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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">ft3xDFYzHcYKN9YsQStYFXK</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2013000600001</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(13)10000600001</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20130123</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Especial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>I posicionamento brasileiro em hipertens&#227;o arterial e diabetes mellitus</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alessi</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bonfim</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Vidal</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Feitosa</surname>
            <given-names>Audes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amodeo</surname>
            <given-names>Celso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Alves</surname>
            <given-names>Claudia Rodrigues</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brasil</surname>
            <given-names>David P.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Dilma do SM</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barbosa</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Consolim-Colombo</surname>
            <given-names>Fernanda Marciano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Borelli</surname>
            <given-names>Fl&#225;vio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Helfenstein</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Heno F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chaves</surname>
            <given-names>Hilton</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bortolotto</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Aparecido</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martin</surname>
            <given-names>Luis C.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scala</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Cesar Naz&#225;rio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mota-Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Antonio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Malachias</surname>
            <given-names>Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Izar</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Cristina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
            <given-names>Mar&#237;lia Izar Helfenstein</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Neves</surname>
            <given-names>M&#225;rio Fritsch Toros</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Morais</surname>
            <given-names>Nelson Siqueira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Passarelli Jr</surname>
            <given-names>Oswaldo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Cesar Veiga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Toscano</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Roberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Miranda</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto Dischinger</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Franco</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Betti</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto Tadeu Barcellos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pedrosa</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo Pinto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Povoa</surname>
            <given-names>Rui</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Carneiro</surname>
            <given-names>S&#233;rgio Baiocchi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jardim</surname>
            <given-names>Thiago</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barroso</surname>
            <given-names>Weimar Kunz Sebba</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>100</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>491</fpage>
      <lpage>501</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>05</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO ESPECIAL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>I posicionamento brasileiro em hipertens&#227;o arterial e diabetes mellitus</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Alexandre Alessi; Alexandre Vidal Bonfim; Andrea A. Brand&#227;o; Audes Feitosa; Celso Amodeo; Claudia Rodrigues Alves; David P. Brasil; Dilma do SM Souza; Eduardo Barbosa; Fernanda Marciano Consolim-Colombo; Fl&#225;vio Borelli; Francisco Helfenstein Fonseca; Heno F. Lopes; Hilton Chaves; Luis Aparecido Bortolotto; Luis C. Martin; Luiz Cesar Naz&#225;rio Scala; Marco Antonio Mota-Gomes; Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var Malachias; Maria Cristina Izar; Mar&#237;lia Izar Helfenstein Fonseca; M&#225;rio Fritsch Toros Neves; Nelson Siqueira Morais; Oswaldo Passarelli Jr; Paulo Cesar Veiga Jardim; Paulo Roberto Toscano; Roberto Dischinger Miranda; Roberto Franco; Roberto Tadeu Barcellos Betti; Rodrigo Pinto Pedrosa; Rui Povoa; S&#233;rgio Baiocchi Carneiro; Thiago Jardim; Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Departamento de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia pelos autores</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Hipertens&#227;o, Diabetes Mellitus, Sobrepeso, Obesidade, Adultos, Risco Cardiovascular.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conceito e Epidemiologia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Define-se Hipertens&#227;o Arterial (HA) quando os valores da Press&#227;o Arterial (PA) sist&#243;lica s&#227;o iguais ou maiores que 140mmHg e/ou 90mmHg para PA diast&#243;lica, em pelo menos duas ocasi&#245;es distintas, em presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de Diabetes Mellitus (DM)<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico de DM &#233; confirmado atrav&#233;s do achado de glicemia plasm&#225;tica em jejum <underline>&gt;</underline> 126 mg/dL em duas dosagens, e / ou glicemia <underline>&gt;</underline> 200 mg/dL ap&#243;s sobrecarga com 75g de dextrosol, e/ou glicemia aleat&#243;ria <underline>&gt;</underline> 200 mg / dL na presen&#231;a de sintomas inequ&#237;vocos de diabetes e/ou, mais recentemente, hemoglobina glicada pelo m&#233;todo HPLC <underline>&gt;</underline> 6,5% em duas amostras<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>HA e DM representam importantes problemas de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica e frequentemente coexistem na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Na atualidade, observa-se uma tend&#234;ncia ao aumento das preval&#234;ncias de HA e DM, possivelmente relacionado ao crescimento da popula&#231;&#227;o de idosos e das taxas de sobrepeso e obesidade<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Segundo a International Diabetes Federation, existiam 285 milh&#245;es de diab&#233;ticos no mundo em 2010 e a proje&#231;&#227;o &#233; de que, em 2030, sejam 438 milh&#245;es, sendo 90% dos casos de DM tipo 2. O impacto dessa situa&#231;&#227;o em pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento &#233; imenso<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre HA e DM foi inicialmente descrita na d&#233;cada de 1970, observada em ambos os sexos e em qualquer faixa et&#225;ria. A preval&#234;ncia de HA &#233; duas a tr&#234;s vezes maior em diab&#233;ticos que na popula&#231;&#227;o geral<sup>5</sup>, e cerca de 70% dos diab&#233;ticos s&#227;o hipertensos<sup>3,6</sup>. Uma meta-an&#225;lise envolvendo 102 estudos prospectivos e 698.782 indiv&#237;duos mostrou que a presen&#231;a de DM aumenta em duas vezes o risco de Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana (DAC), Acidente Vascular Encef&#225;lico (AVE) e morte CV (Cardiovascular). Segundo essa meta-an&#225;lise, 10% das mortes CV em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos podem ser atribu&#237;das &#224; presen&#231;a de DM<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>A coexist&#234;ncia das duas condi&#231;&#245;es aumenta substancialmente o risco de Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio(IAM), AVE e mortalidade por todas as causas, bem como o risco de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (IC), Doen&#231;a Renal (DR) e complica&#231;&#245;es microvasculares<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Origem da Hipertens&#227;o no DM</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A hiperglicemia cr&#244;nica e, consequentemente, a resist&#234;ncia a insulina associada podem levar a HA por v&#225;rios mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos n&#227;o totalmente conhecidos. Observa&#231;&#245;es <italic>in vitro</italic> mostram que a insulina pode estimular diretamente a atividade do s&#243;dio pot&#225;ssio adenosina trifosfatase e v&#225;rios canais e bombas i&#244;nicas, aumentando a concentra&#231;&#227;o intracelular de &#237;ons, sendo o aumento de c&#225;lcio intracelular um importante determinante de vasoconstric&#231;&#227;o. Tamb&#233;m se sabe que n&#237;veis elevados de leptinacausam aumento da atividade do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico, que leva ao aumento do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e da resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica. O excesso de insulina tamb&#233;m &#233; capaz de reduzir a natriurese, por mecanismo tubular renal direto, levando a um ac&#250;mulo de sal e &#225;gua. A HA sal resistente &#233; comum nesses pacientes<sup>9,10</sup>.</p>
