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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">HQxNDF77BDD4MBndhhc75nc</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2013000500008</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(13)10000500008</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.5935/abc.20130080</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Idosos hipertensos apresentam menor desempenho cognitivo do que idosos normotensos</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Matoso</surname>
            <given-names>Juliana Magalh&#227;es Duarte</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Wellington Bruno</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Irene de Freitas Henriques</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Louren&#231;o</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto Alves</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Correia</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Lima de Gusm&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>100</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>444</fpage>
      <lpage>451</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: A hipertens&#227;o arterial tem sido associada &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do desempenho cognitivo, contudo a literatura &#233; conflitante. OBJETIVO: Comparar o desempenho cognitivo entre idosos normotensos ("N"; n = 17; idade 68 &#177; 1; press&#227;o arterial = 133 &#177; 3/74 &#177; 2 mmHg) e hipertensos ("H"; n = 28; idade 69 &#177; 1, press&#227;o arterial = 148 &#177; 4/80 &#177; 1 mmHg) com pelo menos cinco anos de escolaridade. M&#201;TODOS: A avalia&#231;&#227;o neuropsicol&#243;gica ampla constou do "Cambridge Cognition-Revised" (CAMCOG-R), dos "Trail Making Test A and B" (TMT A e B) e do "Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test" (RAVLT). RESULTADOS: Os idosos hipertensos apresentaram menor escore do CAMCOG-R (N = 87,6 &#177; 1,8; H = 78,6 &#177; 1,4; p = 0,002). Os idosos hipertensos necessitaram de maior tempo para realizar o TMT A e B (TMT A: N = 39 &#177; 3s; H = 57 &#177; 3,4s; p = 0,001; TMT B: N = 93 &#177; 7s; H = 124 &#177; 7s; p = 0,006), o que tamb&#233;m &#233; demonstrado pelos percentis significativamente menores obtidos nestes testes. O somat&#243;rio do RAVLT foi significativamente menor nos idosos hipertensos (N = 51,8 &#177; 1,7; H = 40,7 &#177; 1,5; p &lt; 0,0001). Mesmo ajustado para idade, sexo, escolaridade e sintomas de depress&#227;o, a hipertens&#227;o arterial foi um fator preditor independente do desempenho cognitivo medido pelo CAMCOG-R, TMT A e o somat&#243;rio do RAVLT. CONCLUS&#195;O: O desempenho cognitivo em idosos hipertensos &#233; menor do que em idosos normotensos.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Idoso</kwd>
        <kwd>Cogni&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>12</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>Idosos hipertensos apresentam menor desempenho cognitivo do que idosos normotensos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Juliana Magalh&#227;es Duarte Matoso; Wellington Bruno Santos; Irene de Freitas Henriques Moreira; Roberto Alves Louren&#231;o; Marcelo Lima de Gusm&#227;o Correia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO:</bold> A hipertens&#227;o arterial tem sido associada &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do desempenho cognitivo, contudo a literatura &#233; conflitante. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Comparar o desempenho cognitivo entre idosos normotensos ("N"; n = 17; idade 68 &#177; 1; press&#227;o arterial = 133 &#177; 3/74 &#177; 2 mmHg) e hipertensos ("H"; n = 28; idade 69 &#177; 1, press&#227;o arterial = 148 &#177; 4/80 &#177; 1 mmHg) com pelo menos cinco anos de escolaridade. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> A avalia&#231;&#227;o neuropsicol&#243;gica ampla constou do "Cambridge Cognition-Revised" (CAMCOG-R), dos "Trail Making Test A and B" (TMT A e B) e do "Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test" (RAVLT). </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> Os idosos hipertensos apresentaram menor escore do CAMCOG-R (N = 87,6 &#177; 1,8; H = 78,6 &#177; 1,4; p = 0,002). Os idosos hipertensos necessitaram de maior tempo para realizar o TMT A e B (TMT A: N = 39 &#177; 3s; H = 57 &#177; 3,4s; p = 0,001; TMT B: N = 93 &#177; 7s; H = 124 &#177; 7s; p = 0,006), o que tamb&#233;m &#233; demonstrado pelos percentis significativamente menores obtidos nestes testes. O somat&#243;rio do RAVLT foi significativamente menor nos idosos hipertensos (N = 51,8 &#177; 1,7; H = 40,7 &#177; 1,5; p &lt; 0,0001). Mesmo ajustado para idade, sexo, escolaridade e sintomas de depress&#227;o, a hipertens&#227;o arterial foi um fator preditor independente do desempenho cognitivo medido pelo CAMCOG-R, TMT A e o somat&#243;rio do RAVLT. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> O desempenho cognitivo em idosos hipertensos &#233; menor do que em idosos normotensos.