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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">GkwFDVnW3VJrYhngV4xx3kh</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2013000500012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(13)10000500012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20130060</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Marina Politi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Romeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando G.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Sergio A. R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Katashi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>100</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>476</fpage>
      <lpage>482</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>24</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>20</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>Pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca frequentemente desenvolvem estado de caquexia, que constitui fator independente de redu&#231;&#227;o da sobrevida. Caquexia pode ser diagnosticada quando ocorre perda de peso corporal maior que 6% do peso habitual, na aus&#234;ncia de outras doen&#231;as. Embora sua fisiopatologia n&#227;o esteja completamente esclarecida, v&#225;rios fatores parecem estar envolvidos, como diminui&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o alimentar, anormalidades do trato gastrointestinal, ativa&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica e neuro-hormonal e altera&#231;&#227;o da rela&#231;&#227;o entre processos anab&#243;licos e catab&#243;licos. Como n&#227;o h&#225; terapia espec&#237;fica para a caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o tratamento baseia-se no suporte nutricional, bloqueio neuro-hormonal, controle do edema e anemia e exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos. F&#225;rmacos com propriedades imunomodulat&#243;rias e anab&#243;licas encontram-se em investiga&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e experimental.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Caquexia</kwd>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Progn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>Anorexia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>09</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>Caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Marina Politi Okoshi; Fernando G. Romeiro; Sergio A. R. Paiva; Katashi Okoshi</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica, Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Unesp, Botucatu, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="not01">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca frequentemente desenvolvem estado de caquexia, que constitui fator independente de redu&#231;&#227;o da sobrevida. Caquexia pode ser diagnosticada quando ocorre perda de peso corporal maior que 6% do peso habitual, na aus&#234;ncia de outras doen&#231;as. Embora sua fisiopatologia n&#227;o esteja completamente esclarecida, v&#225;rios fatores parecem estar envolvidos, como diminui&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o alimentar, anormalidades do trato gastrointestinal, ativa&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica e neuro-hormonal e altera&#231;&#227;o da rela&#231;&#227;o entre processos anab&#243;licos e catab&#243;licos. Como n&#227;o h&#225; terapia espec&#237;fica para a caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o tratamento baseia-se no suporte nutricional, bloqueio neuro-hormonal, controle do edema e anemia e exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos. F&#225;rmacos com propriedades imunomodulat&#243;rias e anab&#243;licas encontram-se em investiga&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e experimental.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Caquexia, Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca, Progn&#243;stico, Anorexia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#233; causada por anormalidades card&#237;acas estruturais e/ou funcionais, adquiridas ou heredit&#225;rias, que levam &#224; piora da capacidade de enchimento e eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, com o melhor entendimento sobre sua fisiopatogenia, tornou-se claro que as altera&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas envolvem n&#227;o somente o sistema cardiovascular, mas tamb&#233;m os sistemas renal, neuroendocrinol&#243;gico, imunol&#243;gico, musculoesquel&#233;tico, hematol&#243;gico e gastrointestinal, assim como o estado nutricional. Atualmente, desenvolvem-se estudos para elucidar a fisiopatologia de complica&#231;&#245;es sist&#234;micas decorrentes da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e propor tratamento que promova melhora da qualidade de vida e aumento da sobrevida. Entre estes, destacam-se as pesquisas sobre a caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Nesta revis&#227;o, apresentaremos defini&#231;&#227;o, preval&#234;ncia, fatores causais, repercuss&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e possibilidades terap&#234;uticas para a caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>A caquexia constitui importante fator preditivo de redu&#231;&#227;o da sobrevida na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, independentemente de vari&#225;veis importantes como idade, classe funcional, fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e capacidade para realizar exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos<sup>1-3</sup>. A import&#226;ncia do desenvolvimento da caquexia no progn&#243;stico da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ficou mais evidente com a descri&#231;&#227;o da epidemiologia reversa da obesidade nessa doen&#231;a. Em indiv&#237;duos normais, o aumento do &#237;ndice de massa do corpo (IMC) est&#225; associado a aumento no risco para desenvolver doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Entretanto, em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o IMC correlaciona-se positivamente com a sobrevida<sup>4,5</sup>. O fator protetor do aumento do IMC nesses pacientes foi bem documentado em an&#225;lise <italic>post hoc </italic>do estudo multic&#234;ntrico DIG (Digitalis Investigation Group), no qual a mortalidade foi maior nos pacientes com menores valores de IMC e menor naqueles com maiores valores<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Defini&#231;&#227;o de caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O termo caquexia tem origem grega e &#233; formado pela jun&#231;&#227;o de kak&#243;s, que significa m&#225;, e hexis, que significa condi&#231;&#227;o. Alguns pacientes t&#234;m emagrecimento t&#227;o acentuado, que esse diagn&#243;stico se torna evidente. Por&#233;m, muitas vezes pode ser dif&#237;cil diagnosticar a caquexia em portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, uma vez que o edema prejudica a avalia&#231;&#227;o do peso corporal e de outras medidas antropom&#233;tricas. Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; dificuldades na interpreta&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;todos laboratoriais para avalia&#231;&#227;o do estado nutricional como, por exemplo, a dosagem de marcadores nutricionais ou a determina&#231;&#227;o da composi&#231;&#227;o do corpo por meio de imped&#226;ncia bioel&#233;trica, que pode superestimar a massa sem gordura por efeitos do excesso de fluido extracelular<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para facilitar o diagn&#243;stico da caquexia, Anker e cols.<sup>7</sup> propuseram, em 1997, uma defini&#231;&#227;o de simples aplicabilidade na avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Segundo os autores, caquexia deveria ser diagnosticada quando houvesse perda de peso corporal acima de 7,5% do peso habitual, n&#227;o intencional e n&#227;o edematosa, na aus&#234;ncia de sinais de outras doen&#231;as que possam causar desnutri&#231;&#227;o, como, por exemplo, neoplasias, infec&#231;&#227;o ou hipertireoidismo. A perda de peso deve ter ocorrido em per&#237;odo maior que seis meses. Perdas acentuadas em menores per&#237;odos de tempo tamb&#233;m podem ser decorrentes da pr&#243;pria insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, mas outras doen&#231;as graves devem ser investigadas. O peso considerado deve ser aquele que prevalecia antes do desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a card&#237;aca. Posteriormente, os mesmos autores mostraram que redu&#231;&#227;o de apenas 6% do peso corporal j&#225; est&#225; associada &#224; piora do progn&#243;stico<sup>8</sup>. Portanto, caquexia card&#237;aca passou a ser definida como a perda de 6% do peso do corpo. </p>
