There are three classes of P2Y12 receptors: thienopyridines, ATP analogues and ciclopentil-triazolo pyrimidines (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_4889tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_4889tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-101-03-0277-30162-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Thienopyridines</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Clopidogrel</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The first and the second generation of thienopyridines are represented by ticlopidine and clopidogrel, respectively. Ticlopidine's utilization is limited by a greater incidence of hematologic adverse effects, such as neutropenia and agranulocytosis. Clopidogrel is a pro-drug that must be metabolized in a two-step process by cytochrome P450 (CP450) in the liver to an active metabolite, which will irreversibly bind to the P2Y<sub>12</sub> receptors. The majority of the absorbed clopidogrel (85-90%) is hydrolyzed in inactive carboxylic acid and the remaining is rapidly metabolized by CP450<sup>15</sup>. The 75-mg clopidogrel dose starts acting after two hours, but three to seven days are needed to achieve maximum platelet inhibition. The time for achieving its peak action, however, can be reduced with the utilization of loading doses. With a 300 mg- or 600 mg loading dose, maximum inhibition is achieved in 12 and 3 hours, respectively.</p>
      <p>It is worth highlighting that these are mean population values which do not reflect the necessary individual aggregation degree, since a number of pharmacokinetics studies were performed in normal individuals without coronary artery disease (CAD) and no damage to organs responsible for drug excretion or metabolization. Doses higher than 600 mg did not lead to more antiaggregation, since these doses did not lead to an increase in the concentration of the active metabolite<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>Clopidogrel, despite showing efficacy, cannot be considered the ideal antiaggregant. Its main inconveniences are its great individual variability, due to metabolic differences, the irreversible inhibition of the receptors, increasing bleeding risk specially in patients submitted to surgical procedures, and its latency to achieving the peak of action (reducing its benefit to acute coronary syndrome (ASC) patients needing fast platelet activity inhibition<sup>16</sup>.</p>
      <p>Approximately 30% of the patients taking conventional doses of clopidogrel develop resistance or low response to the drug. This percentage represents a clinically vulnerable population with a high risk of major cardiovascular events, including AMI, stent thrombosis and death<sup>17</sup>.Various factors influence this individual variability, including obesity, diabetes mellitus, ASC, age and mutations in the genes coding P450 cytochrome enzymes.</p>
      <p>The patients that are homozygous for mutant alleles of CYP2C19 present a high risk of cardiovascular events, mainly stent thrombosis<sup>2</sup>.Due to this evidence, the FDA issued an alert recommending that the utilization of other antiaggregation agent or unusual doses of clopidogrel be considered for these patients, individualizing platelet antiaggreagation<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p>Individualized therapy is common in clinical cardiology. Various drug classes are dosed according to the clinical or laboratory response of the patient, such as anti-hypertensive and anticoagulant drugs, respectively.</p>
      <p>The utilization of laboratory exams that allow a more precise evaluation of the individual variability in antiaggregant response is thus necessary. Currently, two test groups are available for this purpose: genetic and platelet reactivity tests. Since the genotype is constant, its evaluation is not capable of adequately measuring the cumulative influence and the dynamics of the various factors that interfere in platelet reactivity; thus, despite still limited by technical factors, it is more appropriate to evaluate the final phenotype than the genotype.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Platelet aggregation evaluation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The gold standard for platelet function evaluation is light transmission aggregometry. Despite that, the standardization of this method is difficult, demanding approximately four hours for its performance and requiring specific training. Bedside tests, such as VerifyNow<sup>&#174;</sup>, have been highlighted by their easy utilization, rapid results, and for the lack of sample preparation requirement<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>A number of studies employed the ROC curve for defining the ideal platelet reactivity value relative to the thrombotic risk (cardiovascular mortality, stent thrombosis and non-fatal AMI). The best match between sensitivity and specificity was obtained with 240 P2Y<sub>12</sub> reaction units (PRU)<sup>15</sup>. More recently, the ADAPT-DES study reported that a PRU &gt; 208 and a platelet inhibition percentage equal or inferior to 11% were independently associated to stent thrombosis<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>The clopidogrel dose guided by VerifyNow<sup>&#174;</sup> was evaluated in the GRAVITAS study. Chronic CAD patients that had been submitted to stent angioplasty and were considered resistant to clopidogrel (PRU &gt; 240) were randomized to a doubled dose (bolus plus maintenance) or standard dose of clopidogrel. Despite the smaller PRU levels seen in the patients taking the higher clopidogrel dose, no difference was observed regarding primary outcome (death, non-fatal AMI and non-fatal stroke)<sup>21</sup>. In the ARTIC study, the number of events was not reduced by using platelet aggregation guided therapy after