    <p>O fator atual e mais relevante descrito como causador da HA em diab&#233;ticos tem sido o estresse oxidativo, decorrente da hiperatividade de metaloproteinases em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e DM. Isso leva a uma redu&#231;&#227;o de produ&#231;&#227;o e de atividade de subst&#226;ncias vasodilatadoras protetoras, como o &#243;xido n&#237;trico. Per&#243;xidos de hidrog&#234;nio que s&#227;o substratos e cofatores do metabolismo dessas metaloprote&#237;nas criam no microambiente subendotelial a ativa&#231;&#227;o de vasoconstrictores potentes pela ativa&#231;&#227;o local do Sistema Renina Angiotensina Aldosterona (SRAA) e, finalmente, aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o local de angiotensina II<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Todos esses mecanismos de forma integrada, em um ambiente hostil de maior risco,s&#227;o adjuvantes n&#227;o somente para g&#234;nese da hipertens&#227;o arterial, mas tamb&#233;m para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as CV, em raz&#227;o do processo de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial inicial at&#233; a g&#234;nese de placas de ateromas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estratifica&#231;&#227;o do Risco Cardiovascular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Desde 1980, as evid&#234;ncias mostram que a presen&#231;a de DM confere risco aumentado de morte CV morte cardiovascular tanto em homens quanto em mulheres<sup>10</sup>. Esses estudos mostraram que de modo isolado ou associado a outras doen&#231;as CV, como HA e dislipidemia, a DM est&#225; intimamente relacionada ao aumento da incid&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos de desfechos realizados na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada tamb&#233;m encontraram na associa&#231;&#227;o entre HA e DM um aumento significativo da incid&#234;ncia de eventos CV fatais e n&#227;o fatais, o que determinou a ado&#231;&#227;o de condutas espec&#237;ficas ao longo do tempo para minimizar o risco nesse grupo de pacientes<sup>12</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nesse contexto, em indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos, mesmo com PA considerada normal, h&#225; um aumento moderado do risco CV, e na vig&#234;ncia de HA estabelecida o risco ser&#225; alto ou muito alto (<xref ref-type="table" rid="a01tab01">Tabela 1</xref>)<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a01tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0491-30123-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Avalia&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica e Laboratorial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e laboratorial segue o mesmo conjunto de investiga&#231;&#245;es realizadas no hipertenso sem a presen&#231;a de DM, acrescido de alguns pontos adicionais<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>A hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica &#233; importante para a verifica&#231;&#227;o do tempo de evolu&#231;&#227;o das doen&#231;as, a busca de outros fatores de risco CV associados, a investiga&#231;&#227;o de drogas que possam elevar adicionalmente a press&#227;o, a presen&#231;a de h&#225;bitos de vida que possam agravar o quadro cl&#237;nico, a detec&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es de &#243;rg&#227;os alvo e a eventual presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a CV estabelecida. Da mesma forma, o exame f&#237;sico deve ser completo e cuidadoso, tamb&#233;m em busca de ind&#237;cios de hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria, les&#245;es de &#243;rg&#227;os alvo e eventuais sinais de doen&#231;a cardiovascular<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <p>A PA deve ser sistematicamente medida nas posi&#231;&#245;es supina e ortost&#225;tica pela possibilidade de maior ocorr&#234;ncia de hipotens&#227;o postural. A medida da Circunfer&#234;ncia da Cintura (CC) para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da obesidade visceral adiciona valor &#224; investiga&#231;&#227;o inicial (valores normais <underline>&lt;</underline> 88cm para mulheres e <underline>&lt;</underline>102 cm para homens). O exame de fundo de olho tem indica&#231;&#227;o especial, pois ter&#225; utilidade tanto para a detec&#231;&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao DM quanto daquelas dependentes da pr&#243;pria hipertens&#227;o<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o laboratorial preconizada inicialmente para todos os hipertensos deve ser mantida, com a realiza&#231;&#227;o de: an&#225;lise de urina; dosagem de pot&#225;ssio plasm&#225;tico; creatinina plasm&#225;tica; glicemia de jejum; perfil lip&#237;dico; &#225;cido &#250;rico e eletrocardiograma.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m desses exames, est&#225; indicada a realiza&#231;&#227;o de: a) ecocardiograma para melhor avalia&#231;&#227;o da massa e fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular; b) teste ergom&#233;trico para avalia&#231;&#227;o de capacidade funcional e presen&#231;a de eventual altera&#231;&#227;o isqu&#234;mica subcl&#237;nica; c) pesquisa de microalbumin&#250;ria que pode ser feita inicialmente por meio da medi&#231;&#227;o em duplicata da raz&#227;o albumina/creatinina em amostra de urina isolada. Se dispon&#237;vel, deve ser realizado o ultrassom de car&#243;tidas que poder&#225; indicar altera&#231;&#227;o vascular incipiente pela presen&#231;a de espessamento m&#233;dio-intimal de car&#243;tida (&gt;0,9mm) ou at&#233; a presen&#231;a de placa ateromatosa<sup>15,16</sup>.</p>
    <p>Exames adicionais dirigidos a cada &#243;rg&#227;o ou aparelho poder&#227;o ser indicados na depend&#234;ncia do encontro de altera&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas.</p>
    <p>Os exames para seguimento do diabetes devem obviamente ser realizados rotineiramente. Est&#227;o indicados com essa finalidade, al&#233;m da glicemia de jejum, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da glicemia p&#243;s-prandial e a dosagem da hemoglobina glicada (HbA1C)<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Altera&#231;&#245;es Renais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>HA e o DM somam mais de 50% das causas de Doen&#231;a Renal Cr&#244;nica (DRC). O rim atuaria como v&#237;tima dos processos espec&#237;ficos sist&#234;micos acarretados por DM e HA. Aproximadamente 5% a 20% dos pacientes com DM podem apresentar albumin&#250;ria no momento do diagn&#243;stico.</p>
    <p>Em fases iniciais as les&#245;es vasculares geralmente s&#227;o discretas; por&#233;m, com a evolu&#231;&#227;o, as les&#245;es se tornam mais severas. Cerca de um ter&#231;o a metade dos pacientes com DM apresenta um paralelismo entre manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e altera&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas renais<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Entre os mecanismos envolvidos, a hiperfiltra&#231;&#227;o glomerular pode causar ac&#250;mulo de matriz extracelular, por vias que aumentam a express&#227;o de TGF-&#946;. A hiperfiltra&#231;&#227;o glomerular &#233; capaz de estimular os SRAA, proteinoquinase C, al&#233;m do TGF-&#946;. Esses fatos explicam porque medicamentos que bloqueiam o SRAA apresentam efeitos ben&#233;ficos adicionais al&#233;m do efeito anti-hipertensivo<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>Antecedendo a era dos anti-hipertensivos efetivos, a protein&#250;ria ocorria em 40% dos pacientes e mais de 18% evolu&#237;am para DRC terminal. Albumin&#250;ria estava presente em 15% a 30% dos casos, poucos pacientes evolu&#237;am com protein&#250;ria ao redor de 500mg/dia e alguns,com n&#237;veis nefr&#243;ticos.Eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de creatinina ocorre em 10% a 20% dos pacientes e o risco &#233; maior em afro-americanos e idosos, portadores de HA predominante sist&#243;lica (&gt; 160 mmHg). Em 2% a 5% a progress&#227;o para fal&#234;ncia renal ocorria nos 10 a 15 anos subsequentes<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Altera&#231;&#245;es Cerebrais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A doen&#231;a cerebral &#233; a principal causa de morbidade no paciente diab&#233;tico, e o Acidente Vascular Encef&#225;lico (AVE) &#233; o respons&#225;vel por 20% das mortes entre os diab&#233;ticos<sup>21</sup>. Existe uma associa&#231;&#227;o direta entre PA e mortalidade por AVE entre diab&#233;ticos e n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos. Essa associa&#231;&#227;o aumenta com o avan&#231;o da idade<sup>22</sup>. Um grande estudo observacional demonstrou uma chance duas vezes maior de AVE ao longo de 19 anos de seguimento naqueles com a associa&#231;&#227;o de DM e HA, quando comparados a indiv&#237;duos apenas hipertensos<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os diab&#233;ticos t&#234;m um maior risco de dem&#234;ncia, incluindo a doen&#231;a de Alzheimer. Mesmo os diab&#233;ticos sem dem&#234;ncia apresentam pior desempenho em testes cognitivos comparados com indiv&#237;duos sem DM<sup>24</sup>. Por sua vez, diab&#233;ticos hipertensos contam com maior probabilidade de apresentar d&#233;ficits cognitivos do que diab&#233;ticos normotensos<sup>25</sup>. A identifica&#231;&#227;o e o tratamento precoce desses indiv&#237;duos podem ter impacto n&#227;o s&#243; na qualidade de vida, mas tamb&#233;m na melhor ades&#227;o aos tratamentos prescritos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Doen&#231;a Arterial Perif&#233;rica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A Doen&#231;a Arterial Perif&#233;rica (DAP) pode acometer diferentes territ&#243;rios vasculares. No DM a DAP &#233; mais frequentemente distal, femoropopl&#237;tea e tibial, ao passo que em HA, tabagismo e hipercolesterolemia, h&#225; acometimento preferencialmente proximal, aortoil&#237;aco e femoral<sup>26</sup>. Cerca de 65% dos portadores de alguma forma de disglicemia apresentam DAP<sup>27</sup>. No Brasil, 12% a 20% dos portadores de DAP de Membros Inferiores (MMII) s&#227;o portadores de DM e o risco de homens diab&#233;ticos desenvolverem DAP &#233; 6,6 vezes maior que nos n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos<sup>28</sup>. As principais causas de DAP identificadas no registro norte-americano REACH (<italic>Reduction of Atherothrombosis for Continued Health</italic>) foram DM e HA, em hisp&#226;nicos e afro-americanos, ao passo que entre caucasianos foi a hipercolesterolemia. O estudo BARI 2D (<italic>Bypass Angioplasty Revascularization Investigation 2 Diabetes</italic>) demonstrou que a dura&#231;&#227;o do DM e a presen&#231;a de micro/macroalbumin&#250;ria s&#227;o importantes preditivos da gravidade da DAP e de insufici&#234;ncia ventricular esquerda em pacientes com Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana (DAC)<sup>29</sup> .O estudo PAMISCA encontrou 42,6% de DAP em hipertensos