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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">Zx7HVvQ7SxCdGFDYXXSJQQC</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2013000600007</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(13)10000600007</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20130102</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Disfun&#231;&#227;o renal e marcadores inflamat&#243;rios em hipertensos atendidos em hospital universit&#225;rio</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Braga</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;tima L&#250;cia Machado</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Arruda</surname>
            <given-names>Ilma Kruze Grande de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Diniz</surname>
            <given-names>Alcides da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cabral</surname>
            <given-names>Poliana Coelho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lemos</surname>
            <given-names>Maria da Concei&#231;&#227;o Chaves de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Braga</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Davis Machado</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chaves J&#250;nior</surname>
            <given-names>Hilton de Castro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Pernambuco</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Nutri&#231;&#227;o </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Pernambuco</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Nutri&#231;&#227;o </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff04">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Pernambuco</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Pernambuco</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Medicina </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Cear&#225;</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Cear&#225;</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Patologia e Medicina Legal </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>100</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>538</fpage>
      <lpage>545</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2013</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: A doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica representa hoje um grande desafio para a sa&#250;de p&#250;blica no sentido de se obterem conhecimentos para subsidiar interven&#231;&#245;es que possam alterar a velocidade de perda da fun&#231;&#227;o renal. OBJETIVO: Avaliar a magnitude do d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal em hipertensos adultos e sua rela&#231;&#227;o com marcadores inflamat&#243;rios: prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel, velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o e rela&#231;&#227;o neutr&#243;filos/linf&#243;citos. M&#201;TODOS: Estudo transversal envolvendo 1.273 adultos hipertensos, de ambos os sexos, sendo 1.052 com d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal e 221 sem d&#233;ficit, diagnosticados pela equa&#231;&#227;o Modification of Diet in the Renal Disease. A raz&#227;o de chances (OR) e a raz&#227;o de preval&#234;ncia (RP) foram utilizadas para determinar a probabilidade de ocorr&#234;ncia de atividade inflamat&#243;ria na doen&#231;a renal. RESULTADOS: O d&#233;ficit de fun&#231;&#227;o renal foi diagnosticado em 82,6% dos avaliados, sendo que a maioria da amostra (70,8%) estava inserida no est&#225;gio 2 da doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica. No modelo de regress&#227;o permaneceram independentemente associadas ao d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica (RPajustada = 1,09 [IC95%: 1,04-1,14]), a prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel (RPajustada = 1,54 [IC95%: 1,40-1,69]) e a velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o (RPajustada = 1,20 [IC95%: 1,12-1,28]). No entanto, considerando os indiv&#237;duos classificados no est&#225;gio 2 do d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal, a chance de altera&#231;&#227;o dos marcadores inflamat&#243;rios foram de OR = 10,25 (IC95%: 7,00-15,05) para a prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel, OR = 8,50 (IC95%: 5.70-12.71) para a rela&#231;&#227;o neutr&#243;filos/linf&#243;citos e OR = 7,18 (IC95%: 4,87-10,61) para a velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o. CONCLUS&#195;O: Os resultados mostram associa&#231;&#227;o da atividade inflamat&#243;ria e da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica com o d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Nefropatias</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflama&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>S&#237;ndrome Metab&#243;lica</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>14</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>Disfun&#231;&#227;o renal e marcadores inflamat&#243;rios em hipertensos atendidos em hospital universit&#225;rio</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>F&#225;tima L&#250;cia Machado Braga<sup>I</sup>; Ilma Kruze Grande de Arruda<sup>I</sup>; Alcides da Silva Diniz<sup>I</sup>; Poliana Coelho Cabral<sup>I</sup>; Maria da Concei&#231;&#227;o Chaves de Lemos<sup>II</sup>; Marcus Davis Machado Braga<sup>III</sup>; Hilton de Castro Chaves J&#250;nior<sup>IV</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Nutri&#231;&#227;o - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - PE </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Departamento de Nutri&#231;&#227;o - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - PE </p>
    <p><sup>III</sup>Departamento de Patologia e Medicina Legal - Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; - CE </p>
    <p><sup>IV</sup>Departamento de Medicina - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - PE, Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO:</bold> A doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica representa hoje um grande desafio para a sa&#250;de p&#250;blica no sentido de se obterem conhecimentos para subsidiar interven&#231;&#245;es que possam alterar a velocidade de perda da fun&#231;&#227;o renal. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Avaliar a magnitude do d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal em hipertensos adultos e sua rela&#231;&#227;o com marcadores inflamat&#243;rios: prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel, velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o e rela&#231;&#227;o neutr&#243;filos/linf&#243;citos. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Estudo transversal envolvendo 1.273 adultos hipertensos, de ambos os sexos, sendo 1.052 com d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal e 221 sem d&#233;ficit, diagnosticados pela equa&#231;&#227;o <italic>Modification of Diet in the Renal Disease</italic>. A raz&#227;o de chances (OR) e a raz&#227;o de preval&#234;ncia (RP) foram utilizadas para determinar a probabilidade de ocorr&#234;ncia de atividade inflamat&#243;ria na doen&#231;a renal. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS: </bold>O d&#233;ficit de fun&#231;&#227;o renal foi diagnosticado em 82,6% dos avaliados, sendo que a maioria da amostra (70,8%) estava inserida no est&#225;gio 2 da doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica. No modelo de regress&#227;o permaneceram independentemente associadas ao d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica (RP<sub>ajustada</sub> = 1,09 [IC95%: 1,04-1,14]), a prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel (RP<sub>ajustada</sub> = 1,54 [IC95%: 1,40-1,69]) e a velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o (RP<sub>ajustada</sub> = 1,20 [IC95%: 1,12-1,28]). No entanto, considerando os indiv&#237;duos classificados no est&#225;gio 2 do d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal, a chance de altera&#231;&#227;o dos marcadores inflamat&#243;rios foram de OR = 10,25 (IC95%: 7,00-15,05) para a prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel, OR = 8,50 (IC95%: 5.70-12.71) para a rela&#231;&#227;o neutr&#243;filos/linf&#243;citos e OR = 7,18 (IC95%: 4,87-10,61) para a velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> Os resultados mostram associa&#231;&#227;o da atividade inflamat&#243;ria e da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica com o d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Hipertens&#227;o, Nefropatias, Inflama&#231;&#227;o, S&#237;ndrome Metab&#243;lica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es no perfil de morbimortalidade da popula&#231;&#227;o mundial evidenciaram aumento da doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica (DRC), considerada um dos maiores desafios da sa&#250;de p&#250;blica deste s&#233;culo, com todas as suas implica&#231;&#245;es econ&#244;micas e sociais<sup>1</sup>. Segundo os crit&#233;rios da National Kidney Foundation/Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Iniciative<sup>2</sup>, a DRC &#233; definida como les&#227;o do par&#234;nquima renal e/ou diminui&#231;&#227;o da taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular (TFG) por per&#237;odo igual ou superior a tr&#234;s meses, evidenciada por marcadores de les&#227;o renal, incluindo altera&#231;&#245;es sangu&#237;neas/urin&#225;rias, exames de imagem ou histopatol&#243;gicos<sup>2</sup>. Nos Estados Unidos, Europa e &#193;sia estima-se que 11-33% da popula&#231;&#227;o geral sejam portadores de DRC, a maioria nos est&#225;gios iniciais da doen&#231;a<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>De acordo com a literatura, hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS) associada a DRC eleva o risco cardiovascular e, &#224; medida que a disfun&#231;&#227;o renal evolui, aumenta a preval&#234;ncia de HAS, atingindo cerca de 90% dos nefropatas. Portanto, a detec&#231;&#227;o, o tratamento e o controle da HAS s&#227;o fundamentais para a redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos renais e cardiovasculares<sup>2,4,5</sup>.</p>
    <p>A hipertens&#227;o reflete um estado de inflama&#231;&#227;o endotelial, assim como a DRC<sup>5</sup>. De acordo com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es europeias e japonesas, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de marcadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o, como a prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel (PCRus), a velocidade de hemossedimenta&#231;&#227;o (VHS) e a rela&#231;&#227;o neutr&#243;filos/linf&#243;citos (R N/L) em pacientes com DRC melhora o diagn&#243;stico e a terap&#234;utica, reduzindo dessa forma a mortalidade cardiovascular<sup>6,7</sup>.</p>
    <p>No Brasil, h&#225; escassez de estudos sobre a rela&#231;&#227;o entre a DRC e os marcadores inflamat&#243;rios PCRus, R N/L e VHS. De acordo com v&#225;rios autores, tanto a PCRus quanto a VHS podem ser usadas na identifica&#231;&#227;o da DRC, aumentando a sensibilidade e a especificidade desse diagn&#243;stico<sup>7-9</sup>. Kocyigit e cols.<sup>10</sup> referiram que R N/L &lt; 1 pode ser indicativa de estado inflamat&#243;rio subjacente e predizer a taxa de progress&#227;o da DRC est&#225;gio 4, indicando a necessidade de procedimento dial&#237;tico.</p>
    <p>Desse modo, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a magnitude da disfun&#231;&#227;o renal e sua rela&#231;&#227;o com tr&#234;s potenciais marcadores inflamat&#243;rios (PCRus, R N/L e VHS), utilizados na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, em pacientes hipertensos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Desenho do estudo e amostra</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Estudo transversal de cunho anal&#237;tico, constitu&#237;do por 2.122 indiv&#237;duos hipertensos de ambos os sexos, com quatro anos de atendimento na Cl&#237;nica de Hipertens&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Pernambuco. Foram exclu&#237;dos os portadores de hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria (n = 5), arritmias card&#237;acas (n = 26), insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (n = 7), infarto do mioc&#225;rdio pr&#233;vio (n = 9), dislipidemias com uso de medica&#231;&#227;o hipolipemiante (n = 46), diabetes melito (n = 203) e aqueles com dados incompletos no prontu&#225;rio (n = 553). O tamanho amostral final foi de 1.273 indiv&#237;duos. Todos os pacientes tinham esquema de f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos entre 1-4 drogas (betabloqueador, hidroclorotiazida, inibidor da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina, betabloqueador do canal de c&#225;lcio, hidralazina, metildopa).</p>
    <p>A taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular (TFG) foi estimada segundo os crit&#233;rios da National Kidney Foundation/Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative<sup>2</sup>, a partir da equa&#231;&#227;o proposta por Levey e cols.<sup>11</sup>. O d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal (DFR) foi definido como TFG <underline>&lt;</underline> 89 mL/min/1,73m<sup>2</sup> e classificado em cinco est&#225;gios: 1 = TFG <underline>&gt;</underline> 90 mL/min/1,73m<sup>2</sup>; 2 = 60-89,9 mL/min/1,73m<sup>2</sup>; 3 = 30-59,9 mL/min/1,73m<sup>2</sup>; 4 = 15-29,9 mL/min/1,73m<sup>2</sup>; 5 = &lt; 15 mL/min/1,73m<sup>2</sup>. Considerou-se DFR agregando os est&#225;gios 2, 3 e 4. O est&#225;gio 1 foi considerado nos pacientes sem d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vari&#225;veis do estudo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As vari&#225;veis consideradas foram as sociodemogr&#225;ficas (idade, sexo e escolaridade), laboratoriais (PCR<italic>us</italic>, VSH e R N/L), antropom&#233;tricas (&#237;ndice de massa corp&#243;rea [IMC] e circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura [CC]) e cl&#237;nicas (s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica [SM] e hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica [HAS]).</p>
    <p>Todos os participantes foram esclarecidos sobre os objetivos do estudo e, ap&#243;s a assinatura do Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarcido, responderam a um question&#225;rio com informa&#231;&#245;es socioecon&#244;micas, demogr&#225;ficas e cl&#237;nicas. Al&#233;m disso, foram aferidas as medidas antropom&#233;tricas e coletada amostra de sangue para an&#225;lise laboratorial.</p>
    <p>A escolaridade foi avaliada em termos de anos de estudo, estratificando-se a amostra em &lt; 4 anos e <underline>&gt;</underline> 4 anos. A PCRusfoi mensurada pelo m&#233;todo de Automa&#231;&#227;o Cobas C 501, considerando-se como normal o valor de refer&#234;ncia &lt; 0,5 mg/dL, para homens e mulheres. Na avalia&#231;&#227;o da VHS na primeira hora, utilizou-se o m&#233;todo de fotometria por capilaridade, referenciada por valores de 0-15 mm para homens e 0-20 mm para mulheres, com ponto de corte nos limites superiores da normalidade. A invers&#227;o da R N/L, no hemograma, foi avaliada utilizando o m&#233;todo ABX Pentra DX 120, com revis&#227;o de l&#226;mina, considerando-se como alterada quando &gt; 1.</p>