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Hipertens&#227;o, Idoso, Cogni&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Segundo o Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estat&#237;stica (IBGE), vivem no pa&#237;s 18 milh&#245;es de pessoas acima de 60 anos de idade, o que representa 12% da popula&#231;&#227;o<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>O envelhecimento populacional se associa ao aumento da preval&#234;ncia das doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas, entre elas a hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS)<sup>2</sup>. A HAS &#233; considerada um fator de risco importante para m&#250;ltiplas doen&#231;as, tais como insufici&#234;ncia coronariana, acidente vascular cerebral e insufici&#234;ncia renal que tamb&#233;m est&#227;o associadas a altera&#231;&#245;es do desempenho cognitivo<sup>3-5</sup>. De acordo com o Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de<sup>6</sup>, a propor&#231;&#227;o de brasileiros diagnosticados com HAS cresceu de 21,5%, em 2006, para 24,4%, em 2009. Esta pesquisa foi realizada com 54 mil adultos e demonstrou que a preval&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a no per&#237;odo de 2006 a 2009 aumentou em todas as faixas et&#225;rias. Atualmente, 63,2% das pessoas com 65 anos ou mais apresentam HAS contra 57,8% em 2006<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>Idosos hipertensos, quando comparados com idosos normotensos, apresentam um risco maior de decl&#237;nio cognitivo incluindo a lentid&#227;o nas respostas, mem&#243;ria e fun&#231;&#227;o executiva<sup>7-9</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, idosos hipertensos n&#227;o tratados apresentam um risco aumentado de apresentar perda cognitiva do que os idosos hipertensos tratados<sup>9-14</sup>. Por&#233;m alguns trabalhos revelam uma associa&#231;&#227;o negativa entre HAS e d&#233;ficit cognitivo<sup>15-17</sup>. Portanto, a rela&#231;&#227;o entre a HAS e as altera&#231;&#245;es do desempenho cognitivo em idosos n&#227;o est&#225; totalmente esclarecida. Parte dos resultados conflitantes na literatura pode ser atribu&#237;do &#224; utiliza&#231;&#227;o de instrumentos de avalia&#231;&#227;o neuropsicol&#243;gica pouco sens&#237;vel como o Miniexame do Estado Mental (MEEM). O presente estudo tem com objetivo avaliar e comparar o desempenho cognitivo em idosos hipertensos e normotensos por meio de diferentes instrumentos de avalia&#231;&#227;o neuropsicol&#243;gica, o que permite um diagn&#243;stico detalhado dos diversos dom&#237;nios cognitivos potencialmente alterados nestes indiv&#237;duos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo teve um delineamento observacional, transversal e comparativo. Foram inclu&#237;dos indiv&#237;duos normotensos (n = 17) ou hipertensos (n = 28) com idade <underline>&gt;</underline> 60 anos e &lt; 80 anos, e escolaridade <underline>&gt;</underline> 5 anos. Considerou-se portador de HAS o participante com press&#227;o sist&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline> 140 mmHg e / ou press&#227;o diast&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline> 90 mmHg ou ainda aquele em uso de medica&#231;&#227;o anti-hipertensiva est&#225;vel por pelo menos 3 meses. Essas pessoas foram recrutadas nos ambulat&#243;rios de geriatria e cl&#237;nica m&#233;dica, e no programa de extens&#227;o Universidade Aberta da Terceira Idade (Unati) da Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (Uerj).</p>
    <p>Foram exclu&#237;dos idosos portadores de disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial ou outra arritmia clinicamente relevante, diabetes mellitus tipo 1 ou 2, insufici&#234;ncia renal, hist&#243;rico de ataque isqu&#234;mico transit&#243;rio ou acidente vascular cerebral, doen&#231;a de Parkinson, uso de medicamentos psicotr&#243;picos, s&#237;ndrome demencial, resultado anormal no MEEM de acordo com a escolaridade (24/25, <underline>&gt;</underline> 1 ano de escolaridade), indiv&#237;duos com d&#233;ficit sensorial n&#227;o corrigido, cadeirantes ou com d&#233;ficit motor que prejudique o desempenho nos testes neuropsicol&#243;gicos. Tamb&#233;m foram exclu&#237;dos os idosos com press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline> 180 mmHg e/ou diast&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline> 110 mmHg ou aqueles em uso de quatro ou mais medicamentos anti-hipertensivos.</p>
    <p>Dois grupos foram estudados: idosos hipertensos (n = 28) e idosos normotensos (n = 17). Os participantes foram submetidos a exame f&#237;sico detalhado realizado por cardiologista. A press&#227;o arterial foi medida com o indiv&#237;duo na posi&#231;&#227;o sentada, ap&#243;s repouso de 10 minutos, com esfingmoman&#244;metro autom&#225;tico Omron HEM-711 (Omron Healthcare, EUA)<sup>18</sup>. A press&#227;o arterial utilizada no estudo corresponde &#224; m&#233;dia de tr&#234;s medidas aferidas com pelo menos 5 minutos de diferen&#231;a.</p>