com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda. A mortalidade entre aqueles com DAP foi maior (2,3%<italic>versus</italic> 0,2%; p&lt;0,01)<sup>30</sup>. A hipertrofia ventricular esquerda atinge at&#233; 50% dos pacientes com DAP conferindo-lhes pior progn&#243;stico<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>A proped&#234;utica para DAP de MMI engloba: (a) &#205;ndice Tornozelo Braquial (ITB - importante em diab&#233;ticos na fase assintom&#225;tica da DAP, para identificar indiv&#237;duos com alto risco de amputa&#231;&#227;o);(b) teste ergom&#233;trico de esteira (especialmente &#250;til em diab&#233;ticos com sintomas at&#237;picos de MMII ou ITB normal no claudicante); (c) <italic>duplex scan</italic> arterial de MMII (localiza e quantifica les&#245;es arteriais, al&#233;m de analisar a perviedadede enxertos ou <italic>stents</italic>); (d) angiorresson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica; (e) angiotomografia computadorizada; (f) cineangiografia (avalia&#231;&#227;o para revasculariza&#231;&#227;o)<sup>32,33</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Doen&#231;a card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os pacientes hipertensos t&#234;m um risco maior de desenvolver altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas; entretanto, na associa&#231;&#227;o com o DM, essas altera&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o mais intensas e precoces<sup>34</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos mostraram que altera&#231;&#245;es nas c&#233;lulas mioc&#225;rdicas, nos capilares, e no interst&#237;cio, que levam a disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e/ou diast&#243;lica, s&#227;o muito mais pronunciadas em diab&#233;ticos com hist&#243;ria de hipertens&#227;o<sup>35</sup>. Tanto o diabetes quanto a resist&#234;ncia a insulina levam a altera&#231;&#245;es nos mecanismos biomoleculares e estruturais. A incapacidade do mioc&#225;rdio em metabolizar os piruvatos resulta em acumula&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica no m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco e diminui&#231;&#227;o na capta&#231;&#227;o da glicose pelos mi&#243;citos<sup>36</sup>. A hiperinsulinemia tamb&#233;m est&#225; associada com o aumento dos n&#237;veis de &#225;cidos graxos livres, aumento da atividade simp&#225;tica, que s&#227;o fatores que levam a hipertrofia card&#237;aca e a ac&#250;mulo de triglic&#233;rides intracelulares<sup>37</sup>. Por&#233;m, essas cadeias fisiopatol&#243;gicas s&#227;o acentuadamente exacerbadas quando os n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos est&#227;o elevados, desencadeando outros mecanismos paralelos indutores de hipertrofia, fibrose e apoptose. Participa acentuadamente o estresse oxidativo, que promove express&#227;o anormal dos genes e altera&#231;&#245;es na transdu&#231;&#227;o do sinal, levando a morte de mi&#243;citos<sup>38</sup>. Outros dist&#250;rbios participam na agress&#227;o ao mioc&#225;rdio, e entre eles a neuropatia auton&#244;mica e a disfun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial comum ao diabetes s&#227;o fatores adjuvantes na redu&#231;&#227;o da forma&#231;&#227;o de energia para um desempenho adequado do cora&#231;&#227;o<sup>39</sup>. Esses aspectos de les&#227;o card&#237;aca s&#227;o os caminhos iniciais para o pleno desenvolvimento de miocardiopatia, com todos os atributos da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>40</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Metas Press&#243;ricas, Glic&#234;micas e Lip&#237;dicas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As metas press&#243;ricas recomendadas pela VI Diretrizes Brasileiras de Hipertens&#227;o<sup>1</sup> s&#227;o de 130/80 mmHg, independentemente da presen&#231;a de complica&#231;&#245;es micro ou macrovasculares. Redu&#231;&#245;es mais rigorosas n&#227;o demonstraram benef&#237;cios nessa popula&#231;&#227;o e n&#227;o s&#227;o recomendadas<sup>41</sup>.</p>
    <p>As metas glic&#234;micas recomendadas pelas diferentes sociedades cient&#237;ficas<sup>3,6</sup> incluem o controle da glicemia de jejum, glicemia p&#243;s-prandial e da HbA1C<sup>2,42</sup>. Diferentes sociedades cient&#237;ficas divergem em rela&#231;&#227;o a esses valores e sugere-se uma individualiza&#231;&#227;o conforme idade, presen&#231;a de comorbidades, expectativa de vida e variabilidade da glicemia<sup>2,42</sup>. As Diretrizes da Sociedade Brasileira de Diabetes<sup>6</sup> recomendam os seguintes valores:</p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0491-30123-e01.jpg"/></p>
    <p>Metas mais r&#237;gidas de HbA1C (6% a 6,5%) podem ser preconizadas em grupos especiais: curta dura&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a, longa expectativa de vida e na aus&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a CV, desde que seguro ao paciente, e que n&#227;o haja risco de hipoglicemia, pois recentemente tem sido reconhecida a import&#226;ncia da mem&#243;ria metab&#243;lica e da variabilidade glic&#234;mica nas complica&#231;&#245;es da doen&#231;a. Por outro lado, metas menos r&#237;gidas de HbA1C (7,5% a 8%) s&#227;o toleradas em idosos, pacientes com hipoglicemias frequentes, curta expectativa de vida, complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares significativas e em pacientes com metas dif&#237;ceis de serem atingidas mesmo ap&#243;s a utiliza&#231;&#227;o efetiva de m&#250;ltiplos agentes, incluindo a insulina<sup>12,42</sup>.</p>
    <p>As metas lip&#237;dicas na popula&#231;&#227;o diab&#233;tica tamb&#233;m diferem conforme recomenda&#231;&#227;o de diferentes sociedades cient&#237;ficas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="a01tab02">Tabela 2</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a01tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0491-30123-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>J&#225; nos hipertensos, deve-se avaliar o risco CV individual e a orienta&#231;&#227;o deve ser semelhante &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o geral com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; meta lip&#237;dica. Entretanto, a Diretriz Europeia<sup>43</sup> considera que fatores de risco cl&#225;ssicos de grande express&#227;o, entre os quais se insere a hipertens&#227;o grave, constitui condi&#231;&#227;o de alto ou muito alto risco para morte CV, merecendo apropriada meta de LDL-c (&lt; 100 mg/dL), mesmo em preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria da doen&#231;a CV e sem DM.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento N&#227;o Medicamentoso no DM e HA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tratamento n&#227;o medicamentoso da HA no diab&#233;tico constitui-se basicamente em: redu&#231;&#227;o do peso corporal, dieta hiposs&#243;dica, exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos regulares, dieta rica em frutas e vegetais (dieta DASH), abandono do fumo e do consumo de &#225;lcool e tratamento da apneia obstrutiva do sono. A redu&#231;&#227;o do peso &#233; recomendada para todas as faixas et&#225;rias<sup>46</sup>. A diminui&#231;&#227;o da circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal com a redu&#231;&#227;o de peso se relaciona com o melhor controle da press&#227;o arterial e de alguns par&#226;metros metab&#243;licos como os l&#237;pides e a glicemia<sup>47</sup>. Alguns inibidores do apetite podem induzir aumento na press&#227;o arterial, podendo, portanto, ser utilizados com cautela. Em pacientes com obesidade grave, a cirurgia bari&#225;trica reduz a mortalidade e diminui a press&#227;o arterial, bem como est&#225; associada a melhor controle do diabetes<sup>48</sup>.</p>
    <p>A efic&#225;cia da redu&#231;&#227;o do conte&#250;do de sal na dieta em popula&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica de diab&#233;ticos n&#227;o &#233; conhecida, sendo as indica&#231;&#245;es nessa popula&#231;&#227;o baseadas nos estudos que inclu&#237;ram hipertensos diab&#233;ticos e n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos.</p>
    <p>Uma dieta com baixo teor de s&#243;dio promove r&#225;pida e importante redu&#231;&#227;o de PA em hipertensos resistentes<sup>49</sup>. Apesar das diferen&#231;as individuais de sensibilidade, mesmo modestas redu&#231;&#245;es na quantidade de sal s&#227;o, em geral, eficazes em reduzir a PA. A necessidade di&#225;ria de s&#243;dio para os seres humanos &#233; a contida em 5 g de cloreto de s&#243;dio ou sal de cozinha. O consumo m&#233;dio do brasileiro corresponde ao dobro do recomendado<sup>49</sup>.</p>
    <p>Naqueles pacientes que consomem &#225;lcool regularmente em alta dose &#233; recomend&#225;vel o aconselhamento para retirada total do consumo de &#225;lcool, visto que h&#225; interfer&#234;ncia n&#227;o somente no controle da press&#227;o arterial, mas, especialmente, na glicemia.</p>
    <p>Os exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bios (isot&#244;nicos) complementados com exerc&#237;cios resistidos diminuem a press&#227;o arterial, sendo indicados n&#227;o somente para o tratamento, como tamb&#233;m para a preven&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o arterial<sup>50</sup>. A quantidade de exerc&#237;cios recomendada &#233; de pelo menos cinco vezes por semana, 30 minutos de atividade f&#237;sica moderada de forma cont&#237;nua ou acumulada.</p>
    <p>O uso de press&#227;o positiva cont&#237;nua nas vias a&#233;reas (CPAP) &#233; o tratamento de escolha para os pacientes com apneia/hipopneia obstrutiva do sono (SAHOS) grave. Esse procedimento melhora os epis&#243;dios de apneia/hipopneia e auxilia na corre&#231;&#227;o dos dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos (glicemia). H&#225; ind&#237;cios de que o uso desse dispositivo possa contribuir para o controle da press&#227;o arterial, para o descenso da press&#227;o durante o sono, para melhora da qualidade de vida e na redu&#231;&#227;o dos desfechos cardiovasculares clinicamente relevantes<sup>51</sup>. A ingest&#227;o de &#225;lcool piora os epis&#243;dios de apneia/hipopneia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento Medicamentoso das Dislipidemias</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nos diab&#233;ticos, as dislipidemias habitualmente encontradas s&#227;o hipertrigliceridemia, redu&#231;&#227;o do HDL-C e aumento de part&#237;culas de LDL pequenas e densas. Os n&#237;veis absolutos de LDL-C, no entanto, s&#227;o similares nos diab&#233;ticos e na popula&#231;&#227;o em geral<sup>45</sup> .No paciente hipertenso, n&#227;o h&#225; particularidade no tipo de dislipidemia. Embora, com certa frequ&#234;ncia n&#227;o se encontrem n&#237;veis elevados de LDL-C, o tratamento est&#225; indicado para se atingir metas relacionadas ao risco elevado de eventos CV para os hipertensos com DM.</p>