    <p>Deve-se ressaltar, entretanto, que essa defini&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o &#233; universalmente utilizada em estudos gerais sobre caquexia. Em 2006, na Confer&#234;ncia para Consenso em Caquexia<sup>9,10</sup>, a condi&#231;&#227;o foi definida como a presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica e perda de peso <underline>&gt;</underline> a 5% em per&#237;odo menor &lt; 12 meses ou IMC &lt; 20 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, associadas a pelo menos tr&#234;s dos seguintes crit&#233;rios: 1) diminui&#231;&#227;o da for&#231;a muscular, 2) fadiga, 3) anorexia, 4) redu&#231;&#227;o do &#237;ndice de massa livre de gordura e 5) anormalidades bioqu&#237;micas como inflama&#231;&#227;o, anemia ou redu&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de albumina. Outro ponto a ser salientado &#233; a diferen&#231;a entre caquexia e estados de desnutri&#231;&#227;o ou anorexia, que s&#227;o condi&#231;&#245;es revers&#237;veis com adequada ingest&#227;o alimentar, o que dificilmente pode ocorrer na caquexia<sup>9,10</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Epidemiologia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Usando a defini&#231;&#227;o de caquexia como estado de perda de peso equivalente a 6% do peso corporal, Anker e cols.<sup>8</sup> observaram que 34% dos pacientes em tratamento ambulatorial da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca apresentaram caquexia durante per&#237;odo de acompanhamento de 48 meses. Outros estudos mostraram incid&#234;ncia de caquexia de aproximadamente 10% ao ano em pacientes em classes funcionais III e IV da New York Heart Association, e preval&#234;ncia entre 12 a 15 % em classes funcionais II a IV<sup>11,12</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fisiopatologia da caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos envolvidos na caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ainda n&#227;o est&#227;o completamente esclarecidos. A seguir, apresentaremos os diversos fatores que t&#234;m sido responsabilizados pelo seu desenvolvimento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>1) Redu&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o alimentar</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A redu&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o alimentar pode ser secund&#225;ria &#224; anorexia, e seus mecanismos respons&#225;veis n&#227;o est&#227;o ainda completamente esclarecidos. V&#225;rios fatores podem estar envolvidos, como dietas pouco saborosas, principalmente por causa do baixo conte&#250;do de s&#243;dio, estado de depress&#227;o grave e congest&#227;o passiva visceral. Drogas frequentemente prescritas para o tratamento da doen&#231;a podem, inadvertidamente, contribuir para a redu&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o alimentar. A intoxica&#231;&#227;o digit&#225;lica pode provocar anorexia, n&#225;useas e v&#244;mitos. Alguns inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina, particularmente o captopril, podem alterar o paladar e exacerbar a anorexia<sup>13</sup>. O uso cr&#244;nico e vigoroso de diur&#233;ticos pode acarretar deple&#231;&#227;o dos estoques corporais de zinco, levando a altera&#231;&#227;o do paladar, e de pot&#225;ssio, promovendo hipomotilidade intestinal. As citocinas inflamat&#243;rias, como veremos posteriormente, e concentra&#231;&#245;es inadequadas de leptina tamb&#233;m levam &#224; anorexia<sup>14,15</sup>.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m desses fatores, parece haver dist&#250;rbio intr&#237;nseco na regula&#231;&#227;o do apetite. O hipot&#225;lamo &#233; o principal s&#237;tio regulador do apetite. Duas &#225;reas foram identificadas no hipot&#225;lamo: uma &#225;rea lateral, que quando estimulada induz o apetite, e uma &#225;rea medial, que leva &#224; saciedade. V&#225;rios neuropept&#237;deos est&#227;o envolvidos no controle da ingest&#227;o alimentar. Acredita-se que, na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, ocorra desequil&#237;brio entre a a&#231;&#227;o dos neuropept&#237;deos, com predom&#237;nio dos anorex&#237;genos, que atuam no centro de saciedade sobre os orex&#237;genos<sup>16</sup>.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m da anorexia, outros fatores podem levar &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o alimentar como plenitude precoce por hepatomegalia importante e diminui&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o energ&#233;tica por baixa ingest&#227;o de lip&#237;deos. A redu&#231;&#227;o desse nutriente, com alta densidade energ&#233;tica, pode n&#227;o ser compensada com aumento proporcional da ingest&#227;o de carboidratos. Finalmente, &#233; importante ressaltar que, nos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em classe funcional IV, a presen&#231;a de dispneia em repouso tamb&#233;m passa a ser fator limitante para a ingest&#227;o alimentar.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2) Anormalidades do trato gastrointestinal</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O papel do trato gastrointestinal na g&#234;nese da caquexia tem sido detalhadamente estudado nos &#250;ltimos anos<sup>14,17-19</sup>. Diversas altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais foram detectadas no trato gastrointestinal de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, como espessamento da parede intestinal, sugerindo edema de mucosa, e aumento do conte&#250;do de col&#225;geno da parede intestinal e da dist&#226;ncia entre a parede do capilar e a do enter&#243;cito<sup>20-22</sup>. Atualmente, acredita-se que essas altera&#231;&#245;es levem &#224; piora da nutri&#231;&#227;o do enter&#243;cito e facilitem o desenvolvimento de m&#225;-absor&#231;&#227;o intestinal. Altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais tamb&#233;m foram descritas como diminui&#231;&#227;o da absor&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas e gorduras e aumento da permeabilidade paracelular<sup>20,21,23</sup>. Adicionalmente, observou-se aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o de bact&#233;rias no biofilme mucoso e da extens&#227;o de sua ader&#234;ncia &#224; parede intestinal<sup>20</sup>. O aumento da permeabilidade intestinal paracelular e da coloniza&#231;&#227;o bacteriana intestinal s&#227;o os respons&#225;veis pela absor&#231;&#227;o inadequada de constituintes bacterianos como, por exemplo, as endotoxinas bacterianas. O processo &#233; conhecido como transloca&#231;&#227;o bacteriana. As endotoxinas bacterianas, tamb&#233;m conhecidas como lipopolissac&#225;rides, s&#227;o consideradas um dos mais potentes indutores do fator de necrose tumoral-&#945;, o TNF-&#945;, e de outras subst&#226;ncias pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias<sup>24,25</sup>. Esses dados fortemente sugerem que, na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, anormalidades do trato gastrointestinal est&#227;o envolvidas n&#227;o somente no desenvolvimento de caquexia, mas tamb&#233;m na ativa&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3) Ativa&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica e neuro-hormonal</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es imunol&#243;gicas e neuroendocrinol&#243;gicas t&#234;m importante papel no desenvolvimento da caquexia. O estudo das altera&#231;&#245;es imunol&#243;gicas na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca teve seu marco no estudo de Levine e cols.<sup>26</sup>, em 1990. Os autores observaram que os pacientes apresentavam elevadas concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de TNF-&#945;, que era particularmente evidente nos doentes com caquexia. Esses achados foram marcantes no entendimento da fisiopatologia da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e suas complica&#231;&#245;es sist&#234;micas. Logo se tornou claro, em grandes ensaios cl&#237;nicos, como SOLVD<sup>27</sup> e VEST<sup>28</sup>, que o TNF-&#945; &#233; bom marcador progn&#243;stico, correlacionando-se com a classe funcional, a performance card&#237;aca e a sobrevida. Em estudos experimentais, o aumento de TNF-&#945; leva ao fen&#243;tipo da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, com caquexia e altera&#231;&#245;es da musculatura esquel&#233;tica<sup>29,30</sup>. Posteriormente, foi verificado que outras citocinas tamb&#233;m est&#227;o alteradas na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Entre as citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias, destacam-se a interleucina (IL)-6 e a fam&#237;lia das IL-1. Entre aquelas com atividade anti-inflamat&#243;ria, destacam-se a fam&#237;lia das IL-10 e o fator transformador do crescimento-&#946;<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>No organismo, h&#225; diversas fontes produtoras de citocinas<sup>31</sup>. O pr&#243;prio mioc&#225;rdio, estruturalmente lesado, pode expressar e produzir n&#237;veis aumentados