drug-eluting stents in the chronic CAD patient population<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>However, the study ADAPT-DES showed that, in patients with CAS, it was possible to evaluate stent thrombosis risk using PRU value, confirming the importance of the clinical presentation type (acute/chronic) to antiaggregation intensity<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another method for evaluating platelet aggregation is quantifying VASP (vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein) using flux cytometry. VASP is an intracellular protein activated by the binding of agonists to P2Y12 receptors<sub>12</sub>. In basal conditions, this protein is not phosphorylated and is regulated by the cAMP pathway, which is activated by prostaglandin E1 action and inhibited by ADP via the P2Y<sub>12</sub> receptors. VASP phosphorylation is associated to P2Y<sub>12</sub> receptor inhibition and the non-phosphorylated form is associated to these receptors' activation. This method, however, demands intense laboratory work and is expensive<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>The difficulty in simulating in vitro hemostasis is the main barrier for the utilization of these tests<sup>23</sup>. The limitations for the evaluation of the platelet-endothelium and platelet-leukocyte interactions as well as the utilization of thrombotic surfaces as potential aggregation activators cannot be ignored; besides that, the utilization of agonists separately and in fixed concentrations is not similar to the physiological process. Other relevant point is that measuring aggregation in one blood sample is different from quantifying activity in the specific site of the tissue damage. Thus, the agonist may bind to the receptor, but intracellular pathways may exist that contribute to different responses when measuring platelet reactivity.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Prasugrel</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Prasugrel, a third-generation thienopyridine drug, is a pro-drug with pharmacokinetic profile similar to clopidogrel which needs one less step to be converted to its active metabolite. Its distinct chemical structure allows a smaller dependency from CP450 for its activation. Its pharmacokinetics is more stable than clopidogrel since it is not influenced by CP450 mutations, resulting in a faster onset of action, and peak aggregation after 30 minutes<sup>16</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the randomized study TRITON-TIMMI 38, prasugrel, when compared to clopidogrel, showed greater efficacy in significantly reducing IAM rates (7.4% vs 9.4%) and stent thrombosis (2.4% vs 1.1%) in ACS patients; however, patients treated with prasugrel presented higher bleeding rates (2.4% vs 1.8%) and the mortality rates were not significantly different. The subgroup analysis did not recommend its use by patients with past history of stroke/transient ischemic attack (TIA), individuals older than 75 years old or weighing less than 60 kg, due to increased bleeding risk. The patients with past history of stroke/TIA presented net damage with the utilization of prasugrel<sup>12</sup>. The drug was not able to reproduce the benefit seen with clopidogrel in patients with stable CAD or ACS without ST elevation treated conservatively<sup>24,25</sup>.</p>
      <p>Despite prasugrel being considered more potent than clopidogrel, in vivo and in vitro studies showed that their active metabolites have equivalent potencies. Thus, its clinical benefit can be better explained by its better pro-drug conversion into active compounds than clopidogrel. Consequently, most patients treated with this drug tend to have faster inhibition of platelet aggregation<sup>16</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cangrelor</bold>
      </p>
      <p>ATP analogues are represented by cangrelor. This drug is a potent reversible inhibitor of P2Y<sub>12</sub> receptors that does not need to be metabolized in order to act and is given only intravenously. Since it is an active metabolite, its peak of action is achieved in 2 to 30 minutes when given as a bolus or not, respectively. Its plasma half-life is six minutes, leading to a return to basal platelet aggregation one to two hours after finishing infusion. The studies that compared cangrelor and clopidogrel, however, were not able to show clinical difference between these drugs<sup>14,26</sup>.</p>
      <p>The BRIDGE study compared cangrelor to placebo in patients who discontinued the thienopyridine due to upcoming surgical bypass. Cangrelor was able to maintain antiaggregation until the intervention without, however, increasing bleeding rates during surgery. Cangrelor utilization as a bridge to patients subject to high thrombotic risk that need to be submitted to surgical procedures seems to be promising<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Ticagrelor</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The most recent P2Y<sub>12</sub> receptor inhibitor class is the ciclopentil-triazolo pyrimidines, represented by ticagrelor. Unlike the thienopyridines, ticagrelor does not need to be metabolized by the liver, interacts with platelet receptors reversibly and has faster onset and peak of action<sup>28</sup>. Action onset and peak are similar to clopidogrel in non-responding patients<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>Both efficacy and safety of ticagrelor were evaluated in the PLATO study, in which 18,624 ACS patients were randomized for receiving clopidogrel (75 mg/day, with a loading dose of 300 to 600 mg) or ticagrelor (90 mg twice daily, with a 180 mg loading dose). The primary combined endpoint (mortality due to vascular cause, AMI or stroke) in 12 months was significantly smaller in the ticagrelor group (9.8% vs 11.7%). No significant difference was