    <p>A estatina deve ser o medicamento de escolha para tratamento da hipercolesterolemia, enquanto os fibratos devem ser os f&#225;rmacos prefer&#237;veis em situa&#231;&#245;es de hipertrigliceridemia grave. Outras medica&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis seriam niacina e &#225;cidos graxos &#244;mega-3 para tratamento adjuvante da hipertrigliceridemia e sequestradores de &#225;cidos biliares e ezetimiba para tratamento da hipercolesterolemia.</p>
    <p>Meta-an&#225;lise de estudos com estatinas mostrou que para cada redu&#231;&#227;o de 39 mg/dL de LDL-C observa-se redu&#231;&#227;o de 12% na mortalidade total e de 19% na mortalidade CV<sup>52</sup>. O risco de eventos coronarianos tamb&#233;m se reduz em 23% e o risco de AVE, em 17%<sup>2</sup>. Maior redu&#231;&#227;o de LDL-C reduz os principais desfechos cardiovasculares em at&#233; 50%<sup>53</sup>. Meta-an&#225;lise avaliando o tratamento da dislipidemia com estatinas em pacientes diab&#233;ticos mostrou redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade global e cardiovascular e tamb&#233;m de desfechos cardiovasculares, de maneira semelhante &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o diab&#233;tica<sup>54</sup>.</p>
    <p>Assim, as estatinas se mostram f&#225;rmacos efetivos para tratamento da dislipidemia em pacientes hipertensos ou diab&#233;ticos, apesar de recente alerta do FDA<sup>55</sup> &#224; sua prescri&#231;&#227;o, por causa do aumento de risco de diabetes. A pequena incid&#234;ncia de diabetes foi praticamente restrita a pacientes com disglicemia pr&#233;via, como os pr&#233;-diab&#233;ticos e as modifica&#231;&#245;es glic&#234;micas foram discretas, mesmo entre os diab&#233;ticos.Com rela&#231;&#227;o aos fibratos, meta-an&#225;lise publicada no ano de 2010<sup>56</sup> mostrou redu&#231;&#227;o de risco de evento cardiovascular global de 10% e de evento coronariano de 13%, mas n&#227;o existem dados espec&#237;ficos de meta-an&#225;lise do uso de fibratos em popula&#231;&#227;o exclusiva diab&#233;tica ou hipertensa. O estudo ACCORD Lipid<sup>41</sup> envolveu diab&#233;ticos que receberam tratamento com sinvastatina associado com placebo ou fenofibrato. Nesse estudo, n&#227;o houve redu&#231;&#227;o de desfechos cardiovasculares com a associa&#231;&#227;o de fenofibrato &#224; sinvastatina. Mas, an&#225;lise de subgrupos desse estudo evidenciou que indiv&#237;duos com n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides acima de 204 mg/dL concomitante a n&#237;veis de HDL-C abaixo de 34 mg/dL tiveram benef&#237;cio como uso de fenofibrato. Outro grande estudo que envolveu diab&#233;ticos foi o estudo FIELD<sup>57</sup>, que demonstrou redu&#231;&#227;o de 24% de infarto n&#227;o fatal, 21% de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coronariana e 11% de eventos cardiovasculares globais. Nenhum desses estudos, no entanto, comprovou redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade. N&#227;o existem, at&#233; o momento, estudos que avaliaram fibratos em popula&#231;&#227;o exclusivamente hipertensa, mas s&#227;o considerados f&#225;rmacos seguros, quando indicados, para o tratamento das dislipidemias<sup>58</sup>.</p>
    <p>As metas terap&#234;uticas, conforme recomenda&#231;&#227;o nas diretrizes<sup>42,59</sup>, s&#227;o diferentes para indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="a01tab03">tabela 3</xref> disp&#245;e das indica&#231;&#245;es das estatinas em diab&#233;ticos.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a01tab03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0491-30123-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento Medicamentoso do DM no Paciente Hipertenso</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O algoritmo para o tratamento do DM &#233; atualizado anualmente pela American Diabetes Association (ADA)<sup>59</sup> e, de acordo com o &#250;ltimo posicionamento, recomenda-se metformina como f&#225;rmaco de escolha desde que bem tolerado e na aus&#234;ncia de contraindica&#231;&#245;es<sup>60</sup>. Caso em tr&#234;s meses n&#227;o se tenha obtido controle glic&#234;mico efetivo, a associa&#231;&#227;o de outros medicamentos faz-se necess&#225;ria. A escolha do segundo f&#225;rmaco dever&#225; levar em considera&#231;&#227;o idade do paciente, expectativa de vida, complica&#231;&#245;es do DM, comorbidades significativas, tempo de doen&#231;a, necessidade de controle de peso, risco de hipoglicemia e recursos dispon&#237;veis, sendo o custo um verdadeiro limitante. Associa&#231;&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos pode ser prescrita j&#225; ao diagn&#243;stico, quando n&#237;veis glic&#234;micos mais elevados estiverem presentes<sup>61</sup>. Como terapia de segunda escolha, temos as tiazolidinedionas, representadas pela pioglitazona, os inibidores da DPP-4(inibidores da dipeptidyl peptidase-4), os agonistas do GLP-1(glucagon-like peptide-1), as sulfonilureias, al&#233;m da insulina<sup>62</sup>. As glinidas e os inibidores da alfa glicosidase, representados pela acarbose, tamb&#233;m representam op&#231;&#245;es menos validadas para tratamento do DM. Caso em tr&#234;s meses n&#227;o ocorra bom controle glic&#234;mico, devem-se associar f&#225;rmacos e/ou insulina basal para se permitir melhor e r&#225;pido controle glic&#234;mico e, caso isso n&#227;o aconte&#231;a em tr&#234;s meses, a op&#231;&#227;o por terapia insul&#237;nica de m&#250;ltiplas doses pode se fazer necess&#225;ria. Conforme o posicionamento de 2012 da ADA/EASD, a escolha da terap&#234;utica deve ser individualizada<sup>63</sup>.</p>
    <p>A modifica&#231;&#227;o do estilo de vida &#233; capaz de promover redu&#231;&#227;o de HbA1C semelhante ao uso de metformina ou sulfonilureia, da ordem de 1% a 2%. A monoterapia nem sempre &#233; suficiente para o controle da hiperglicemia, assim como na HA a associa&#231;&#227;o de diferentes f&#225;rmacos &#233; necess&#225;ria para atingir um controle adequado da glicemia e da hemoglobina glicada (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a01fig01">Figura 1</xref>)<sup>12</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a01fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0491-30123-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento Medicamentoso da HA no DM</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em pacientes com DM e HA, o principal determinante dos benef&#237;cios cardiovasculares das medica&#231;&#245;es anti-hipertensivas &#233; o n&#237;vel de press&#227;o atingido com o tratamento<sup>64</sup>. Embora o papel do controle da press&#227;o arterial seja inquestion&#225;vel, um n&#250;mero crescente de estudos sugere que algumas combina&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas t&#234;m vantagens na prote&#231;&#227;o de rins, vasos e cora&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m do controle da press&#227;o per se<sup>64</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em pacientes diab&#233;ticos com PA entre 130-139 mmHg e 80-89 mmHg a ADA recomenda modifica&#231;&#245;es do estilo de vida por um tempo m&#225;ximo de tr&#234;s meses. S&#227;o pe&#231;as-chave tanto para redu&#231;&#227;o da glicemia quanto para um controle adequado da press&#227;o, sobretudo a perda ponderal em obesos, e devem ser recomendadas para todos os diab&#233;ticos hipertensos. Se nesse per&#237;odo n&#227;o houver redu&#231;&#227;o adequada da press&#227;o, o tratamento medicamentoso deve ser iniciado<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Se os n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial estiverem <underline>&gt;</underline> 140/90 mmHg, al&#233;m de mudan&#231;a de estilo de vida, o tratamento farmacol&#243;gico deve ser iniciado imediatamente<sup>1,59</sup>. Nessas condi&#231;&#245;es sugere-se que a meta de PA seja 130/80 mmHg, refor&#231;ada pelos resultados do estudo ACCORD<sup>59</sup>. Para essa meta ser atingida, &#233; quase sempre necess&#225;rio iniciar o tratamento anti-hipertensivo com dois ou mais f&#225;rmacos de classes diferentes. Deve-se estratificar a presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a renal para se definir a melhor conduta<sup>1,59</sup>.</p>
    <p>V&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m demonstrado os benef&#237;cios dos Inibidores da Enzima Conversora da Angiotensina (IECA) e dos Bloqueadores do Receptor da Angiotensina (BRA) em hipertensos diab&#233;ticos portadores de microalbumin&#250;ria (30-300mg/24h)<sup>65</sup>. Essas classes s&#227;o as de primeira escolha para o in&#237;cio do tratamento dos hipertensos diab&#233;ticos com altera&#231;&#245;es renais.</p>