de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios. Leuc&#243;citos circulantes, plaquetas, c&#233;lulas endoteliais e c&#233;lulas do pulm&#227;o e do f&#237;gado tamb&#233;m parecem estar envolvidos na produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas. Entre os est&#237;mulos para a produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas, destacam-se: sobrecarga hemodin&#226;mica, ativa&#231;&#227;o neuro-hormonal, presen&#231;a de hipoxemia e hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual, oxida&#231;&#227;o de lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade, presen&#231;a de autoanticorpos e estimula&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica causada, principalmente, pela absor&#231;&#227;o de endotoxinas intestinais, como j&#225; referido<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m das altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas, amplamente conhecidas, as citocinas induzem ainda &#224; caquexia, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, inibi&#231;&#227;o da eritropoese, altera&#231;&#227;o da permeabilidade intestinal, redu&#231;&#227;o da atividade de enzimas removedoras de radicais livres, diminui&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo para musculatura esquel&#233;tica, altera&#231;&#227;o funcional de prote&#237;nas musculares contr&#225;teis, apoptose de c&#233;lulas musculares esquel&#233;ticas, e prote&#243;lise e atrofia muscular<sup>25</sup>. Os efeitos relacionados &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es da musculatura esquel&#233;tica t&#234;m importante consequ&#234;ncia no desenvolvimento da caquexia, uma vez que resultam em prote&#243;lise e perda da massa muscular.</p>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o neuro-hormonal, suas repercuss&#245;es relacionam-se, principalmente, a aumento do gasto energ&#233;tico basal e ativa&#231;&#227;o adicional de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios. Pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e caquexia apresentam aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de noradrenalina, adrenalina, cortisol e aldosterona, quando comparados com doentes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca sem caquexia ou volunt&#225;rios saud&#225;veis, o que sugere que a ativa&#231;&#227;o neuro-hormonal sist&#234;mica participe na g&#234;nese da caquexia<sup>1,2</sup>. De fato, ensaios cl&#237;nicos mostram que o uso de inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina<sup>8</sup> ou betabloqueadores<sup>32</sup> pode reduzir a chance de perder peso. Em estudos <italic>in vitro</italic>, foi observado que angiotensina II, aldosterona e catecolaminas podem induzir ativa&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas inflamat&#243;rias e aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas<sup>33-35</sup>. Adicionalmente, o est&#237;mulo adren&#233;rgico promove vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o com piora da perfus&#227;o intestinal<sup>36</sup>, podendo intensificar a transloca&#231;&#227;o de endotoxinas bacterianas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Altera&#231;&#227;o da rela&#231;&#227;o entre processos anab&#243;licos e catab&#243;licos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Altera&#231;&#227;o no equil&#237;brio entre processos anab&#243;licos e catab&#243;licos tem import&#226;ncia na g&#234;nese da caquexia, particularmente em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; prote&#243;lise da musculatura esquel&#233;tica<sup>37,38</sup>. O fator de transcri&#231;&#227;o nuclear-kappaB (NF-&#954;B) participa de uma das principais vias indutoras de catabolismo e prote&#243;lise muscular. Na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, a ativa&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica e neuro-hormonal, bem como o aumento das esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio, estimulam o NF-&#954;B muscular, que ativa a via da ubiquitina-proteassoma, levando &#224; prote&#243;lise muscular. O sistema das ubiquitinas pode ser ativado pela miostatina e inibido por antagonistas da miostatina, como a folistatina, e pela insulina ou IGF-1<sup>16</sup>. Em ratos com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, observamos que atrofia muscular foi acompanhada por altera&#231;&#245;es na express&#227;o de prote&#237;nas da via miostatina/folistatina<sup>39,40</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Consequ&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas da caquexia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas da caquexia s&#227;o decorrentes tanto da perda de peso como do processo inflamat&#243;rio sist&#234;mico. Redu&#231;&#245;es acentuadas do peso corporal, mesmo na aus&#234;ncia de inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica, acarretam efeitos delet&#233;rios em praticamente todos os &#243;rg&#227;os e sistemas. Entre as repercuss&#245;es da caquexia, destacam-se altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas, anormalidades da fun&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria, diminui&#231;&#227;o da massa muscular e &#243;ssea, redu&#231;&#227;o da capacidade de concentra&#231;&#227;o e acidifica&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria, diminui&#231;&#227;o da cicatriza&#231;&#227;o, predisposi&#231;&#227;o a &#250;lceras de press&#227;o em pacientes acamados, altera&#231;&#245;es do trato gastrointestinal, anemia, e redu&#231;&#227;o da imunidade com aumento no risco de infec&#231;&#245;es.</p>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao comprometimento card&#237;aco, h&#225; dificuldades no estudo dos efeitos da caquexia sobre o pr&#243;prio cora&#231;&#227;o, uma vez que j&#225; ocorrem altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais e funcionais pela cardiopatia de base. Estudos experimentais avaliam os efeitos card&#237;acos da caquexia de origem n&#227;o card&#237;aca causada por neoplasias. Nesses trabalhos, foram observadas altera&#231;&#245;es moleculares caracter&#237;sticas do processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e piora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular<sup>41</sup>. Em nosso laborat&#243;rio, avaliamos o comprometimento card&#237;aco em situa&#231;&#245;es de restri&#231;&#227;o importante da ingest&#227;o alimentar, tanto em ratos normais como hipertensos. Verificamos que a redu&#231;&#227;o do peso do corpo foi acompanhada por diminui&#231;&#227;o da massa muscular card&#237;aca. Nos animais normotensos, observamos anormalidades mioc&#225;rdicas morfol&#243;gicas e ultraestruturais e altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais discretas<sup>42-44</sup>. Entretanto, no cora&#231;&#227;o hipertrofiado de ratos hipertensos, as altera&#231;&#245;es ultraestruturais foram mais evidentes e intensamente distribu&#237;das pelo mioc&#225;rdio, caracterizando-se por desorganiza&#231;&#227;o e perda de miofilamentos e miofibrilas, degenera&#231;&#227;o de mitoc&#244;ndrias e presen&#231;a de numerosas invagina&#231;&#245;es da membrana plasm&#225;tica<sup>45</sup>. Provavelmente em decorr&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es ultraestruturais mais intensas, observamos evidente disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ventricular e mioc&#225;rdica<sup>45-48</sup>. &#192; estimula&#231;&#227;o inotr&#243;pica do mioc&#225;rdio, Sugizaki e cols.<sup>49</sup> e Gut e cols.<sup>50,51</sup> observaram que as altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais s&#227;o compat&#237;veis com anormalidades em prote&#237;nas envolvidas no tr&#226;nsito intracelular de c&#225;lcio. Portanto, a restri&#231;&#227;o alimentar acarreta altera&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas e funcionais em cora&#231;&#245;es normais, que s&#227;o agravadas em condi&#231;&#245;es de sobrecarga mec&#226;nica do cora&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Como j&#225; referido, a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca induz altera&#231;&#245;es no trato gastrointestinal. A perda de peso corporal leva a efeitos delet&#233;rios adicionais promovendo atrofia de enter&#243;citos, diminui&#231;&#227;o das vilosidades e aumento no risco de transloca&#231;&#227;o bacteriana<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outro sistema frequentemente acometido na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e exacerbado com a caquexia &#233; o muscular esquel&#233;tico. Diminui&#231;&#227;o da massa muscular &#233; frequentemente mencionada, sendo mais evidente nos doentes com caquexia<sup>52,53</sup>. A redu&#231;&#227;o da massa muscular pode ser decorrente de atrofia, apoptose ou necrose<sup>39,40,54,55</sup>. Outras altera&#231;&#245;es musculares incluem diminui&#231;&#227;o da densidade capilar e do n&#250;mero de mitoc&#244;ndrias, modifica&#231;&#227;o na composi&#231;&#227;o das miofibrilas e metaloproteases, aumento do estresse oxidativo, e anormalidades do metabolismo e do tr&#226;nsito intracelular de c&#225;lcio<sup>56-59</sup>. H&#225; fortes evid&#234;ncias que as anormalidades metab&#243;licas sejam intr&#237;nsecas e n&#227;o dependentes de m&#225; perfus&#227;o tecidual, como se imaginava previamente<sup>60,61</sup>. Como consequ&#234;ncia das anormalidades, observa-se redu&#231;&#227;o da capacidade para desenvolver for&#231;a muscular, mesmo quando a for&#231;a &#233; corrigida pela massa muscular<sup>62</sup>.</p>