verified on major bleeding rates when the study's major bleeding rate was used. However, when TIMI's major bleeding criteria were used, the bleeding rate was higher in patients not submitted to myocardial bypass in the ticagrelor group (2.8% vs 2.2%; p = 0.03).The isolated analysis of AMI, vascular mortality and all-cause mortality rates showed a statistically significant rate in patients taking ticagrelor. In this study, the main adverse effects were dyspnea and bradycardia<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p>One possible hypothesis for explaining the mortality reduction obtained with ticagrelor is that this drug has other effects besides antiplatelet action. Ticagrelor inhibits adenosine reuptake by red blood cells and is structurally related to adenosine, suggesting that the latter may be one of its metabolites. Adenosine has cytoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antifibrotic and cardioprotective properties, which could explain ticagrelor benefits. Adenosine can also justify the main adverse effects of this drug, such as dyspnea and ventricular pauses. More evidence is required, though, for confirming the direct association of ticagrelor and adenosine<sup>30,31</sup>.</p>
      <p>Due to its short half-life, platelet reactivity returns to basal levels after 3 to 4 missing doses. This is important for patients requiring surgical intervention. However, bad drug adherence quickly exposes the patient to the risk of ischemic events.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Prasugrel <italic>vs</italic>. Ticagrelor</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There are no studies comparing these drugs clinically; thus, care must be taken when extrapolating data from different papers. The study TRITON randomized the great majority of its patients (99%) with knowledge of their coronary anatomy, while PLATO, on the other side, randomized patients at the emergency room. The clopidogrel dose allowed in the two studies was also different. Approximately 50% of the patients in the PLATO study and 33% of the TRITON study patients were taking proton pump inhibitors. A final diagnosis of ACS with ST elevation was made in 37% of the patients in the PLATO study and 26% of the patients in the TRITON study. In PLATO, with the exception of patients submitted to thrombolysis, all therapeutic regimens were evaluated (interventionist, surgical and clinical), while in TRITON patients were randomized after intervention was indicated<sup>12,13</sup>. Thus, the two studies have different populations and designs, and it is not possible to compare the drugs.</p>
      <p>Biondi-Zoccai et al<sup>32</sup> evaluated both drugs in an indirect metanalysis and demonstrated the benefit of prasugrel regarding stent thrombosis and ticagrelor regarding major bleeding related to surgical bypass. No difference was observed regarding mortality, AMI or stroke<sup>32</sup>.</p>
      <p>In a pharmacodynamic analysis of 44 ACS patients with high platelet reactivity after taking clopidogrel, Alexopoulos et al<sup>33</sup> showed that ticagrelor provided lesser platelet inhibition than prasugrel (32.9 PRU <italic>vs. </italic>101.3 PRU; p &lt; 0.001).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusions</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Platelet antiaggregation is essential in the management of patients submitted to PCI. The risks of bleeding and thrombotic events must guide antiaggreagation therapy intensity. The more intense the antiaggregation, higher the peri and post-surgery bleeding risks. These risks must always be evaluated, since bleeding complications per se lead to a worse prognosis<sup>34</sup>. In the group of patients with chronic renal dysfunction, for example, dual platelet antiaggregation therapy greatly increases hemorrhagic events, reducing or even overriding PCI benefit on a medium term basis<sup>35</sup>. The bleeding risk can be evaluated by clinical prediction scores such as CRUSADE, but these scores do not have good prediction values, limiting proper evaluation of the hemorrhagic risk<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>In ACS patients, there is a high risk of thrombotic complications, an ideal scenario for early and intense platelet anti-aggregation; the same is not true for chronic CAD patients which, for this reason, are not to be exposed to high hemorrhagic risk.</p>
      <p>Other option, not yet evaluated in randomized clinical studies, would be the utilization of more potentP2Y<sub>12</sub> receptor inhibitors (prasugrel or ticagrelor) in the acute phase of the coronary events, followed by a bridge with clopidogrel, aiming to reduce medium and long term bleeding risk. However, the duration of each therapy or whether this strategy would be really efficacious from a clinical point of view is still unknown and should not be recommended in daily clinical practice.</p>
      <p>Antiplatelet selection must thus be carefully evaluated taking into account all adverse events, since its discontinuation imposes and increased risk of ischemic events to patients submitted to PCI. Accessing antiplatelet reactivity may allow anti-aggregation therapy individualization. However, tests for evaluating the response to platelet anti-aggregation drugs are still expensive, lack sensitivity and still require robust evidence showing clinical benefit.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Author contributions</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Conception and design of the research: Chan M; Writing of the manuscript: Falc&#227;o FJA, Carvalho L; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Alves CMR, Carvalho ACC, Caixeta AM.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study is not associated with any post-graduation program.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