    <p>As medidas de peso e altura foram tomadas segundo as t&#233;cnicas preconizadas<sup>12</sup>. O peso foi aferido em uma balan&#231;a da marca Filizola<sup>&#174;</sup>, com capacidade de 150 kg, e a altura medida em antrop&#244;metro acoplado &#224; balan&#231;a com capacidade para 1,90 m. O diagn&#243;stico do excesso de peso foi realizado pelo IMC, classificado de acordo com os pontos de corte da Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial de Sa&#250;de (OMS), considerando-se excesso de peso o IMC <underline>&gt;</underline> 25 kg/m<sup>2,13</sup>. No caso de idosos, foi utilizada a classifica&#231;&#227;o proposta por Lipschitz<sup>14</sup>, utilizando-se o ponto de corte de IMC <underline>&gt;</underline> 27 kg/m<sup>2</sup>. A CC foi obtida no ponto m&#233;dio entre o &#250;ltimo arco costal e a crista il&#237;aca, utilizando fita m&#233;trica flex&#237;vel e inel&#225;stica, sem comprimir os tecidos. O paciente foi mantido em posi&#231;&#227;o ereta, com o abdome relaxado, bra&#231;os ao lado do corpo e p&#233;s unidos. A cintura foi considerada elevada considerando os pontos de corte <underline>&gt;</underline> 94 cm (homem) e <underline>&gt;</underline> 80 cm (mulher)<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na aferi&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial (PA) foi utilizado o m&#233;todo auscultat&#243;rio, com esfigmoman&#244;metro de coluna de merc&#250;rio, marca Takaoka, modelo 203, devidamente calibrado, e estetosc&#243;pio marca Littmann, obedecendo &#224; t&#233;cnica preconizada. Foram consideradas as medidas da PA aferidas na primeira consulta e na aus&#234;ncia de tomada de medica&#231;&#227;o anti-hipertensiva. A classifica&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o seguiu as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da VI Diretrizes Brasileiras de Hipertens&#227;o<sup>4</sup>. </p>
    <p> A SM foi identificada segundo os crit&#233;rios da International Diabetes Federation (IDF)<sup>15</sup>, sendo baseada na presen&#231;a das seguintes caracter&#237;sticas: obesidade abdominal (circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura <underline>&gt;</underline> 94 cm, homens, e <underline>&gt;</underline> 80 cm, mulheres), associada a pelo menos dois dos seguintes fatores: lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL - colesterol) &lt; 40 mg/dL, homens, e &lt; 50 mg/d, mulheres; triglic&#233;rides <underline>&gt;</underline> 150 mg/dL; glicemia de jejum <underline>&gt;</underline> 100 mg/dL; HAS, classificada segundo as VI Diretrizes Brasileiras de Hipertens&#227;o<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise e processamento dos dados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A constru&#231;&#227;o do banco de dados e a an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica foram realizadas nos programas Epi-info vers&#227;o 6.04 e SPSS vers&#227;o 13.0. Os dados foram digitados com dupla entrada e verificados com o Validate, para checar a consist&#234;ncia e a valida&#231;&#227;o dos mesmos. Os dados foram descritos como medianas + intervalos interquart&#237;licos para vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas. As propor&#231;&#245;es foram usadas para expressar vari&#225;veis dicot&#244;micas. O melhor ajuste para distribui&#231;&#227;o normal foi avaliado utilizando o teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov.</p>
    <p>Investigou-se a influ&#234;ncia dos fatores de risco estudados sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o renal utilizando o modelo de regress&#227;o de Poisson e, na composi&#231;&#227;o do modelo consideraram-se as vari&#225;veis que obtiveram signific&#226;ncia <underline>&lt;</underline> 0,20 na an&#225;lise bivariada n&#227;o ajustada, e aquelas que n&#227;o atenderam a essa defini&#231;&#227;o entraram no modelo pela sua import&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica (SM). Na an&#225;lise ajustada foi utilizado o m&#233;todo <italic>stepwise</italic> (sele&#231;&#227;o de vari&#225;veis por passos) com elimina&#231;&#227;o retr&#243;grada. Permaneceram no modelo final apenas as vari&#225;veis associadas a um valor de p &lt; 0,05. Os testes analisados foram aplicados com 95% de intervalo de confian&#231;a e n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de 5%.</p>
    <p>Para verificar a exist&#234;ncia de associa&#231;&#227;o entre a disfun&#231;&#227;o renal e os marcadores selecionados, foram utilizados os testes de qui-quadrado com corre&#231;&#227;o de Yates ou teste exato de Fisher quando os crit&#233;rios para aplica&#231;&#227;o do primeiro n&#227;o foram atingidos, de Mann-Whitney U, e a for&#231;a da associa&#231;&#227;o foi avaliada pela raz&#227;o de preval&#234;ncia (RP) e pela raz&#227;o de chances (<italic>odds ratio - </italic>OR), considerando-se um intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Aspectos &#233;ticos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O projeto foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa Envolvendo Seres Humanos do Centro de Ci&#234;ncias da Sa&#250;de da Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (CEP/CCS/UFPE), registro CEP/CCS/UFPE n.343/09 e no SISNEP FR - 300564, de acordo com a Resolu&#231;&#227;o n.196/96 do Conselho Nacional de Sa&#250;de.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Dos 1.273 pacientes hipertensos inclu&#237;dos no estudo, a maioria (73,1%, IC95%: 0,95-1,07) era do sexo feminino. A mediana da press&#227;o arterial foi de 138 mmHg press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) e 86 mmHg press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica (PAD), e a mediana de idade foi de 59 (intervalo interquart&#237;lico [IQ]: 52-67), com idade m&#237;nima de 41 e m&#225;xima de 92 anos. Cerca de 60% dos pacientes faziam uso de medica&#231;&#227;o combinada de duas drogas, enquanto 12% faziam uso de 3-4 medica&#231;&#245;es. O DFR foi diagnosticado em 82,6% dos avaliados, sendo que a maioria da amostra (70,8%) estava inserida no est&#225;gio 2 da DRC. O d&#233;ficit moderado (est&#225;gio 3) ocorreu em 28,2% dos avaliados, enquanto a les&#227;o renal acentuada (est&#225;gio 4) associada a sinais e sintomas da uremia foi observada em cerca de 1% dos pacientes; n&#227;o houve registro de casos no est&#225;gio 5.</p>
    <p>O DFR foi mais elevado com o aumento da idade (p &lt; 0,05), com risco de 1,22 nos idosos, quando comparados aos adultos; no sexo feminino, com risco 1,07 vez maior do que no sexo masculino. Pacientes com menor escolaridade apresentaram maior risco para redu&#231;&#227;o da TFG (RP = 1,10, IC95%: 1,04-1,17). Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; HA, indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica isolada apresentaram chance 15% maior de apresentar DFR, quando comparados aos do est&#225;gio 2. Os marcadores inflamat&#243;rios se mostraram associados ao DFR, com maior &#234;nfase para os indiv&#237;duos com eleva&#231;&#227;o da PCRus. No que se refere &#224; SM e &#224;s vari&#225;veis antropom&#233;tricas, n&#227;o foram encontradas associa&#231;&#245;es estatisticamente significantes com o DFR (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5047tab01">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5047tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0538-30102-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5047tab02">Tabela 2</xref> observa-se que, ap&#243;s o ajuste para os potenciais fatores de risco para o DFR, apenas tr&#234;s vari&#225;veis se mantiveram no modelo, demonstrando associa&#231;&#227;o independente com o DFR, sendo a PCRus elevada o fator mais fortemente associado &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de DFR (RP ajustada = 1,54, IC95%: 1,40-1,69).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5047tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0538-30102-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Todos os marcadores inflamat&#243;rios isolados ou agregados apresentaram associa&#231;&#227;o estatisticamente significante com o DFR, embora indiv&#237;duos com DFR apresentassem marcadores inflamat&#243;rios dentro da faixa de normalidade (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5047tab03">Tabela 3</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5047tab03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0538-30102-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, a PCRus foi mais prevalente na fase inicial da doen&#231;a (est&#225;gio 2), com chance 10,25 (IC95%: 7,00-15,05) maior de se apresentar alterada na compara&#231;&#227;o entre os est&#225;gios 2 e 1 da DFR (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5047tab04">Tabela 4</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5047tab04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0538-30102-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>As compara&#231;&#245;es dos est&#225;gios de DFR com os marcadores inflamat&#243;rios est&#227;o expressas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5047tab05">Tabela 5</xref>. Os valores da PCRus e da VHS ficaram mais elevados &#224; medida que progredia o DFR dos indiv&#237;duos estudados.