    <p>Finalmente, a anemia, complica&#231;&#227;o frequente da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, pode ser exacerbada pela caquexia<sup>63</sup>. Embora sua etiologia seja multifatorial, fatores relacionados &#224; caquexia - como diminui&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o alimentar e da absor&#231;&#227;o intestinal, e estado de inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica - t&#234;m papel importante em sua g&#234;nese<sup>64</sup>. Apesar de n&#227;o ter sido sistematicamente avaliada em grandes estudos, defici&#234;ncia de ferro tem sido relatada em frequ&#234;ncia vari&#225;vel entre 1 e 44 % dos casos, dependendo da gravidade da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e da amostra estudada<sup>65,66</sup>. Essa defici&#234;ncia, al&#233;m de alterar a eritropoese, pode tamb&#233;m prejudicar a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, induzindo ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico, dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular, altera&#231;&#245;es ultraestruturais e mitocondriais card&#237;acas e trombocitose<sup>67</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento da caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Como n&#227;o h&#225; tratamento espec&#237;fico, diversas possibilidades t&#234;m sido aventadas para a preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento da caquexia: terapia nutricional, bloqueio neuro-hormonal, redu&#231;&#227;o do edema, diminui&#231;&#227;o da transloca&#231;&#227;o intestinal, estimulantes do apetite, imunomodula&#231;&#227;o, corre&#231;&#227;o da anemia, esteroides anabolizantes e exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos.</p>
    <p>Atualmente, a terapia nutricional constitui um dos pilares para a preven&#231;&#227;o e tratamento da caquexia<sup>11,16,68</sup>. Com a terapia, procura-se obter e manter, sem edema, o peso corporal dentro da faixa de peso ideal ou, de acordo com alguns autores, pouco abaixo do peso ideal. Nesse objetivo, est&#227;o inclu&#237;das a recupera&#231;&#227;o das reservas de energia, como o tecido gorduroso e, o que &#233; mais dif&#237;cil de ser obtido, a recupera&#231;&#227;o da massa magra e da massa &#243;ssea. N&#227;o existem recomenda&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas para a oferta cal&#243;rica e proteica na caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Segundo Heymsfield e Casper<sup>69</sup>, a administra&#231;&#227;o de 35 kcal/kg/dia, via enteral, &#233; segura e efetiva em aumentar a massa magra. Entretanto, recomenda-se que a oferta cal&#243;rica n&#227;o ultrapasse 28 kcal/kg/dia<sup>70</sup>. O suporte deve ser iniciado em pequena quantidade, seguido, se poss&#237;vel, de aumento gradual para a obten&#231;&#227;o e manuten&#231;&#227;o do peso desejado. Deve-se evitar excesso de energia, que est&#225; associado a aumento do estresse fisiol&#243;gico com eleva&#231;&#227;o das concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de catecolaminas e insulina e disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica. O aumento dos n&#237;veis circulantes de insulina pode causar maior reabsor&#231;&#227;o renal de s&#243;dio e &#225;gua, piorando a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. As prote&#237;nas devem ser prescritas de acordo com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para adultos normais, que variam entre 1,0 e 1,2 g/kg/dia. A necessidade de prote&#237;nas pode ser maior se existirem perdas por nefropatia ou m&#225; absor&#231;&#227;o intestinal.</p>
    <p>Alguns eletr&#243;litos devem receber especial aten&#231;&#227;o. A quantidade de s&#243;dio que pode ser consumida depende da classe funcional da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Em casos moderados, recomenda-se entre 3 a 4 gramas ao dia. Nos casos graves, deve variar entre 0,5 a 2 gramas ao dia; nesta situa&#231;&#227;o, &#233; importante orientar os pacientes sobre o conte&#250;do de s&#243;dio nos alimentos. Em virtude do uso cr&#244;nico e, frequentemente, em doses elevadas de diur&#233;ticos, pode ocorrer deple&#231;&#227;o de pot&#225;ssio e magn&#233;sio com sintomas associados. Com o aumento da oferta de carboidratos e amino&#225;cidos, e a eleva&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de insulina, ocorre a passagem de pot&#225;ssio, f&#243;sforo e magn&#233;sio do espa&#231;o extracelular para o intracelular, podendo acarretar manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas graves, como arritmias e morte s&#250;bita. Restri&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica nem sempre &#233; necess&#225;ria, dependendo da gravidade da doen&#231;a. Se os pacientes ingerem menos s&#243;dio, t&#234;m menos sede, n&#227;o sendo, portanto, necess&#225;rio restringir a ingest&#227;o de l&#237;quidos. Em casos mais avan&#231;ados, com intensa ativa&#231;&#227;o neuro-hormonal, que estimula o centro da sede e a reten&#231;&#227;o renal de s&#243;dio e &#225;gua, a restri&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica pode ser necess&#225;ria. Se houver hiponatremia, a restri&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica passa a ser mandat&#243;ria. &#201; importante salientar que, com o aumento da ingest&#227;o de s&#243;dio e carboidratos, pode ocorrer maior reten&#231;&#227;o renal de &#225;gua e s&#243;dio com piora da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Portanto, &#233; importante obter o peso corporal di&#225;rio para ajuste individualizado da terapia diur&#233;tica.</p>
    <p>Como as necessidades de micronutrientes na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca n&#227;o est&#227;o estabelecidas, deve-se seguir as recomenda&#231;&#245;es habituais. Pode haver d&#233;ficit de vitaminas hidrossol&#250;veis por causa da redu&#231;&#227;o de sua ingesta e do uso cr&#244;nico de diur&#233;ticos. Aten&#231;&#227;o particular deve ser dada &#224; tiamina, cuja defici&#234;ncia pode agravar o quadro basal da doen&#231;a card&#237;aca. Em casos de altera&#231;&#227;o da absor&#231;&#227;o intestinal, pode haver necessidade de reposi&#231;&#227;o das vitaminas lipossol&#250;veis A, D, E e K.</p>
    <p>Para a administra&#231;&#227;o do suporte nutricional, muitas vezes a via oral &#233; eficaz, e a ingest&#227;o volunt&#225;ria de alimentos pode reverter o balan&#231;o negativo energ&#233;tico e proteico. Entretanto, nem sempre &#233; poss&#237;vel fornecer a quantidade desejada de alimentos apenas por via oral, sendo necess&#225;rio iniciar suporte diet&#233;tico por sonda nasoenteral que, em geral, &#233; bem aceita pelos pacientes. As refei&#231;&#245;es, sejam por via oral ou enteral, devem ser frequentes e em pequena quantidade. Fatores como congest&#227;o hep&#225;tica, distens&#227;o g&#225;strica e ascite causam intoler&#226;ncia &#224; ingest&#227;o de grande quantidade de alimentos. Quando n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel utilizar o trato gastrointestinal, ou em condi&#231;&#245;es perioperat&#243;rias, a via intravenosa pode ser usada para nutri&#231;&#227;o parenteral total ou complementar &#224; dieta administrada pelo trato gastrointestinal. Como os pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca t&#234;m pouca toler&#226;ncia &#224; administra&#231;&#227;o de grandes quantidades de volume, a nutri&#231;&#227;o parenteral por acesso venoso central &#233; mais utilizada que por acesso perif&#233;rico, pois permite infus&#227;o de solu&#231;&#245;es concentradas, hiperosmolares, em menor volume.</p>
    <p>&#201; importante salientar que, apesar da import&#226;ncia do suporte nutricional na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, ainda h&#225; d&#250;vidas se a caquexia pode ser revertida com a implementa&#231;&#227;o adequada dessa medida.</p>
    <p>Outro pilar importante no tratamento da caquexia associada &#233; o bloqueio neuro-hormonal, que deve ser feito de acordo com as diretrizes atuais. Devido &#224; import&#226;ncia da ativa&#231;&#227;o neuro-hormonal em estados caqu&#233;ticos, o bloqueio do sistema renina angiotensina est&#225; sendo investigado em estudo multic&#234;ntrico, que avalia os efeitos do imidapril sobre a caquexia de origem n&#227;o cardiog&#234;nica, em pacientes com c&#226;ncer gastrointestinal<sup>16</sup>.</p>