    <p>Em diab&#233;ticos sem nefropatia instalada, estudos como o ALLHAT<sup>66</sup> indicaram que outras classes de anti-hipertensivos al&#233;m dos IECA, como diur&#233;ticos e Antagonistas dos Canais de C&#225;lcio (ACC), t&#234;m efeito protetor similar em pacientes hipertensos e diab&#233;ticos, e podem ser usadas como primeira escolha para o tratamento nesse grupo de pacientes. Os BRA podem ser usados em pacientes que n&#227;o toleram os IECA<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>A VI Diretrizes Brasileiras de Hipertens&#227;o<sup>1</sup> recomenda que em pacientes diab&#233;ticos sem nefropatia, todos os agentes anti-hipertensivos podem ser utilizados; no entanto, a associa&#231;&#227;o de bloqueadores do sistema renina-angiotensina com ACC pode ser vantajosa<sup>64</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="a01tab04">tabela 4</xref> est&#227;o resumidas as considera&#231;&#245;es essenciais para o uso das principais classes de anti-hipertensivos em pacientes diab&#233;ticos.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a01tab04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0491-30123-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Recentemente destacou-se que algumas associa&#231;&#245;es apresentam melhor perfil farmacol&#243;gico que outras em DM, como a combina&#231;&#227;o de diur&#233;ticos com IECA, BRA ou ACC, a combina&#231;&#227;o de ACC e IECA ou BRA, e a combina&#231;&#227;o de ACC e betabloqueador<sup>72</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="a01tab05">tabela 5</xref> est&#227;o descritas as principais orienta&#231;&#245;es para o tratamento de hipertensos com diabetes.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a01tab05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0491-30123-gt05.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Antidiab&#233;ticos Orais e Risco Cardiovascular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A seguran&#231;a cardiovascular das Tiazolidinedionas (TZD) tem sido questionada<sup>73</sup> e a rosiglitazona, isoladamente ou combinada, exibiu associa&#231;&#227;o com infarto do mioc&#225;rdio sem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica quando comparada com a metformina<sup>74</sup>. O perfil de risco da pioglitazona parece mais favor&#225;vel, possivelmente pela diminui&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o na placa ateroscler&#243;tica, aumento do HDL-c e diminui&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na C-reativa de alta sensibilidade<sup>75</sup>. O documento da ADA/EASD aponta a metformina como droga &#250;til na vig&#234;ncia de DAC, e a pioglitazona como modesta redutora de eventos cardiovasculares maiores e alertando para o aumento do risco de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca induzida por TZD em idosos com mais de 80 anos<sup>76</sup>. Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="a01tab06">tabela 6</xref> est&#227;o relacionados os principais f&#225;rmacos, suas vantagens e desvantagens.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a01tab06">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0491-30123-gt06.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Aspectos Peculiares da Interven&#231;&#227;o Vascular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Existem algumas peculiaridades nos pacientes com HA e DM, especialmente se os n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos estiverem elevados no momento da interven&#231;&#227;o acarretando aumento de complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares e n&#227;o vasculares.</p>
    <p>Em diab&#233;ticos, a doen&#231;a arterial coronariana se manifesta de forma mais grave, com maior frequ&#234;ncia de les&#245;es multiarteriais, obstru&#231;&#245;es mais graves e difusas, menor calibre das art&#233;rias, maior preval&#234;ncia de oclus&#245;es totais e de les&#245;es de tronco, al&#233;m de maior potencial trombog&#234;nico. Por esses motivos, embora a indica&#231;&#227;o de tratamento cl&#237;nico, revasculariza&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea ou cir&#250;rgica n&#227;o seja substancialmente diferente entre diab&#233;ticos e n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos, os resultados da revasculariza&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea s&#227;o piores nos diab&#233;ticos, especialmente nos insulinodependentes e/ou com mau controle metab&#243;lico.</p>
    <p>Enquanto o tratamento percut&#226;neo de pacientes uniarteriais ou de baixa complexidade anat&#244;mica est&#225; claramente estabelecido na pr&#225;tica e substanciado por estudos que evidenciaram similaridade de resultados em compara&#231;&#227;o com o resultado cir&#250;rgico, pacientes multiarteriais com anatomia complexa e risco cl&#237;nico b&#225;sico ainda t&#234;m a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica como recomenda&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de acordo com os estudos Syntax<sup>77</sup> e ARTS II<sup>78</sup>.</p>
    <p>A taxa de sucesso angiogr&#225;fico dos procedimentos percut&#226;neos eletivos &#233; semelhante entre diab&#233;ticos e n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos. No entanto, os pacientes diab&#233;ticos t&#234;m maior risco de eventos que os n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos, incluindo maior risco de morte, caracter&#237;stica tamb&#233;m observada nos procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos.</p>
    <p>A hiperglicemia &#233; situa&#231;&#227;o que acentua a prolifera&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas e fibroblastos que s&#227;o marcadores histol&#243;gicos do processo de reestenose. Influencia tamb&#233;m negativamente na reatividade vascular, induzindo disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e plaquet&#225;ria. Portanto, o controle metab&#243;lico rigoroso deve ser a norma.</p>
    <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stents</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos em diab&#233;ticos reduz significantemente a frequ&#234;ncia de reestenose. Embora em grandes ensaios cl&#237;nicos n&#227;o tenha reduzido a frequ&#234;ncia de morte ou infarto na popula&#231;&#227;o geral. Alguns registros e subestudos t&#234;m demonstrado redu&#231;&#227;o desses eventos em diab&#233;ticos<sup>79</sup>.</p>
    <p>Merecem aten&#231;&#227;o especial os pacientes diab&#233;ticos com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal. Em casos eletivos, adequada hidrata&#231;&#227;o antes do procedimento, utiliza&#231;&#227;o do menor volume de contraste poss&#237;vel, al&#233;m de contrastes com baixa osmolaridade ou isosmolares devem ser a regra com o objetivo de prevenir o desenvolvimento de nefrotoxicidade induzida por contraste. A administra&#231;&#227;o de metformina deve ser suspensa 48horas antes do procedimento em raz&#227;o do risco de desenvolvimento de acidose l&#225;tica<sup>80</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso de Souza </p>
        <p> Rua 70, n. 250, Apto. 1801, Ed. Lyon, Jardim Goi&#225;s </p>
        <p> CEP 74810-350, Goi&#226;nia, GO - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="weimarsb@cardiol.br">weimarsb@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="wsebba@uol.com.br">wsebba@uol.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 16/04/13; revisado em 16/04/13; aceito em 07/05/13.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Special Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">I brazilian position statement on arterial hypertension and diabetes mellitus</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>SPECIAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="enda-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>I brazilian position statement on arterial hypertension and diabetes mellitus</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Departament of Arterial Hypertension of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology by the authors</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Hypertension; Diabetes Mellitus; Obesity; Adults; Overweight; Cardiovascular Risk.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Concept and Epidemiology</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Arterial hypertension (AH) is defined when blood pressure (BP) levels are <underline>&gt;</underline>140 mmHg and/or 90 mmHg for systolic and diastolic BP, respectively, in at least two separate measurements, in the presence or absence of diabetes mellitus (DM)<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>The diagnosis of DM is confirmed by the finding of fasting plasma glucose <underline>&gt;</underline> 126 mg/dL in two measurements, and/or blood glucose <underline>&gt;</underline> 200 mg / dL after overloading with 75g of dextrose, and / or random glucose measurement <underline>&gt;</underline> 200 mg/dL in the presence of unmistakable symptoms of diabetes, and/or, more recently, glycated hemoglobin <underline>&gt;</underline> 6.5% in two samples, by the HPLC method<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>AH and DM represent major public health problems and often coexist in clinical practice. At present, there is a trend to increase in the prevalence of AH and DM, possibly related to the growth of the elderly population, as well as overweight and obesity rates<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>According to the International Diabetes Federation, there were 285 million diabetic individuals in 2010 worldwide and it is estimated that there will be 438 million in 2030, with 90% of cases of type 2 DM. The impact of this situation in developing countries is immense<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>The association between AH and DM was first described in the 70s, observed in both sexes and at any age range. The prevalence of hypertension is two to three-fold higher in diabetics than in the general population<sup>5</sup>, and about 70% of diabetics are hypertensive<sup>3,6</sup>. A meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies and 698,782 individuals showed that the presence of DM increases by two-fold the risk of coronary artery disease (CAD), cerebrovascular accident (CVA) and CV death. According to this meta-analysis, 10% of CV deaths in developed countries can be attributed to the presence of DM<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>The coexistence of the two conditions substantially increases the risk of acute myocardial infarction (AMI), CVA and mortality from all causes, as well as the risk of heart failure (HF), kidney disease (KD) and microvascular complications<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Origin of Hypertension in DM</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Chronic hyperglycemia and hence, the associated insulin resistance can lead to AH through several physiopathological mechanisms that are not fully understood. <italic>In vitro </italic>observations show that insulin can directly stimulate the activity of sodium potassium adenosine-triphosphatase and several ionic channels and pumps, increasing the intracellular ion concentration, with the increase in intracellular calcium being an important determinant of vasoconstriction. It is also known that high levels of leptin cause increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system, which leads to increased cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance. Excess insulin is also is also able to reduce natriuresis by direct renal tubular mechanism, leading to an accumulation of salt and water. Salt-resistant AH is common in these patients<sup>9,10</sup>.</p>