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5047tab05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0538-30102-gt05.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No Brasil, ainda s&#227;o escassos os trabalhos sobre a preval&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es dos marcadores inflamat&#243;rios nas nefropatias cr&#244;nicas. &#201; importante ressaltar que, apesar de se tratar de uma popula&#231;&#227;o atendida em ambulat&#243;rio de hipertens&#227;o, com pacientes classificados em diferentes est&#225;gios de HAS e principalmente com hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica isolada, a aus&#234;ncia de pacientes com DFR no est&#225;gio final de doen&#231;a renal (est&#225;gio 5) e o n&#250;mero reduzido de pacientes (10 indiv&#237;duos) no est&#225;gio 4 poderiam ser atribu&#237;dos ao fato de que o processo hipertensivo estaria controlado provavelmente devido &#224; abordagem multidisciplinar realizada na cl&#237;nica<sup>16,17</sup>. </p>
    <p>O fato de cerca de 70% dos pacientes apresentarem press&#227;o arterial controlada com o uso de 2-3 classes distintas de anti-hipertensivos n&#227;o &#233; um achado surpreendente. Poss&#237;vel explica&#231;&#227;o para esse resultado seria o reduzido percentual de ades&#227;o &#224;s modifica&#231;&#245;es do estilo de vida observado em qualquer programa de hipertens&#227;o, mesmo naqueles que atuam de forma disciplinar. &#201; verdade que o uso cada vez mais crescente de combina&#231;&#245;es de f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos e a ades&#227;o efetiva a essas medica&#231;&#245;es de forma regular e ininterrupta tendem a propiciar maior controle da hipertens&#227;o. &#201; importante ressaltar que, no presente estudo, cerca de 48% da popula&#231;&#227;o em quest&#227;o foi classificada no est&#225;gio 3 da HAS e 46,9% tinham 60 anos ou mais, duas condi&#231;&#245;es favor&#225;veis &#224;s doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, o que o percentual de 70% utilizando 2-3 drogas, neste caso, reflete um grande e importante controle da press&#227;o naquele grupo submetido a atendimento multiprofissional.</p>
    <p>A elevada preval&#234;ncia de DFR encontrada neste estudo &#233; um fato preocupante, principalmente por sua ocorr&#234;ncia estar associada a altera&#231;&#227;o dos biomarcadores inflamat&#243;rios. Sabe-se que o processo inflamat&#243;rio &#233; altamente prevalente em pacientes com DRC, e est&#225; associado com morbidade e mortalidade cardiovascular, e que taxas de eventos cl&#237;nicos (obesidade e dislipidemias) ocorridos neste estudo poderiam explicar o decl&#237;nio da fun&#231;&#227;o renal e a ativa&#231;&#227;o da resposta inflamat&#243;ria de fase aguda ou cr&#244;nica. Nossos achados est&#227;o em concord&#226;ncia com Shankar e cols.<sup>18</sup>, em estudo com 4.926 pacientes que investigou a rela&#231;&#227;o entre v&#225;rios biomarcadores inflamat&#243;rios, incluindo a PCRus e o risco de desenvolver DRC, encontrando associa&#231;&#227;o positiva e independente, predizendo assim o risco de desenvolvimento dessa patologia.</p>
    <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o encontrada entre a baixa escolaridade e o DFR &#233; concordante com a literatura. Os achados observados no estudo podem refletir a dificuldade de compreens&#227;o, contribuindo para a n&#227;o ades&#227;o ao tratamento da doen&#231;a. A maior preval&#234;ncia do sexo feminino confirma a maior longevidade das mulheres, aspecto tamb&#233;m observado em outros estudos<sup>19-21,22</sup>.</p>
    <p>Um dado que chama a aten&#231;&#227;o &#233; a elevada ocorr&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#227;o da PCRus entre os marcadores estudados. Sabe-se que as prote&#237;nas inflamat&#243;rias de fase aguda s&#227;o assim chamadas por apresentarem n&#237;veis mais elevados nessa fase inflamat&#243;ria, mas que continuam sendo produzidas, ainda que em menores n&#237;veis, nas inflama&#231;&#245;es persistentes cr&#244;nicas. Em trabalhos muito recentes, a inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica tem sido apontada como fator de risco e alvo de terapia para DRC, e, dentre v&#225;rios biomarcadores inflamat&#243;rios, a PCRus tem demonstrado prever a mortalidade, de forma independente, em portadores de DRC<sup>23-25</sup>. As causas do estado altamente prevalente de inflama&#231;&#227;o em DRC s&#227;o m&#250;ltiplas, mas ainda n&#227;o plenamente esclarecidas, e parecem incluir, entre outros fatores, sobrecarga de volume, comorbidades, intercorr&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas, fatores metab&#243;licos e gen&#233;ticos, bem como a doen&#231;a renal <italic>per se</italic> com suas v&#225;rias inter-rela&#231;&#245;es etiopatog&#234;nicas<sup>26</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de fibrinog&#234;nio que, quando aumentados, desencadeiam aumento da VHS, tamb&#233;m t&#234;m sido sugeridos como marcadores de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares<sup>27</sup>. Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, a taxa de VHS, por ser um teste simples e de baixo custo, &#233; utilizada frequentemente como marcador inespec&#237;fico de doen&#231;as e condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas. Collares e Vidigal<sup>28</sup> referem que condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas como o sexo e a idade, e patol&#243;gicas, como processos inflamat&#243;rios cr&#244;nicos, insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica, diabetes melito, obesidade, infec&#231;&#245;es, anemia, neoplasias, les&#245;es teciduais (infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, acidente vascular cerebral) e doen&#231;as do tecido conjuntivo, aumentam os valores da VHS<sup>28</sup>.</p>
    <p>A elevada preval&#234;ncia da SM e a sua perman&#234;ncia no modelo ap&#243;s o ajuste pela regress&#227;o de Poisson demonstram a forte associa&#231;&#227;o independente com o DFR em conjunto com a PCRus e a VHS. Uma poss&#237;vel explica&#231;&#227;o seria o fato de que, na amostra estudada, todos os indiv&#237;duos eram hipertensos, associando-se a isso a elevada preval&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#227;o da CC, dois componentes da SM. Os achados deste estudo s&#227;o concordantes com a literatura<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>A SM tem emergido como importante preditor de complica&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas, tendo como consequ&#234;ncia efeitos adversos &#224; sa&#250;de, e est&#225; relacionada n&#227;o s&#243; com o aumento do risco cardiovascular e metab&#243;lico em idosos como tamb&#233;m se apresenta bem estabelecida como fator predisponente para patologias vasculares, especialmente aterosclerose e HAS<sup>23</sup>. Estudos prospectivos demonstraram que a SM e a inflama&#231;&#227;o possuem efeitos sinerg&#233;ticos e aditivos em processos ateroscler&#243;ticos<sup>30,31</sup>. Inversamente, a inflama&#231;&#227;o tem sido envolvida na patog&#234;nese da SM, especialmente como mecanismo de resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina<sup>31</sup>. Ridker e cols.<sup>30</sup> encontraram associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre n&#237;veis elevados da PCRus e predi&#231;&#227;o de SM, al&#233;m de aumento do risco para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV). A SM tamb&#233;m tem sido apontada em estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos como fator de risco para o desenvolvimento da DRC<sup>29,32,33</sup>. Lee e cols.<sup>29</sup>, investigando a rela&#231;&#227;o entre PCRus, SM e DRC em 9.586 indiv&#237;duos sem diabetes melito ou HAS, verificaram associa&#231;&#227;o entre SM e altos n&#237;veis de PCRus com o aumento da preval&#234;ncia de DRC<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>A preval&#234;ncia elevada dos marcadores inflamat&#243;rios isolados ou agregados na amostra estudada &#233; um achado j&#225; bem estabelecido na literatura, demonstrando que os elementos de uma inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica parecem permear a doen&#231;a renal hipertensiva, contribuindo de forma mais objetiva para o processo degenerativo arteriolar renal<sup>34</sup>.</p>