    <p>Como congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica est&#225; associada a altera&#231;&#245;es do trato gastrointestinal, deve-se manter os pacientes com o menor grau de edema poss&#237;vel. Apesar de estudos experimentais terem mostrado redu&#231;&#227;o de transloca&#231;&#227;o intestinal com antibioticoterapia<sup>19,36</sup>, ainda n&#227;o est&#225; definido se modula&#231;&#227;o da microflora intestinal pode ser &#250;til no controle do processo inflamat&#243;rio sist&#234;mico. Portanto, descontamina&#231;&#227;o intestinal seletiva n&#227;o est&#225; indicada na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>Estimulantes do apetite, como megestrol ou medroxiprogesterona, t&#234;m sido utilizados na caquexia associada a outras doen&#231;as. Em virtude de resultados controversos, nenhum deles est&#225; aprovado para uso na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>16</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada, diversos estudos avaliaram efeitos card&#237;acos e sist&#234;micos de agentes imunomoduladores<sup>71</sup>. Considerando os efeitos mal&#233;ficos do TNF-&#945;, foi natural o desenvolvimento de f&#225;rmacos que pudessem antagoniz&#225;-los. Dois grandes estudos, o Renaissance e o Recover, avaliaram os efeitos do etanercept, receptor sol&#250;vel do TNF-&#945;, na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>72</sup>. Como n&#227;o houve benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos, os estudos foram interrompidos precocemente. J&#225; o infliximab, anticorpo monoclonal anti-TNF-&#945;, foi associado a aumento da mortalidade e hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>71,72</sup>. Esses resultados foram desanimadores para os entusiastas da hip&#243;tese de que seria poss&#237;vel melhorar a sobrevida na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca por meio de modula&#231;&#227;o da atividade inflamat&#243;ria. Outro medicamento avaliado foi a pentoxifilina, que pode inibir a s&#237;ntese de citocinas, particularmente do TNF-&#945;. O f&#225;rmaco foi testado apenas em estudos pequenos, que tiveram resultados favor&#225;veis ou nulos<sup>73</sup>. Tamb&#233;m a talidomida, potencialmente imunomodulat&#243;ria, apresentou resultados favor&#225;veis ou nulos<sup>71</sup>. Entre as perspectivas para o futuro, h&#225; diversos agentes imunomodulat&#243;rios em investiga&#231;&#227;o experimental como inibidores da ativa&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas T, antagonistas de quimiocinas, IL-10, antagonistas de receptores da IL-1, imunoglobulinas, estatinas, metotrexate e n-acetilciste&#237;na<sup>16,31,74</sup>.</p>
    <p>Visando, principalmente, preservar a massa muscular, diversos f&#225;rmacos t&#234;m sido investigados como o esteroide anabolizante testosterona, horm&#244;nio do crescimento, inibidores e antagonistas da miostatina, inibidores da via ubiquitina-proteassoma (bortezomide), inibidores da bioatividade dos lipopolissac&#225;rides e bloqueadores de melanocortina. A testosterona foi recentemente avaliada em estudo randomizado, duplo cego, que incluiu homens idosos com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Sua administra&#231;&#227;o resultou em efeitos ben&#233;ficos na capacidade funcional, for&#231;a muscular e metabolismo da glicose, permitindo levantar a hip&#243;tese de que possa ser &#250;til na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>75</sup>. Como a anemia est&#225; associada a menor disponibilidade de oxig&#234;nio para os tecidos, acredita-se que sua corre&#231;&#227;o melhore a toler&#226;ncia aos esfor&#231;os f&#237;sicos e ajude a preservar a massa muscular. Embora controverso, o tratamento espec&#237;fico da anemia envolve a corre&#231;&#227;o de defici&#234;ncias nutricionais e o uso de agentes estimuladores da eritropoese<sup>64</sup>.</p>
    <p>Finalmente, os exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos s&#227;o importantes para a manuten&#231;&#227;o e recupera&#231;&#227;o das condi&#231;&#245;es f&#237;sicas e dos m&#250;sculos esquel&#233;ticos<sup>58,76</sup>. A realiza&#231;&#227;o espor&#225;dica de exerc&#237;cios pode levar &#224; hipoxemia perif&#233;rica com ativa&#231;&#227;o de citocinas inflamat&#243;rias<sup>77,78</sup>. Por outro lado, a pr&#225;tica regular de exerc&#237;cios n&#227;o induz ativa&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias ou de marcadores de dano endotelial, podendo ainda reduzir as concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas de TNF-&#945; e de IL-6<sup>76,79,80</sup>. Portanto, os pacientes devem ser estimulados a realizarem exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos sob orienta&#231;&#227;o especializada.</p>
    <p>As metas para o futuro, em termos de caquexia associada &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, envolvem o desenvolvimento de tratamento efetivo e a capacidade para prever o processo e det&#234;-lo antes que ocorra significante redu&#231;&#227;o do peso corporal.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Agradecimentos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os autores agradecem &#224; Fapesp, CNPq e Fundunesp pelo apoio financeiro.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado pela FAPESP, CNPq e Fundunesp.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="not01" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Marina Politi Okoshi </p>
        <p> Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica </p>
        <p> Rubi&#227;o J&#250;nior, S/N, Rubi&#227;o Junior </p>
        <p> CEP 18618-000, Botucatu, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="mpoliti@fmb.unesp.br">mpoliti@fmb.unesp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 2/8/12; revisado em 20/8/12, aceito em 24/10/12.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Heart failure-induced cachexia</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Heart failure patients often develop cachexia, which is an independent factor for survival reduction. Cachexia can be diagnosed when there is loss of more than 6% of the body weight, in the absence of other diseases. Even though its pathophysiology has not yet been completely clarified, various factors seem to be involved, such as reduction in food consumption, gastrointestinal tract abnormalities, immunologic and neuro-hormonal activarion and changes in the relationship between anabolic and catabolic processes. Since there is not specific therapy for heart failure-induced cachexia, management is based on nutritional support, neuro-hormonal blockade, control of edema and anemia and exercise. Drugs with anabolic and immunomodulating properties are being evaluated and clinical and non-clinical trials.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cachexia</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Prognosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Anorexia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="inicio-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Heart failure-induced cachexia</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Marina Politi Okoshi; Fernando G. Romeiro; Sergio A. R. Paiva; Katashi Okoshi</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica, Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - Unesp, Botucatu, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Heart failure patients often develop cachexia, which is an independent factor for survival reduction. Cachexia can be diagnosed when there is loss of more than 6% of the body weight, in the absence of other diseases. Even though its pathophysiology has not yet been completely clarified, various factors seem to be involved, such as reduction in food consumption, gastrointestinal tract abnormalities, immunologic and neuro-hormonal activarion and changes in the relationship between anabolic and catabolic processes. Since there is not specific therapy for heart failure-induced cachexia, management is based on nutritional support, neuro-hormonal blockade, control of edema and anemia and exercise. Drugs with anabolic and immunomodulating properties are being evaluated and clinical and non-clinical trials.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Cachexia; Heart Failure; Prognosis; Anorexia.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Heart failure is caused by functional and/or structural heart abnormalities, which can be acquired or hereditary and lead to worsening of ventricular ejection and filling capacity. In the last decades, with better understanding of its pathophysiology, it has become clear that pathological changes involve not only the cardiovascular system, but also the renal, neuroendocrinological, immunological, musculoskeletal, hematologic and gastrointestinal systems, as well as nutritional status. Currently, studies are being carried out in order to clarify the pathophysiology of the systemic complications related to heart failure and to propose treatments that improve quality of life and increase survival. Among them, we highlight the research on heart failure-induced cachexia. In this review article, we will discuss the definition, prevalence, causes, clinical impact and therapeutic alternatives to heart failure-induced cachexia.</p>