      <p>The current and most relevant factor described as a cause of AH in diabetics has been oxidative stress, resulting from hyperactivity of metalloproteinases in patients with metabolic syndrome and DM. This leads to a reduction in the production and activity of protective vasodilator substances such as nitric oxide. Hydrogen peroxides, which are substrates and cofactors of the metabolism of these metalloproteins create, in the subendothelial microenvironment, the activation of potent vasoconstrictors through the local activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), and finally, increase in local concentration of angiotensin II<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>All these mechanisms acting in an integrated manner, in a hostile environment of higher risk, are adjuvants not only for the genesis of hypertension, but also for the development of CVD, due to the process of initial endothelial dysfunction to the genesis of atheromatous plaques.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cardiovascular Risk Stratification</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Since 1980, evidence has shown that the presence of DM confers increased risk of CV death, both in men and women<sup>10</sup>. These studies have shown that either isolated or associated with other CV diseases such as hypertension and dyslipidemia, DM is closely related to the increased incidence of atherosclerosis<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>Outcome studies carried out in the last decade also found in the association between AH and DM, a significantly increased incidence of fatal and nonfatal CV events, which led to the implementation of specific conducts over time to minimize the risk in this group of patients<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p>In this context, in diabetic subjects, even with BP considered normal, there is a moderate increase in CV risk, and in the presence of established AH, the risk will be high or very high (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_a01tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>)<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_a01tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0491-30123-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Clinical and Laboratory Assessment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The clinical and laboratory assessment follows the same set of investigations performed in hypertensive patients without DM, plus some additional points<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>The clinical history is important to verify the time of disease evolution, the search for other associated CV risk factors, the investigation of drugs that can further raise BP, presence of lifestyle habits that can aggravate the clinical presentation, detection of target-organ lesions and the possible presence of established CV disease. Similarly, the physical examination must be thorough and careful, also in search of evidence of secondary hypertension, target-organ lesions and possible signs of cardiovascular disease<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p>BP must be systematically measured in the supine and standing positions due to the possibility of higher incidence of postural hypotension. The measurement of waist circumference (WC) for the evaluation of visceral obesity adds further information to the initial investigation (normal values <underline>&lt;</underline> 88 cm for women and <underline>&lt;</underline> 102 cm for men). The dilated fundus examination (DFE) has special indication, as it will be useful to detect changes related to DM, as well as those related to hypertension itself<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>Laboratory evaluation initially recommended for all hypertensive individuals should be maintained, including: urinalysis; measurement of serum potassium, serum creatinine, fasting glucose, lipid profile, uric acid and electrocardiogram.</p>
      <p>In addition to these tests, it is important to perform: a) echocardiography for better assessment of ventricular function and mass b) exercise test to evaluate functional capacity and possible presence of subclinical ischemic alterations c) microalbuminuria may be initially performed by measuring in duplicate the albumin/creatinine ratio in an isolated urine sample. If available, carotid ultrasound should be performed, which may indicate the presence of incipient intima-media thickening of the carotid artery (&gt; 0.9 mm) or presence of atheromatous plaque<sup>15,16</sup>.</p>
      <p>Additional tests aimed to every organ or system may be indicated depending on the finding of specific alterations.</p>
      <p>Diabetes monitoring tests should obviously be routinely performed. In addition to fasting glucose, assessment of postprandial glucose and measurement of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C) are indicated for this purpose<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Kidney Alterations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>AH and DM account for more than 50% of the causes of Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD). The kidneys are the target organ that undergoes specific systemic processes entailed in DM and AH. Approximately 5% to 20% of the patients with DM may have albuminuria at the time of diagnosis.</p>
      <p>In the early stages, the vascular lesions are usually discrete, but with disease evolution, the lesions become more severe. Approximately 30% to 50% of patients with DM have a parallelism between clinical manifestation and pathological kidney alterations<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p>Among the mechanisms involved is glomerular hyperfiltration, which can cause extracellular matrix accumulation through pathways that increase TGF-&#946; expression. Glomerular hyperfiltration is capable of stimulating the RAAS, protein kinase C, in addition of TGF-&#946;. These facts explain why drugs that block the RAAS have additional beneficial effects in addition to the antihypertensive one<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>Before the age of effective anti-hypertensive drugs, proteinuria occurred in 40% of patients and more than 18% progressed to end-stage CKD. Albuminuria was present in 15% to 30% of cases, few patients developed proteinuria of around 500 mg / day and some developed nephrotic levels. Serum creatinine elevation occurs in 10% to 20% of patients and the risk is higher in African-Americans, the elderly and patients with predominant systolic hypertension (&gt; 160 mmHg). In 2% to 5% of patients, progression to renal failure occurred in the following 10 to 15 years<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Brain Alterations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Brain disease is the leading cause of morbidity in diabetic patients, and cerebrovascular accident (CVA) is responsible for 20% of deaths in diabetics<sup>21</sup>. There is a direct association between BP and mortality from CVA in diabetics and non-diabetics. This association increases with advancing age<sup>22</sup>. A large observational study showed a two-fold higher chance of CVA during 19 years of follow-up in those with the combination of diabetes and hypertension compared to hypertensive individuals only<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>Diabetics have an increased risk of dementia, including Alzheimer's disease. Even diabetics without dementia have worse performance in cognitive tests, when compared with individuals without DM<sup>24</sup>. In turn, hypertensive diabetics have an increased likelihood of cognitive deficits than normotensive ones<sup>25</sup>. The early identification and treatment of these individuals may have an impact on quality of life, but also on better adherence to prescribed treatments.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Peripheral Artery Disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD) can affect different vascular territories. In DM, PAD is more often distal, femoropopliteal and tibial, whereas in AH, smoking, and hypercholesterolemia, vascular involvement is mainly proximal, aortoiliac and femoral<sup>26</sup>. Approximately 65% of patients with some form of dysglycemia have PAD<sup>27</sup>. In Brazil, 12% to 20% of patients with lower-limb (LL) PAD have DM and the risk of diabetic men developing PAD is 6.6 times higher than non-diabetic ones<sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p>The main causes of PAD identified in the U.S. registry REACH (Reduction of Atherothrombosis for Continued Health) were DM and AH in Hispanics and African-Americans, while hypercholesterolemia was the main cause in Caucasians. The BARI 2D (Bypass Angioplasty Revascularization Investigation 2 Diabetes) study showed that the duration of DM and the presence of micro/macroalbuminuria are important predictors of PAD severity and left ventricular failure in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD)<sup>29</sup>. The PAMISCA study found 42.6% of PAD in hypertensive patients with acute coronary syndrome. The mortality among those with PAD was higher (2.3% versus 0.2%, p &lt; 0.01)<sup>30</sup>. Left ventricular hypertrophy affects up to 50% of patients with PAD, giving them a worse prognosis<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>Lower-limb PAD assessment includes: (a) Ankle Brachial Index (ABI - important in diabetic patients in the asymptomatic phase of PAD, to identify individuals at high risk of amputation), (b) treadmill exercise test (especially useful in diabetics with atypical LL symptoms or normal ABI and claudication symptoms), (c) lower-limb arterial duplex scan (locates and quantifies arterial lesions, in addition to analyzing the patency of grafts or stents), (d) magnetic resonance angiography (e) CT angiography, (f) coronary angiography (evaluation for revascularization)<sup>32,33</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Heart Disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hypertensive patients have a higher risk of developing cardiac abnormalities; however, in association with DM, these alterations are more intense and have an early onset<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>Studies have shown that alterations in myocardial cells, capillaries and interstitium, which lead to systolic and/or diastolic dysfunction, are much more pronounced in diabetic patients with a history of hypertension<sup>35</sup> and both diabetes and insulin resistance lead to alterations in the structural and molecular mechanisms. The incapacity of the myocardium to metabolize pyruvate results in lipid accumulation in the heart muscle and decrease in glucose uptake by myocytes<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>Hyperinsulinemia is also associated with increased levels of free fatty acids and increased sympathetic activity, which are factors that lead to cardiac hypertrophy and the accumulation of intracellular triglycerides<sup>37</sup>. However, these physiopathological chains are markedly exacerbated when BP levels are high, triggering other parallel mechanisms that induce hypertrophy, fibrosis and apoptosis. Oxidative stress has a strong participation, promoting the abnormal gene expression and signal transduction alterations, leading to myocyte death<sup>38</sup>.</p>