    <p>A elevada ocorr&#234;ncia observada de pacientes com les&#227;o renal e leve queda da fun&#231;&#227;o renal n&#227;o evoluindo para a gravidade da doen&#231;a poderia ser em decorr&#234;ncia do acompanhamento sistem&#225;tico da equipe multidisciplinar a que todos s&#227;o submetidos, mantendo assim, em sua maioria, n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos dentro dos limites adequados, de forma a evitar ou reduzir les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo, comuns em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos. Esses dados permitem sugerir que &#233; poss&#237;vel relacionar pacientes hipertensos com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica, portanto acometidos de altera&#231;&#245;es arteriolares, com a presen&#231;a de um fator etiol&#243;gico comum, possivelmente a inflama&#231;&#227;o persistente e cr&#244;nica, expressa pelos exames PCRus, R N/L e VHS, sinalizadores de processos inflamat&#243;rios agudos ou cr&#244;nicos.</p>
    <p>Alguns pontos poderiam ser considerados como limita&#231;&#245;es no presente estudo. O primeiro seria o desenho utilizado, considerando que o per&#237;odo de observa&#231;&#227;o (quatro anos) possibilitaria a inclus&#227;o na popula&#231;&#227;o estudada de pessoas com hist&#243;ria de hipertens&#227;o diferenciada (in&#237;cio, mediano e avan&#231;ado), o que poderia influenciar nos marcadores inflamat&#243;rios. O segundo foi a n&#227;o utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um grupo controle (pacientes n&#227;o hipertensos), pareados por sexo e idade, para verifica&#231;&#227;o da associa&#231;&#227;o entre as vari&#225;veis dependentes/independentes. No entanto, mesmo com todo o rigor metodol&#243;gico na coleta dos dados, por quest&#245;es operacionais n&#227;o foi poss&#237;vel constituir o referido grupo.</p>
    <p>Embora o aumento da mortalidade cardiovascular s&#243; possa ser demonstrado em estudos longitudinais, os dados aqui trabalhados em estudo transversal sugerem, em hipertensos, a inclus&#227;o como rotina do processo de triagem de pacientes atendidos no servi&#231;o p&#250;blico, a determina&#231;&#227;o tanto da PCRus (j&#225; reconhecida como importante marcador de risco cardiovascular) como da VHS, ao lado da microalbumin&#250;ria, na detec&#231;&#227;o da nefropatia incipiente que, associados &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o dos componentes da SM na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica poder&#227;o detectar precocemente os riscos aumentados de DCV nessa popula&#231;&#227;o, com menor custo operacional e vis&#227;o multidisciplinar dos profissionais envolvidos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os resultados mostram associa&#231;&#227;o da atividade inflamat&#243;ria e da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica com o d&#233;ficit da fun&#231;&#227;o renal.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de F&#225;tima L&#250;cia Machado Bragapela Universidade Federal de Pernambuco.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Ilma Kruze Grande de Arruda </p>
        <p> Rua Manoel de Almeida Belo, 523, Bairro Novo </p>
        <p> CEP 53030-030, Olinda, PE - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="ilmakruze@hotmail.com">ilmakruze@hotmail.com</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="ilma_kruze@yahoo.com.br">ilma_kruze@yahoo.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 06/08/12; revisado em 06/09/12; aceito em 13/02/13.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Renal dysfunction and inflammatory markers in hypertensive patients seen in a university hospital</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Today, chronic kidney diseases represent a great challenge to public health as regards the acquisition of knowledge to support interventions that can slow the progression of renal function loss. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the magnitude of the renal function deficit in hypertensive adult patients and its relationship with the following inflammatory markers: high-sensitivity C reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio. METHODS: Cross-sectional study including 1,273 adult hypertensive patients of both genders, of whom 1,052 had renal function deficit, and 221 had no deficit, as diagnosed by the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equation. The odds ratio (OR) and the prevalence ratio (PR) were used to determine the probability of the occurrence of inflammatory activity in renal disease. RESULTS: Renal function deficit was diagnosed in 82.6% of the patients assessed, and most of the sample (70.8%) was classified as in stage 2 of chronic kidney disease. In the regression model, metabolic syndrome (PRadjusted = 1.09 [95%CI: 1.04-1.14]), high-sensitivity C reactive protein (PRadjusted = 1.54 [95%CI: 1.40-1.69]) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (PRadjusted = 1.20 [95%CI: 1.12-1.28]) remained independently associated with the renal function deficit. However, considering the individuals classified as in stage 2 of renal function deficit, the chance of abnormalities in inflammatory markers were OR = 10.25 (95%CI: 7.00-15.05) for high-sensitivity C reactive protein, OR = 8.50 (95%CI: 5.70-12.71) for neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio, and OR = 7.18 (95%CI: 4.87-10.61) for erythrocyte sedimentation rate. CONCLUSION: The results show an association of inflammatory activity and metabolic syndrome with renal function deficit.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Kidney Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflammation</kwd>
        <kwd>Metabolic Syndrome</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="enda-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Renal dysfunction and inflammatory markers in hypertensive patients seen in a university hospital</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>F&#225;tima L&#250;cia Machado Braga<sup>I</sup>; Ilma Kruze Grande de Arruda<sup>I</sup>; Alcides da Silva Diniz<sup>I</sup>; Poliana Coelho Cabral<sup>I</sup>; Maria da Concei&#231;&#227;o Chaves de Lemos<sup>II</sup>; Marcus Davis Machado Braga<sup>III</sup>; Hilton de Castro Chaves J&#250;nior<sup>IV</sup></bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Nutri&#231;&#227;o - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - PE</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Departamento de Nutri&#231;&#227;o - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - PE</p>
      <p><sup>III</sup>Departamento de Patologia e Medicina Legal - Universidade Federal do Cear&#225; - CE</p>