      <p>Cachexia is an important predictive factor in the reduction of survival in heart failure, independent from important variables such as age, functional status, ejection fraction and capacity to perform physical activity<sup>1-3</sup>. The importance of cachexia development to the prognosis of heart failure became more evident with the description of the reverse epidemiology of obesity in this condition. In normal subjects, the increase in the body-mass index (BMI) is associated to an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease. However, in heart failure patients, there is a positive correlation between BMI and survival<sup>4,5</sup>. The protection factor of BMI increase in these patients has been well documented in a post hoc analysis of the multicentric trial DIG (Digitalis Investigation Group), which showed increased mortality in patients with the smallest BMI values, and decreased mortality in patients with the largest BMI values<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Definition of heart failure-induced cachexia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The noun cachexia is of Greek origin and is formed by the junction of kak&#243;s, which means bad, and hexis, meaning condition. Some patients lose so much weight that this diagnosis becomes evident. However, it is often difficult to diagnose cachexia in heart failure patients, since edema impairs body weight evaluation and other anthropometric measures. Besides, the interpretation of laboratorial methods for nutritional status evaluation, such as nutritional markers levels or body composition determination by bioelectric impedance, is difficult. Bioelectric impedance can overestimate mass without fat because of excessive extracellular fluid effect<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>In order to facilitate the diagnosis of cachexia, Anker et al<sup>7</sup> proposed in 1997 an easily applicable definition for the evaluation of heart failure patients. According to the authors, cachexia should be diagnosed when there is body weight reduction superior to 7.5% of the usual weight, non intentional and not attributable to edema, in the absence of other diseases that may cause undernourishment such as, for example, neoplasias, infection or hypothyroidism. The weight loss must have occurred over six months. Steep losses in shorter time periods can also be derived from heart failure itself, but other severe diseases must be investigated. The weight before development of the heart condition must be considered. Later, the same authors demonstrated that losing as much as 6% of the body weight is associated to a worse prognosis<sup>8</sup>. Thus, heart failure-induced cachexia is now defined as loss of 6% of the body weight.</p>
      <p>It must be emphasized, however, that this definition is not universally used in general studies on cachexia. In 2006, in the Cachexia Consensus Conference<sup>9,10</sup>, the condition was defined as weight loss <underline>&gt;</underline> 5% in &lt; 4 month or BMI &lt; 20 kg / m<sup>2</sup> plus chronic disease and at least three of the following criteria: 1) reduced muscle strength; 2) fatigue; 3) anorexia; 4) reduction of the fat free mass index and 5) biochemical abnormalities such as inflammation, anemia or low serum albumin. It must be emphasized that, contrary to anorexia and malnutrition, conditions that can resolve with adequate food ingestion, cachexia is hardly ever reversible<sup>9,10</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Epidemiology</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Defining cachexia as a weight loss status equivalent to 6% of the body weight, Anker et al<sup>8</sup> noted that 34% of the heart failure patients treated in outpatient clinics presented cachexia during the 48-month follow-up period. Other studies showed that an annual incidence of cachexia of approximately 10% in patients class III or IV of the New York Heart Association, and a prevalence between 12 and 15% in classes II to IV<sup>11,12</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pathophysiology of heart failure-induced cachexia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The pathophysiological mechanisms involved in heart failure-induced cachexia have not yet been completely unveiled. We will present next the various factors considered at the root of its development.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>1) Reduced food ingestion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Reduced food consumption can be secondary to anorexia, and its mechanisms have not yet been discovered. Various factors may be involved, such as tasteless diets, particularly due to the low sodium content, severe depression and passive visceral congestion. Drugs frequently prescribed for treating the disease can inadvertently contribute to reduced food ingestion. Digitalis intoxication can lead to anorexia, nausea and vomiting. Some angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, particularly captopril, can affect taste and exacerbate anorexia<sup>13</sup>. The chronic and vigorous use of diuretics can lead to depletion of the body's storage of zinc, causing taste alterations, and of potassium, promoting intestinal hypomotility. Inflammatory cytokines, as we will see later, and inadequate concentrations of leptin also lead to anorexia<sup>14,15</sup>.</p>
      <p>Besides all these factors, there seems to be also an intrinsic disorder of appetite regulation. The main appetite regulation site is the hypothalamus. Two areas were identified in the hypothalamus: a lateral area, which induces appetite when stimulated, and a medial area, which leads to satiety. Various neuropeptides are involved in the control of food ingestion. It is thought that in heart failure, there is a imbalance between the action of neuropeptides, with anorexic agents, that act on the satiety center, prevailing over orexigenics<sup>16</sup>.</p>
      <p>Besides anorexia, other factors may lead to the reduction of food ingestion, such as early fullness due to significant hepatomegaly and reduced energy ingestion due to low lipid ingestion. The reduction of fat ingestion, with its high energy density, may not be compensated with a proportional increase in carbohydrate ingestion. Finally, it is important to highlight that, in class IV heart failure patients, dyspnea at rest can also limit food ingestion.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2) Gastrointestinal tract abnormalities</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The role of the gastrointestinal tract in the genesis of cachexia has been studied in detail recently<sup>14,17-19</sup>. A number of structural changes have been detected in the gastrointestinal tract of heart failure patients, such as thickened intestinal wall, suggesting mucous edema, increased collagen content in the intestinal wall and increased distance between capillary wall and enterocytes<sup>20-22</sup>. It is now believed that these changes lead to worsened enterocyte nutrition and to the development of intestinal malabsorption. Functional changes were also described, such as decreased absorption of protein and fat and increased paracellular permeability<sup>20,21,23</sup>. Additionally, an increase in bacteria concentration in the mucous biofilm and in its adherence to the intestinal wall was observed<sup>20</sup>. The increased paracellular intestinal permeability and increased intestinal bacterial colonization are to be held responsible by the inadequate absorption of bacterial constituents such as endotoxins, a process known as bacterial translocation. Bacterial endotoxins, also known as lipopolysaccharides, are considered one of the most powerful inducers of tumor necrosis factor-&#945; (TNF&#945;) and other pro-inflammatory substances<sup>24,25</sup>. These data strongly suggest that, in heart failure, gastrointestinal tract abnormalities are involved not only in cachexia development but also in systemic inflammatory activation.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3) Neurohumoral and immunological activation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Immunologic and neuroendocrinologic changes have important roles in the development of cachexia. The article published by Levine et al<sup>26</sup> in 1990 was a landmark in the study of immunologic changes in heart failure. The authors observed that patients, particularly those with cachexia, presented high serum TNF&#945; concentrations. These findings were remarkable for the understanding of the pathophysiology of heart failure and its systemic complications. It soon became clear, in large clinical studies, such as SOLVD<sup>27</sup> e VEST<sup>28</sup>, that TNF-&#945; is a good prognostic marker that correlates to functional class, cardiac performance and survival. In experimental studies, the increase in TNF-&#945; leads to a heart failure phenotype, with cachexia and skeletal muscle changes<sup>29,30</sup>. It was verified later that other cytokines are implicated in heart failure. Among pro-inflammatory cytokines, we highlight interleukin (IL)-6 and the IL-1 family. Among anti-inflammatory cytokines, the IL-10 family and transforming growth factor&#946;<sup>31</sup> play a crucial role.</p>