      <p>Other disorders also participate in myocardial injury; among them, autonomic neuropathy and mitochondrial dysfunction, common in DM, are adjuvant factors in reducing energy formation for adequate heart performance<sup>39</sup>. These aspects of cardiac injury are the initial pathways for the full development of cardiomyopathy, with all the characteristics of heart failure<sup>40</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Blood pressure, blood glucose and lipid goals</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Blood pressure goals recommended by the VI Brazilian Guidelines on Hypertension<sup>1</sup> is 130/80 mmHg, regardless of the presence of micro- or macrovascular complications. More stringent BP reductions have shown no benefit in this population and are not recommended<sup>41</sup>.</p>
      <p>Glycemic goals recommended by several scientific societies<sup>3,6</sup> include control of fasting blood glucose, postprandial blood glucose and HbA1C<sup>2,42</sup>. Different societies differ in relation to these values and suggest an individualized goal according to age, comorbidities, life expectancy and glycemia variability<sup>2,42</sup>. The Guidelines of the Brazilian Diabetes Society<sup>6</sup> recommend the following:</p>
      <p>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-06-0491-30123-e01-en.jpg"/></p>
      <p>More stringent HbA1c goals (6% to 6.5%) may be recommended in special groups: short disease duration, long life expectancy and in the absence of CV disease, as long as it is safe for the patient and there is no risk of hypoglycemia, as the importance of metabolic memory and glycemic variability in disease complications has been recently recognized. On the other hand, less stringent HbA1c goals (7.5% to 8%) are tolerated in elderly patients with frequent hypoglycemic episodes, short life expectancy, and significant cardiovascular complications and in patients with difficulty to achieve the goal even after effective use of multiple agents, including insulin<sup>12,42</sup>.</p>
      <p>The lipid levels goals in the diabetic population also differ according to the recommendations by different scientific societies (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_a01tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>).</p>
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      <p>Individual CV risk must be assessed in hypertensive patients and the recommendations should be similar to those given to the general population regarding lipid goals. However, the European Guidelines<sup>43</sup> consider that the most significant classic risk factors, among which is severe hypertension, constitute a high or very high risk for CV death, deserving an appropriate LDL-C goal (&lt;100 mg/dL), even in primary prevention of CVD and without DM.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Nondrug treatment of DM and AH</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The non-drug treatment of AH in diabetics basically consists of decrease in body weight, low-sodium diet, regular exercise, a diet rich in fruits and vegetables (DASH diet), smoking and alcohol consumption cessation and treatment of obstructive sleep apnea. Weight reduction is recommended for all age groups<sup>46</sup>. The reduction of abdominal circumference with weight reduction is associated with improved BP control and some metabolic parameters, such as lipids and glycemia<sup>47</sup>. Some appetite suppressants may induce blood pressure increase, and can therefore be used with caution. In patients with severe obesity, bariatric surgery reduces mortality and decreases blood pressure and is associated with better control of diabetes<sup>48</sup>.</p>
      <p>The effectiveness of decreasing salt intake in the specific diabetic population is not known, and the indications in this population are based on studies including hypertensive diabetics and non-diabetics.</p>
      <p>A diet low in sodium promotes rapid and significant decrease in BP in patients with resistant hypertension<sup>49</sup>. In spite of individual differences in sensitivity, even modest reductions in the amount of salt are generally effective in reducing BP. The daily requirement for sodium in humans is contained in 5 g of sodium chloride or table salt. The average intake of Brazilians corresponds to twice the recommended amount<sup>49</sup>.</p>
      <p>Patients who regularly consume high doses of alcohol should be encouraged to attain total withdrawal from alcohol consumption, as it interferes not only with BP control, but especially with glucose level control.</p>
      <p>Aerobic exercises (isotonic) together with resistance exercises lower blood pressure and are indicated not only for the treatment, but also for prevention of hypertension<sup>50</sup>. The recommended amount of exercise is at least five times a week, 30 minutes of moderate continuous or accumulated physical activity.</p>
      <p>The use of continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is the treatment of choice for patients with severe apnea/obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS). This procedure improves the episodes of apnea / hypopnea and helps in the correction of metabolic disorders (glucose). There is evidence that the use of this device can help to control blood pressure, in blood pressure drop during sleep, to improve quality of life and to reduce clinically relevant cardiovascular outcomes<sup>51</sup>. Alcohol intake worsens apnea/hypopnea episodes.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Drug Treatment of Dyslipidemia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In diabetics, the most commonly found dyslipidemias are hypertriglyceridemia, low HDL-C and increased small, dense LDL particles. The absolute levels of LDL-C, however, are similar in diabetic patients and the general population<sup>45</sup>. There are no peculiarities regarding the type of dyslipidemia found in hypertensive patients. Although frequently there are no elevated levels of LDL-C, the treatment is indicated to achieve goals related to high risk of CV events for hypertensive patients with DM.</p>
      <p>Statins should be the drug of choice for treatment of hypercholesterolemia, while fibrates must be chosen in cases of severe hypertriglyceridemia. Other drugs available are niacin and omega-3 fatty acids for the adjuvant treatment of hypertriglyceridemia and bile acid sequestrants and ezetimibe for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia.</p>
      <p>Meta-analysis of statin studies showed that for every reduction of 39 mg/dL of LDL-C observed, there was a 12% reduction in total mortality and 19% in CV mortality<sup>52</sup>. The risk of coronary events was also reduced by 23% and the risk of CVA by 17%<sup>2</sup>. A higher reduction of LDL-C reduces major cardiovascular events by 50%<sup>53</sup>. A meta-analysis evaluating the treatment of dyslipidemia with statins in diabetic patients showed a reduction of cardiovascular mortality as well as cardiovascular outcomes, similarly to the non-diabetic population<sup>54</sup>.</p>
      <p>Thus, statins have been shown to be effective drugs for the treatment of hypertension or dyslipidemia in diabetic patients, despite recent warning from the FDA<sup>55</sup> regarding its prescription, due to the increased risk of diabetes. The low incidence of diabetes was largely confined to patients with previous dysglycemia, as pre-diabetics and glycemic changes were mild, even among diabetic patients. Regarding fibrates, a meta-analysis published in 2010<sup>56</sup> showed reduced risk of overall cardiovascular events by 10% and coronary events by 13%, but there are no specific meta-analysis data on the use of fibrates in an exclusively diabetic or hypertensive population.</p>
      <p>The ACCORD Lipid study<sup>41</sup>involved diabetics who received treatment with placebo or simvastatin associated with fenofibrate. In this study, there was no reduction in cardiovascular outcomes with the combination of fenofibrate and simvastatin. However, subgroup analysis of this study showed that individuals with triglyceride levels &gt; 204 mg/dL concomitant with HDL-C levels &lt; 34 mg / dL had benefited from using fenofibrate. Another large study involving diabetics was the FIELD study<sup>57</sup>, which showed a 24% reduction in nonfatal AMI, 21% in coronary revascularization and 11% in overall cardiovascular events. None of these studies, however, demonstrated a reduction in mortality. There have been, to date, no studies that evaluated fibrates in an exclusively hypertensive population, but they are considered safe drugs when indicated for the treatment of dyslipidemia<sup>58</sup>.</p>
      <p>The therapeutic goals, as recommended in the guidelines<sup>42,59</sup>, are different for diabetics. <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_a01tab03-body2">Table 3</xref> shows the indications for statin use in diabetic patients.</p>