      <p><sup>IV</sup>Departamento de Medicina - Universidade Federal de Pernambuco - PE, Brasil</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND:</bold> Today, chronic kidney diseases represent a great challenge to public health as regards the acquisition of knowledge to support interventions that can slow the progression of renal function loss.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE:</bold> To analyze the magnitude of the renal function deficit in hypertensive adult patients and its relationship with the following inflammatory markers: high-sensitivity C reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> Cross-sectional study including 1,273 adult hypertensive patients of both genders, of whom 1,052 had renal function deficit, and 221 had no deficit, as diagnosed by the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equation. The odds ratio (OR) and the prevalence ratio (PR) were used to determine the probability of the occurrence of inflammatory activity in renal disease.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> Renal function deficit was diagnosed in 82.6% of the patients assessed, and most of the sample (70.8%) was classified as in stage 2 of chronic kidney disease. In the regression model, metabolic syndrome (PR<sub>adjusted </sub>= 1.09 [95%CI: 1.04-1.14]), high-sensitivity C reactive protein (PR<sub>adjusted</sub> = 1.54 [95%CI: 1.40-1.69]) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (PR<sub>adjusted</sub> = 1.20 [95%CI: 1.12-1.28]) remained independently associated with the renal function deficit. However, considering the individuals classified as in stage 2 of renal function deficit, the chance of abnormalities in inflammatory markers were OR = 10.25 (95%CI: 7.00-15.05) for high-sensitivity C reactive protein, OR = 8.50 (95%CI: 5.70-12.71) for neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio, and OR = 7.18 (95%CI: 4.87-10.61) for erythrocyte sedimentation rate.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> The results show an association of inflammatory activity and metabolic syndrome with renal function deficit.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Hypertension; Kidney Diseases; Inflammation; Metabolic Syndrome.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Changes in the profile of mortality and morbidity in the world population have shown an increase in the incidence of chronic kidney disease (CKD), which is considered one of the major challenges to public health in this century, with all its economic and social implications<sup>1</sup>. According to criteria of the National Kidney Foundation/Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative<sup>2</sup>, CKD is defined as a damage in the renal parenchyma and/or decreased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) for a period equal to or longer than three months, as manifested by markers of kidney damage, including abnormalities in blood/urine, imaging tests or pathological studies<sup>2</sup>. In the United States of America, Europe and Asia, 11% to 33% of the general population are estimated to have CKD, most of them in the initial stages of the disease<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>According to the literature, systemic hypertension (SH) associated with CKD increases the cardiovascular risk and, as the renal dysfunction progresses, the prevalence of SH also increases, affecting approximately 90% of patients with kidney diseases. Therefore, the detection, treatment and control of SH are key measures to reduce the incidence of renal and cardiovascular events<sup>2,4,5</sup>.</p>
      <p>Like CKD, hypertension also reflects a state of endothelial inflammation<sup>5</sup>. According to the European and Japanese recommendations, the use of inflammation markers such as high-sensitivity C reactive protein (hs-CRP), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and the neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio (N/L R) in patients with CKD improves the diagnosis and treatment, thus reducing the cardiovascular mortality<sup>6,7</sup>.</p>
      <p>In Brazil, there are few studies on the relationship between CKD and the inflammatory markers hs-CRP, N/L R, and ESR. According to several authors, both hs-CRP and ESR can be used in the identification of CKD, increasing the sensitivity and specificity of this diagnosis<sup>7-9</sup>. Kocyigit et al<sup>10</sup> reported that a N/L R &lt; 1 may be indicative of an underlying inflammatory state and predict the progression rate of stage-4 CKD, thus indicating the need for a dialysis procedure. </p>
      <p>Thus, the objective of this study was to analyze the magnitude of renal dysfunction and its relationship with three potential inflammatory markers (hs-CRP, N/L R, and ESR) used in the clinical practice, in hypertensive patients.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study design and sample</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cross-sectional analytical study including 2,122 hypertensive patients of both genders followed up for four years in the Hypertension Clinic of the Clinics Hospital of the Federal University of Pernambuco. Patients with secondary hypertension (n = 5), cardiac arrhythmias (n = 26), heart failure (n = 7), previous myocardial infarction (n = 9), dyslipidemias in use of lipid-lowering medication (n = 46), diabetes mellitus (n = 203), and those with incomplete information in their medical records (n = 553) were excluded from the study. The final sample size was of 1,273 patients. The antihypertensive treatment regimen of all patients included 1-4 drugs (betablocker, hydrochlorothiazide, angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, calcium-channel blocker, hydralazine, methyldopa).</p>
      <p>The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) was estimated according to criteria of the National Kidney Foundation/Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative<sup>2</sup>, using the equation proposed by Levey et al<sup>11</sup>. The renal function deficit (RFD) was defined as a GFR <underline>&lt;</underline> 89 mL/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup> and classified in five stages: 1 - GFR <underline>&gt;</underline> 90 mL / min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>; 2 - GRF = 60-89.9 mL / min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>; 3 - GRF = 30-59.9 mL / min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>; 4 - GRF = 15-29.9 mL/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>; 5 - GRF &lt; 15 mL/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>. Patients in stages 2, 3, and 4 were considered as having RFD. Patients in stage 1 were considered as not having renal function deficit<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study variables</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The variables considered were: sociodemographic variables (age, gender and level of education), laboratory variables (hs-CRP, ESD, and N/L R), anthropometric variables (body mass index - BMI, and waist circumference - WC), and clinical variables (metabolic syndrome - MS, and systemic hypertension - SH).</p>
      <p>All participants received information on the objectives of the study and, after giving written informed consent, they replied to a questionnaire with socioeconomic, demographic and clinical information. Also, anthropometric measurements were taken and a blood sample was collected for laboratory evaluation.</p>
      <p>The level of education was assessed in terms of years of schooling, and the sample was stratified in &lt; 4 years and <underline>&gt;</underline> 4 years. Hs-CRP levels were determined using the Cobas C 501 Automated method, considering values &lt; 0.5 mg/dL as normal reference values, for both men and women. For the assessment of first-hour ESR, the capillary photometry method was used, with normal reference values ranging from 0-15 mm for men, and 0-20 mm for women, and the cut-off point in the upper limits of normal. N/L R inversion, on blood count, was assessed using the ABX Pentra DX 120 method, with slide review, and was considered abnormal for values &gt; 1.</p>