      <p>There are various sources of cytokines in the body<sup>31</sup>. Structurally damaged myocardium itself can express and produce increased levels of inflammatory mediators. Circulating leukocytes, platelets, endothelial cells and liver and lung cells also seem to be involved in the production of cytokines. Among the stimulus to cytokine production, we emphasize: hemodynamic overload, neurohormonal activation, hypoxemia and tissue hypoperfusion, low density lipoprotein oxidation, autoantibodies and immunological stimulation caused mainly by the absorption of intestinal endotoxin, as mentioned before<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>Besides largely known cardiac alterations, cytokines also induce cachexia, endothelial dysfunction, erythropoiesis inhibition, intestinal permeability changes, free radical scavenger enzymes activity reduction, blood flow reduction to skeletal muscle, contractile muscle protein functional changes, skeletal muscle cell apoptosis and muscle atrophy and proteolysis<sup>25</sup>. Since they result in proteolysis and loss of muscle mass, skeletal muscle alterations have a main role in cachexia development.</p>
      <p>Regarding neurohormonal activation, its reflections are mainly related to the increase in basal energy expenditures and the additional activation of inflammatory mediators. Heart failure patients with cachexia have increased plasma concentration of norepinephrine, epinephrine, cortisol and aldosterone, compared to heart failure patients without cachexia, suggesting the systemic neurohormonal activation is implicated in the genesis of cachexia<sup>1,2</sup>. Indeed, clinical trials show that using angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors<sup>8</sup> or beta-blockers<sup>32</sup> may decrease the odds of losing weight. In vitro studies have demonstrated that angiotensin II, aldosterone and catecholamines can induce inflammatory cell activation and cytokine production increase<sup>33-35</sup>. Additionally, adrenergic stimulation promotes vasoconstriction leading to worsened intestinal perfusion<sup>36</sup>, which may enhance bacterial endotoxin translocation.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Altered relationship between anabolic and catabolic processes</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The imbalance between anabolic and catabolic processes is important in the genesis of cachexia, particularly regarding skeletal muscle proteolysis<sup>37,38</sup>. Nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-&#954;B) participates in one of the main induction routes for catabolism and muscle proteolysis. The immunological and neurohormonal activation in heart failure, as well as the increased reactive oxygen species, stimulate NF-&#954;B in muscle, activating ubiquitin-proteasome route and leading to muscle proteolysis. The ubiquitin system can be activated my myostatin and inhibited by myostatin antagonists, such as follistatin, insulin and IGF-1<sup>16</sup>. In rats with heart failure, muscle atrophy is associated to changes in the expression of proteins of the myostatin/follistatin route<sup>39,40</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Clinical consequences of cachexia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Clinical manifestations of cachexia derive both from weight loss and the systemic inflammatory process. Steep drops in body weight, even with absent systemic inflammation, cause deleterious effects in virtually all organs and systems. Among cachexia consequences, we emphasize cardiac alterations, respiratory function abnormalities, reduced muscle and bone mass, reduced urinary concentration and acidification, impaired skin healing, predisposition to pressure ulcers in bedridden patients, gastrointestinal tract changes, anemia, and immunity reduction leading to increased infection risk.</p>
      <p>The cardiac impairment makes it difficult to study cachexia effects on the heart itself, due to the underlying heart disease structural and functional changes. Experimental studies evaluate the cardiac effects of cancer cachexia unrelated to cardiac disease. These studies demonstrated molecular changes that are characteristic of the heart remodeling process and worsened ventricular function<sup>41</sup>. In our lab, we evaluated cardiac impairment in normal and hypertensive rats subject to major feeding reduction. We verified that body weight reduction was associated to cardiac muscle mass decrease. In normotensive animals, we found morphologic and ultrastructural myocardial abnormalities and mild functional changes<sup>42-44</sup>. However, in hypertensive rats' hypertrophied hearts, ultrastructural changes characterized by disorganization and loss of myofilaments and myofibrils, mitochondrial degeneration and numerous plasma membrane invaginations<sup>45</sup> were more evident and widely spread in the myocardium. We observed evident myocardial and ventricular systolic dysfunction, probably caused to more intense ultrastructural changes<sup>45-48</sup>. Sugizaki et al<sup>49</sup> and Gut et al<sup>50,51</sup> observed that the functional changes after inotropic myocardial stimulation are compatible with abnormalities in proteins involved in calcium intracellular transport. Thus, feeding restriction leads to morphological and functional changes in normal hearts, which are aggravated by mechanical overload.</p>
      <p>As above mentioned, heart failure induces gastrointestinal tract changes. Body weight loss causes additional deleterious effects, promoting enterocyte atrophy, loss of villous structure and increased bacterial translocation risk<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>Impairment of skeletal muscle system is common in heart failure and worsened by cachexia. Muscle mass reduction consequently to atrophy, apoptosis or necrosis,<sup>39,40,54,55</sup> more frequent in cachectic patients<sup>52,53</sup>, is frequently cited. Other muscular changes include reduced capillary density, reduced mitochondrial number, metalloprotease and myofibril composition modification, increased oxidative stress and calcium intracellular transport and metabolism abnormalities<sup>56-59</sup>. There are strong evidences that metabolic abnormalities are intrinsic and independent from tissue hypoperfusion, as previously thought<sup>60,61</sup>. Consequently, there is a reduction in muscle strength capacity, even after adjusting for muscle mass<sup>62</sup>.</p>
      <p>Finally, anemia, a frequent complication of heart failure, can be exacerbated by cachexia<sup>63</sup>. Despite its multifactorial etiology, factors related to cachexia, such as reduced food ingestion, reduced intestinal absorption and the chronic inflammation status, have an important role in its genesis<sup>64</sup>. Despite not having been systematically evaluated in large studies, iron deficiency has been described in rates ranging from 1 to 44% of the cases, depending on the studied sample and heart failure severity<sup>65,66</sup>. This deficiency, besides impairing erythropoiesis, can also compromise cardiac function, inducing sympathetic nervous system activation, ventricular dilation, mitochondrial and ultrastructural heart changes and thrombocytosis<sup>67</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Treatment of heart failure-induced cachexia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Since there is no specific treatment, various options have been proposed for prevention and treatment of cachexia: nutritional therapy, neurohormonal blockade, edema reduction, intestinal translocation reduction, appetite stimulants, immunomodulation, anemia correction, anabolic steroids and physical activity.</p>