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      <p>
        <bold>Drug Treatment of DM in the Hypertensive Patient</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The algorithm for the treatment of diabetes is updated annually by the American Diabetes Association (ADA)<sup>59</sup> and, according to the final positioning, metformin is recommended as the drug of choice as long as it is well tolerated and in the absence of contraindications<sup>60</sup>. If an effective glycemic control has not achieved within three months, the combination of other drugs is necessary. The choice of the second drug should take into account the patient's age, life expectancy, complications of DM, significant comorbidities, time of disease, need for weight control, risk of hypoglycemia and available resources, with cost being a true limiting factor.</p>
      <p>A combination of drugs can be prescribed as early as at the diagnosis when higher blood glucose levels are present<sup>61</sup>. As second choice therapy, there are drugs such as thiazolidinedione, represented by pioglitazone, DPP-4 (dipeptidyl peptidase-4) inhibitors, GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide-1) agonists, sulfonylureas, as well as insulin<sup>62</sup>. Glinides and alpha glucosidase inhibitors, represented by Acarbose, also represent less validated options for treatment of DM. If good glycemic control is not achieved within three months, other drugs and/or basal insulin should be associated to allow better and faster glycemic control and if this does not occur in three months, the option for multiple-dose insulin therapy may be necessary. According the 2012 position statement of the ADA/EASD, the choice of therapy should be individualized<sup>63</sup>.</p>
      <p>The change in lifestyle is capable of decreasing HbA1c levels similar to the use of metformin and sulfonylurea, of 1% to 2%. Monotherapy is not always sufficient to control the hyperglycemia, and as in the treatment of AH, the association of different drugs is required to achieve adequate control of blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a01fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>)<sup>12</sup>.</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Drug Treatment of AH in the DM Patient</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In patients with diabetes and hypertension, the main determinant of cardiovascular benefits of antihypertensive medications is achieving the BP goal with treatment<sup>64</sup>. Although the role of blood pressure control is unquestionable, a growing number of studies suggest that some drug combinations have advantages in protecting the kidneys, blood vessels and heart, as well as the BP control itself<sup>64</sup>.</p>
      <p>In diabetic patients with BP between 130-139 mmHg and 80-89 mmHg, the ADA recommends changes in lifestyle for a maximum of three months. These are key elements in reducing blood glucose and for proper control of pressure, especially after weight loss in obese patients, and they should be recommended for all diabetic hypertensive patients. If during this period there is no adequate pressure reduction, drug treatment should be started<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>If the BP levels are <underline>&gt;</underline> 140/90 mmHg, in addition to changes in lifestyle, drug treatment should be started immediately<sup>1,59</sup>. In these conditions it is suggested that the BP goal is 130/80 mmHg, reinforced by the results of the ACCORD trial<sup>59</sup>. For this goal to be achieved, it is almost always necessary to start antihypertensive treatment with two or more drugs of different classes. The presence of kidney disease should be stratified to define the best approach<sup>1,59</sup>.</p>
      <p>Several studies have demonstrated the benefits of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors (ACEI) and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers (ARB) in hypertensive diabetic patients with microalbuminuria (30-300 mg/24 h)<sup>65</sup>. These classes are the first choice for the initial treatment of hypertensive diabetic patients with renal disorders.</p>
      <p>In diabetic patients with no established nephropathy, studies as the ALLHAT<sup>66</sup> indicated that other classes of antihypertensive drugs in addition to ACE inhibitors, such as diuretics and calcium channel antagonists (CCA) have similar protective effect in patients with hypertension and diabetes and can be used as first choice for treating this group of patients. ARBs may be used in patients who cannot tolerate ACE inhibitors<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>The VI Brazilian Guidelines on Hypertension<sup>1</sup> recommend that in diabetic patients without nephropathy, all antihypertensive agents can be used; however, the combination of renin-angiotensin system blockers with CCA may be beneficial<sup>64</sup>.</p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="en_a01tab04-body2">Table 4</xref> summarizes the essential considerations for the use of the major classes of antihypertensive drugs in diabetic patients.</p>
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      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="en_a01tab05-body2">Table 5</xref> shows the main guidelines for the treatment of hypertensive patients with diabetes.</p>
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      <p>
        <bold>Oral Antidiabetic agents and Cardiovascular Risk</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The cardiovascular safety of thiazolidinedione (TZD) has been questioned<sup>73</sup> and rosiglitazone, alone or combined, showed an association with myocardial infarction without statistical significance when compared with metformin<sup>74</sup>. The risk profile of pioglitazone seems more favorable, possibly by decreasing the atherosclerotic plaque inflammation, increasing HDL-c and decreasing high-sensitivity C-reactive protein<sup>75</sup>. The ADA/EASD document<sup>76</sup> states that metformin is a useful drug in the presence of CAD, and pioglitazone use results in a modest reduction of major cardiovascular events and alerts for the increased risk of heart failure induced by TZD in the elderly older than 80 years <sup>80</sup>. <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_a01tab06-body2">Table 6</xref> shows the major drugs, their advantages and disadvantages.</p>
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Peculiar Aspects of Vascular Intervention</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There are certain peculiarities in patients with AH and DM, especially if the BP levels are elevated at the time of the intervention leading to increased vascular and non-vascular complications.</p>
      <p>In diabetics, coronary artery disease manifests as the most severe form, with higher frequency of multivessel disease, more severe and diffuse obstructions, smaller caliber arteries, higher prevalence of total occlusions and trunk lesions and greater thrombogenic potential. For these reasons, although the indication for clinical treatment, surgical or percutaneous revascularization is not substantially different between diabetics and non-diabetics, the results are worse for percutaneous revascularization in diabetic patients, especially in insulin-dependent and / or those with poor metabolic control.</p>
      <p>While the percutaneous treatment of patients with single-vessel or low anatomical complexity disease is clearly established in practice and substantiated by studies that showed similarity of results in comparison with the surgical outcome, patients with multivessel disease, complex anatomy and basic clinical risk still have CABG as the primary recommendation according to the Syntax<sup>77</sup>and ARTS II<sup>78</sup> studies.</p>
      <p>The angiographic success rate of elective percutaneous procedures is similar between diabetic and nondiabetic patients. However, diabetic patients are at increased risk of events than non-diabetic ones, including increased risk of death, a characteristic also observed in surgical procedures.</p>
      <p>Hyperglycemia is a condition that enhances the proliferation of smooth muscle cells and fibroblasts, which are histological markers of the restenosis process. It also negatively influences vascular reactivity, inducing endothelial and platelet dysfunction. Therefore, strict metabolic control should be the norm.</p>
      <p>The use of drug-eluting stents in diabetic patients significantly reduces the frequency of restenosis, although it did not reduce the frequency of death or myocardial infarction in the general population in large clinical trials. Some registries and sub-studies have shown a reduction of these events in diabetic individuals<sup>79</sup>.</p>
      <p>Diabetic patients with renal dysfunction deserve special attention. In elective cases, adequate hydration before the procedure, use of the smallest possible volume of contrast, in addition to contrasts with low osmolarity or isosmolar ones should be the norm in order to prevent the development of contrast-induced nephrotoxicity. Metformin should be discontinued 48 hours before the procedure due to the risk of developing lactic acidosis<sup>80</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Full author list</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Alexandre Alessi, Alexandre Vidal Bonfim, Andrea A Brand&#227;o, Audes Feitosa, Celso Amodeo, Claudia Rodrigues Alves, David P. Brasil, Dilma do SM Souza, Eduardo Barbosa, Fernanda Marciano Consolim-Colombo, Fl&#225;vio Borelli, Francisco Helfenstein Fonseca, Heno F. Lopes, Hilton Chaves, Luis Aparecido Bortolotto, Luis C. Martin, Luiz Cesar Naz&#225;rio Scala, Marco Antonio Mota-Gomes, Marcus Vin&#237;cius Bol&#237;var Malachias, Maria Cristina Izar, Mar&#237;lia Izar Helfenstein Fonseca, M&#225;rio Fritsch Toros Neves, Nelson Siqueira Morais, Oswaldo Passarelli Jr, Paulo Cesar Veiga Jardim, Paulo Roberto Toscano, Roberto Dischinger Miranda, Roberto Franco, Roberto Tadeu Barcellos Betti, Rodrigo Pinto Pedrosa, Rui Povoa, S&#233;rgio Baiocchi Carneiro, Thiago Jardim, Weimar Kunz Sebba Barroso.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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