      <p>Weight and height were measured according to the techniques recommended<sup>12</sup>. Weight was measured using a Filizola<sup>&#174;</sup> model scale, with 150-kg capacity, and height was measured using an 1.90m-capacity anthropometer connected to the scale. The diagnosis of excess weight was based on the BMI, as classified according to the cut-off points of the World Health Organization (WHO), considering excess weight as BMI <underline>&gt;</underline> 25 kg/m<sup>2,13</sup>. The classification proposed by Lipschitz<sup>14</sup> was used for elderly individuals, with the cut-off point of BMI <underline>&gt;</underline> 27 kg/m<sup>2</sup>. The WC was measured at the midpoint between the lower rib and the iliac crest, using a flexible non-stretchable tape measure without compressing the underlying tissues, with the patient in the standing position, relaxed abdomen, arms along the body and feet together. The cut-off points for increased waist circumference were <underline>&gt;</underline> 94 cm (men) and <underline>&gt;</underline> 80 cm (women)<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p>Blood pressure (BP) was measured using the auscultatory method, with a Takaoka model 203 mercury-column sphygmomanometer duly calibrated and a Littmann stethoscope, according to the technique recommended. The BP measurements considered were those taken in the first visit and with the patients not taking any antihypertensive medication. The classification of hypertension followed the recommendations of the VI Brazilian Guidelines of Hypertension<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>MS was identified according to criteria of the International Diabetes Federation (IDF)<sup>15</sup>, and was based on the presence of abdominal obesity (waist circumference <underline>&gt;</underline> 94 cm for men, and <underline>&gt;</underline> 80 cm for women), associated with at least two of the following factors: high density lipoprotein (HDL - cholesterol) &lt; 40 mg/dL for men, and &lt; 50 mg / dL for women; triglycerides <underline>&gt;</underline> 150 mg/dL; fasting blood glucose <underline>&gt;</underline> 100 mg/dL; SH, as classified according to the VI Brazilian Guidelines of Hypertension<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Data analysis and processing</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The construction of the data bank and statistical analysis were carried out using the Epi-info version 6.04 and SPSS version 13.0 software programs. Data were double-entered and verified with Validate, in order to check their consistency and validation. Data were described as medians + interquartile intervals for continuous variables. Proportions were used to express dichotomous variables. The best adjustment for normal distribution was assessed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test.</p>
      <p>The influence of the risk factors studied on renal function was analyzed using the Poisson regression model. Variables with significance <underline>&lt;</underline> 0.20 in the non-adjusted bivariate analysis were considered in the composition of the model, and those not meeting this definition were also included in the model because of their clinical relevance (MS). The stepwise method (variable selection by steps) with backward elimination was used in the adjusted analysis. Only variables associated with a p value &lt; 0.05 remained in the final model. The tests analyzed were applied with a 95% confidence interval and 5% significance level.</p>
      <p>In order to verify the existence of an association between renal dysfunction and the markers selected, the chi-square test with Yates correction or Fisher's exact test were used; when criteria for the application of these tests were not met, the Mann-Whitney U test was used. The strength of association was assessed by the prevalence ratio (PR) and odds ratio (OR), considering a 95% confidence interval.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Ethical aspects</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The project was approved by the Research Ethics Committee involving Humans, of the Health Sciences Center of the Federal University of Pernambuco (CEP/CCS/UFPE), record CEP/CCS/UFPE no.343/09 and SISNEP FR - 300564, according to Resolution no.196/96 of the National Heath Council.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Most of the 1273 hypertensive patients included in the study were females (73.1%, 95%CI: 0.95-1.07). The median systolic blood pressure (SBP) was 138 mmHg; the median diastolic blood pressure (DBP) was 86 mmHg; and the median age was 59 [interquartile interval (IQ): 52-67], with minimum age of 41 and maximum of 92 years. Approximately 60% of patients were on a combination of two drugs, whereas 12% were on 3-4 medications. RFD was diagnosed in 82.6% of the patients assessed, and most of the sample (70.8%) was on stage-2 CKD. Moderate deficit (stage 3) was observed in 28.2% of patients, whereas significant renal damage (stage 4) associated with signs and symptoms of uremia was observed in approximately 1% of patients; no stage 5 cases were observed.</p>
      <p>RFD was more frequent as age increased (p &lt; 0.05), with a 1.22 risk in the elderly in comparison to adults; in females, the risk was 1.07 higher than in males. Patients with a lower level of education showed a higher risk for reduced GFR (PR = 1.10, 95%CI: 1.04-1.17). In relation to SH, individuals with systolic hypertension alone showed a 15% higher chance of having RFD when compared to stage-2 patients. Inflammatory markers were associated with RFD, especially in individuals with high hs-CRP. As regards MS and anthropometric variables, no statistically significant associations with RFD were found (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_5047tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_5047tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0538-30102-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Table 2 shows that, after adjustment for potential risk factors for RFD, only three variables remained in the model, demonstrating an independent association with RFD; increased hs-CRP was the factor more strongly associated with the occurrence of RFD (adjusted PR = 1.54, 95%CI: 1.40-1.69).</p>
      <p>All inflammatory markers, alone or combined, showed a statistically significant association with RFD, although the levels of inflammatory markers in individuals with RFD were within the limits of normal (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_5047tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_5047tab03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0538-30102-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>In relation to the inflammatory markers, hs-CRP was more prevalent in the initial phase of the disease (stage 2), with a 10.25 (95%CI: 7.00-15.05) higher chance of being abnormal in the comparison between stages 2 and 1 of RFD (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_5047tab04-body2">Table 4</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_5047tab04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0538-30102-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Comparisons of levels of inflammatory markers in the different RFD stages are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_5047tab05-body2">Table 5</xref>. ESR and hs-CRP levels increased with the progression of RFD in the individuals studied.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_5047tab05-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0538-30102-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In Brazil, studies on the prevalence of abnormalities of inflammatory markers in chronic kidney diseases are still scarce. It is important to point out that, although our study population comprised patients seen in a hypertension outpatient clinic, with individuals classified in different SH stages and showing mainly systolic hypertension alone, the absence of patients with RFD in the end-stage kidney disease (stage 5) and the small number of patients (10 individuals) in stage 4 may be attributed to the fact that the hypertensive process was controlled, probably because of the multidisciplinary approach provided by the clinic<sup>16,17</sup>. </p>