      <p>Nutritional therapy is now one of the mainstays for prevention and treatment of cachexia<sup>11,16,68</sup>. The aims of nutritional therapy are to achieve and maintain, without edema, body weight within the ideal range, or, according to some authors, a little below ideal weight. The aims include the recovery of energy reserves, such as fat tissue and, more difficult to achieve, recovery of lean mass and bone mass. There are no specific recommendations for protein and calorie supply in heart failure-induced cachexia. According to Heymsfield and Casper<sup>69</sup>, the administration of 35 kcal / kg/day, by enteral route, is a safe and effective manner to increase lean mass. However, it is recommended that caloric supply does not exceed 28 kcal/kg/day<sup>70</sup>. Nutritional support must must be started in smaller amounts and gradually increased, if possible, to achieve and maintain the desired weight. Energy excess must be avoided, since it is associated to increased physiological stress with increased insulin and catecholamine concentrations in plasma and hepatic dysfunction. The increased circulating insulin levels may lead to greater sodium and water resorption by the kidneys and worsening heart failure. Protein must be prescribed according to normal adult recommendation (1.0 to 1.2 g/kg/day). Protein need can be larger if there are losses due to renal disease or intestinal malabsorption.</p>
      <p>Some electrolytes must receive special attention. The sodium intake depends on heart failure's functional classification. Three to 4 grams are recommended in moderate cases. Sodium consumption must be in the 0.5 to 2.0 grams/day range in severe cases; in these settings, it is important to educate the patients about sodium content in food. Due to chronic and often high diuretic doses, patients can present potassium and magnesium depletion with their corresponding associated symptoms. With increased supply of carbohydrates and amino acids and increased serum insulin levels, potassium, phosphorus and magnesium migrate from extracellular from intracellular space, with severe potential clinical manifestations, such as arrhythmias and sudden death. Water restriction is not always needed, depending on the severity of the disease. If the patients' sodium intake is smaller, they are less thirsty; thus, it is not necessary to restrict fluid intake. In more advanced cases with intense neurohormonal activation leading to thirst center stimulation and sodium and water retention by the kidneys, water restriction can be necessary. Water restriction is mandatory if hyponatremia is present. It is important to emphasize that the increase in sodium and carbohydrate intake can be associated to greater sodium and water retention by the kidneys and worsening heart failure. Thus, it is important to weight the patient daily in order to individually adjust diuretic therapy.</p>
      <p>Since micronutrient requirement in heart failure have not been established, the usual recommendations must be followed. Reduced intake and chronic diuretic use can lead to water-soluble vitamin deficiency. Particular attention must be given to thiamine, whose deficiency can increase severity of underlying heart disease. In cases of poor intestinal absorption, supplementation of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) may be required.</p>
      <p>For nutritional support administration, the oral route is often effective, and voluntary food intake can revert negative energy and protein imbalance. However, it is not always possible to provide the desired food amount using only the oral route and it is necessary to initiate dietary support by nasoenteral route, usually well accepted by patients. Meals (provided by oral or enteral route) must be frequent and in small amounts. Factors such as hepatic congestion, gastric distention and ascites cause intolerance to the intake of large amounts of food. When the gastrointestinal tract cannot be used, or in perioperatory settings, the intravenous route can be used for parenteral nutrition (total or supplementary to diet provided by gastrointestinal route). Since heart failure patients are intolerant to large fluid administrations, parenteral nutrition is more frequently provided via central central lines, allowing the infusion of smaller volumes of hyperosmolar concentrated solutions.</p>
      <p>It is important to point out that doubt still exist whether cachexia can be reversed with adequate implementation of nutritional support, in spite of its recognized importance in heart failure.</p>
      <p>Another mainstay in heart failure-induced cachexia is neurohormonal blockade, which must be done according to current guidelines. Due to its importance in neurohormonal activation in cachectic states, the blockade of the renin system is being investigated in a multicentric study evaluating the effects of imidapril on gastrointestinal cancer patients with non-cardiogenic cachexia<sup>16</sup>.</p>
      <p>Since systemic venous congestion is associated to gastrointestinal tract changes, patients must present as little edema as possible. Although experimental studies have demonstrated reduction of intestinal translocation with antibiotic therapy<sup>19,36</sup>, it is not yet known if intestinal microflora modulation can be useful for systemic inflammatory process control. Thus, selective intestinal decontamination is not indicated in heart failure.</p>
      <p>Appetite stimulants, such as megestrol or medroxyprogesterone, have been used in cachexia associated to other diseases. Due to controversial results, they have not been approved for use in heart failure<sup>16</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the last decade, various studies evaluated systemic and cardiac effects of immunomodulatory agents<sup>71</sup>. Taking into account the hazardous effects of TNF-&#945;, drug development was naturally directed to TNF antagonism. Two large studies (Renaissance and Recover) have assessed the effects of etanercept, a TNF-&#945; soluble receptor, in heart failure<sup>72</sup>. Both studies were prematurely interrupted due to lack of clinical benefits. Infliximab, an anti-TNF-&#945; monoclonal antibody, was associated with increased mortality and increased admissions due to heart failure<sup>71,72</sup>. These results were disappointing for supporters of the hypothesis that it would be possible to improve heart failure survival by modulating inflammatory activity. Pentoxyphylline, a drug that can inhibit cytokine synthesis (particularly TNF-&#945;, was also evaluated. The drug was tested only in small studies, with favorable or nil results<sup>73</sup>. Thalidomide, a drug with potentially immunomodulatory action, presented favorable or nil results<sup>71</sup>. Future perspectives include statins, methotrexate, N-acetylcysteine, immunoglobulin and various immunomodulatory agents (T-cell activation inhibitors, chemokine antagonists, IL-10, IL-1 receptor antagonists) that are currently being investigated experimentally<sup>16,31,74</sup>.</p>
      <p>Various drugs, such as the anabolic steroid testosterone, growth hormone, myostatin inhibitors and antagonists, bortezomide (a ubiquitin-proteasome route inhibitor), lipopolysaccharide bioactivity inhibitors and melanocortin blockers, are being investigated with the objective of preserving muscle mass. Testosterone was recently evaluated in a randomized double-blind study including elderly men with heart failure. The administration to testosterone had benefic effects in functional capacity, muscle strength and glucose metabolism, leading to the hypothesis that it can be useful in heart failure<sup>75</sup>. Since anemia is associated to decreased tissue oxygen availability, it is thought that its correction can improve tolerance to physical activity and help preserve muscle mass. Though controversial, specific treatment for anemia involve the correction of nutritional deficiencies and the utilization of eryhtropoiesis-stimulating agents<sup>64</sup>.</p>
      <p>Finally, physical activity is important for maintaining and recovering skeletal muscle and physical conditions<sup>58,76</sup>. If physical activity is performed only sporadically, it can lead to peripheral hypoxemia and inflammatory cytokine activation<sup>77,78</sup>. On the other hand, regular physical activity does not induce pro-inflammatory cytokine activation or endothelial damage markers and may yet decrease serum TNF-&#945; and IL-6<sup>76,79,80</sup> levels. Thus, patients must be stimulated to performing physical activity under specialized guidance.</p>
      <p>Future developments in heart-failure induced cachexia involve effective treatment development and the capacity of predicting and stopping the process before there is significant body weight reduction.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgements</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The authors thank Fapesp, CNq and Fundunesp for financial support.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was partially funded by FAPESP, CNPq and Fundunesp.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study is not associated with any post-graduation program.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