      <p>The fact that approximately 70% of patients had their blood pressure controlled using 2-3 different classes of antihypertensive drugs is not surprising. A possible explanation for this finding could be the small percentage of compliance to lifestyle changes observed in all hypertension programs, even those with a disciplinary character. It is true that the growing frequency of use of antihypertensive drug combinations and effective compliance to these medications on a regular and continuous basis tend to provide a better control of hypertension. It is important to point out that, in the present study, approximately 48% of the study population was classified as having stage-3 SH, and 46.9% were 60 years old or older, two conditions which are favorable to cardiovascular diseases; the percentage of 70% of patients using 2-3 drugs, in this case, reflects the great and significant blood pressure control in that group undergoing multidisciplinary care. </p>
      <p>The high prevalence of RFD found in this study is a matter of concern, especially because its occurrence is associated with changes in inflammatory biomarkers. The inflammatory process is known to be highly prevalent in patients with CKD; also, it is associated with cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and the rates of clinical events (obesity and dyslipidemias) found in the present study could explain the decline in renal function and activation of the acute- or chronic-phase inflammatory response. Our findings corroborate those of Shankar et al<sup>18</sup>, who studied 4926 patients to investigate the relationship between several inflammatory biomarkers, including hs-CRP, and the risk of developing CKD; the authors found a positive and independent association, thus predicting the risk of developing this condition. </p>
      <p>The association found between a low level of education and RFD is in accordance with the literature. The findings of this study may reflect a difficulty to understand which would contribute to the non-compliance to treatment of the disease. The higher prevalence of the female gender confirms the greater longevity of women, an aspect that was also observed in other studies<sup>19-21,22</sup>.</p>
      <p>One fact that stands out is the high frequency of abnormal hs-CRP among the markers studied. The acute phase inflammatory proteins are so called because their levels are higher in this inflammation phase; however, they continue to be produced, albeit at lower levels, in chronic persistent inflammations. In very recent studies, chronic inflammation has been pointed as a risk factor and treatment target for CKD, and, among several inflammatory biomarkers, hs-CRP has been shown to independently predict mortality in patients with CKD<sup>23-25</sup>. There are multiple causes for the highly prevalent state of inflammation in CKD. These causes are not yet fully understood, and seem to include, among other factors, volume overload, comorbidities, clinical events, metabolic and genetic factors, as well as the renal disease per se with its different etiopathogenic inter-relations<sup>26</sup>. </p>
      <p>Plasma levels of fibrinogen which, when elevated, are able to trigger an increase in ESR, have also been suggested as cardiovascular disease markers<sup>27</sup>. In the clinical practice, because ESR determination is a simple and low-cost test, it is commonly used as an unspecific marker of pathological conditions. Collares and Vidigal<sup>28</sup> reported that physiological conditions such as gender and age, and pathological conditions such as chronic inflammatory processes, chronic renal failure, diabetes mellitus, obesity, infections, anemia, neoplasms, tissue damage (acute myocardial infarction, stroke) and connective tissue diseases increase ESR values<sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p>The high prevalence of MS and the fact that it remained in the model after adjustment by Poisson regression show a strong independent association with RFD along with hs-CRP and ESR. A possible explanation would be the fact that, in our study sample, all individuals were hypertensive, with an associated high prevalence of abnormal WC, which are two components of MS. Our findings corroborate those of the literature<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>MS has emerged as an important predictor of metabolic complications, with resulting adverse health effects, and is not only related to an increased cardiovascular and metabolic risk in elderly individuals but also presents as a well established predisposing factor for vascular diseases, especially atherosclerosis and SH<sup>23</sup>. Prospective studies have demonstrated that MS and inflammation have synergistic and additive effects in atherosclerotic processes<sup>30,31</sup>. Conversely, inflammation has been involved in the pathogenesis of MS, especially as a mechanism of insulin resistance<sup>31</sup>. Ridker et al<sup>30</sup> found a significant association between high hs-CRP levels and prediction of MS, as well as an increased risk for cardiovascular diseases (CVD). In epidemiological studies, MS has also been pointed as a risk factor for the development of CKD<sup>29,32,33</sup>. Lee et al<sup>29</sup> investigated the relationship between hs-CRP, MS, and CKD in 9586 individuals without diabetes mellitus or SH and found an association of MS and high hs-CRP levels with an increased prevalence of CKD<sup>29</sup>. </p>
      <p>The high prevalence of inflammatory markers, alone or in combination, in our study sample is a well established finding in the literature, showing that the elements of a chronic inflammation seem to permeate the hypertensive renal disease, thus more objectively contributing to the renal arteriolar degenerative process<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>The finding of a high frequency of patients with renal damage and mild decrease in the renal function not progressing to more severe stages of the disease could be explained by the systematic follow-up of these patients by a multidisciplinary team. This would help keep the blood pressure levels of most of these patients within adequate limits, thus preventing or reducing target-organ damage, which is common in hypertensive individuals. Based on these data, we can suggest that it is possible to correlate hypertensive patients with chronic renal failure, therefore affected by arteriolar abnormalities, with the presence of a common etiologic factor, possibly the persistent and chronic inflammation, as expressed by hs-CRP, N/L R and ESR, which are markers of acute or chronic inflammatory processes.</p>
      <p>Some aspects could be considered as study limitations. The first is the study design used, considering that the follow-up period (four years) would facilitate the inclusion, in the study population, of individuals with history of hypertension in different phases (initial, intermediary, and advanced), which could influence the levels of inflammatory markers. The second is that we did not use a control group (non-hypertensive patients), paired by gender and age, to verify the association between dependent / independent variables. However, for operational reasons, even with the strict methodology used in data collection a control group could not be included.</p>
      <p>Although an increase in cardiovascular mortality can only be demonstrated in longitudinal studies, the parameters analyzed here in a cross-sectional study suggest that the determination of hs-CRP levels (already known as an important cardiovascular risk marker), ESR, and microalbuminura be included as a routine in the screening process of hypertensive patients seen in public health services to detect early kidney disease. In the clinical practice, these tests, in association with the assessment of the components of MS, could provide an early detection of increased CVD risk in this population, at a lower operational cost and with a multidisciplinary approach by the professionals involved. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The results show an association of inflammatory activity and metabolic syndrome with renal function deficit.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by F&#225;tima L&#250;cia Machado Braga, from Universidade Federal de Pernambuco.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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