    <p>O estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa do Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto da Uerj. Seguindo a Resolu&#231;&#227;o n&#186; 196/1996 do Conselho Nacional de Sa&#250;de, todos os volunt&#225;rios autorizaram a participa&#231;&#227;o mediante assinatura do termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido.</p>
    <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o neuropsicol&#243;gica foi composta pelo "Cambridge Cognition-revised" (CAMCOG-R), que &#233; a se&#231;&#227;o B para avalia&#231;&#227;o cognitiva do "Cambridge Examination for Mental Disorders of the Elderly-revised" (CAMDEX-R)<sup>19</sup> adaptada e validada para o portugu&#234;s<sup>20</sup>; pelo "Trail Making Test" A e B (TMT A e B)<sup>21</sup>; e pelo "Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test" (RAVLT)<sup>22</sup>. Para o rastreio de depress&#227;o foi utilizada a vers&#227;o brasileira da escala de Beck<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Avalia&#231;&#227;o Neuropsicol&#243;gica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As avalia&#231;&#245;es neuropsicol&#243;gicas foram realizadas em dois dias, sempre no per&#237;odo da manh&#227;, por pesquisador &#250;nico treinado e supervisionado por neuropsic&#243;logo. O pesquisador que aplicou os testes neuropsicol&#243;gicos n&#227;o era "cego" em rela&#231;&#227;o ao diagn&#243;stico de hipertens&#227;o arterial. Entretanto, as medidas aferidas foram na sua maioria objetivas, n&#227;o cabendo ao pesquisador interpreta&#231;&#245;es dos resultados. Cada encontro durou aproximadamente uma hora e meia. No primeiro dia, foram aplicados o CAMCOG- R e a Escala de Beck, e no segundo dia, o RAVLT e o TMT A e B. Os resultados da avalia&#231;&#227;o neuropsicol&#243;gica foram organizados e analisados pelo mesmo investigador que aplicou os testes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>C&#225;lculo do tamanho amostral e an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para o c&#225;lculo do tamanho amostral, considerou-se que as m&#233;dias e desvios padr&#227;o do escore global no CAMCOG-R dos hipertensos e normotensos seriam compar&#225;veis &#224;s m&#233;dias e desvios padr&#227;o verificadas nos grupos com disfun&#231;&#227;o cognitiva m&#237;nima e de controle, respectivamente, no estudo de Nunes e cols.<sup>24</sup>. Portanto, a m&#233;dia e desvio padr&#227;o do escore global do CAMCOG-R do grupo de idosos normotensos foi estimado em 99&#177;3 e nos idosos hipertensos em 91&#177;7. Considerando-se o p-valor = 0,05 e o poder do estudo = 0,95, o tamanho amostral m&#237;nimo por grupo foi estimado em 14. O tamanho amostral foi calculado por meio do programa GPower 3.1.0 da Universidade de Kiel, Alemanha.</p>
    <p>Os resultados foram apresentados na forma de m&#233;dia &#177; erro padr&#227;o ou mediana e respectivos valores m&#237;nimo, m&#225;ximo e intervalo interquartil. Foi utilizado o teste <italic>U</italic> de Mann Whitney para vari&#225;veis discretas com distribui&#231;&#227;o presumivelmente n&#227;o normal<sup>25</sup>. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas ou discretas com distribui&#231;&#227;o normal foram avaliadas pelo teste <italic>t</italic> de Student n&#227;o pareado com vari&#226;ncia semelhante para ambos os grupos. A regress&#227;o linear multivariada foi utilizada para verificar o efeito da presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o arterial, controlado para idade, sexo, escolaridade e sintomas de depress&#227;o, sobre os diversos escores de desempenho cognitivo. O p-valor &lt; 0,05 foi considerado estatisticamente significativo. Para os c&#225;lculos estat&#237;sticos, foram utilizados o Excel (Microsoft, 2007) e o SPSS v.20 (IBM, 2011).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As caracter&#237;sticas sociodemogr&#225;ficas dos grupos estudados se encontram na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5070tab01">Tabela 1</xref>. Idade, sexo, estado civil, fumantes, praticantes de atividade f&#237;sica, &#237;ndice de massa corporal e escore de depress&#227;o de Beck s&#227;o semelhantes nos dois grupos. Contudo escolaridade dos idosos hipertensos &#233; significativamente menor. Como esperado, os valores de press&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica s&#227;o mais elevados nos indiv&#237;duos hipertensos.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5070tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0444-30080-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Os idosos hipertensos apresentaram um desempenho cognitivo menor se comparados aos normotensos pelo escore global do CAMCOG-R (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5070tab02">Tabela 2</xref>). Quando avaliados por dom&#237;nio cognitivo isolado do CAMCOG-R, a compreens&#227;o e express&#227;o de linguagem, mem&#243;ria remota, aten&#231;&#227;o, praxia, fun&#231;&#227;o executiva e percep&#231;&#227;o foram sigificativamente menores nos hipertensos idosos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5070tab02">Tabela 2</xref>). Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5070tab03">Tabela 3</xref> observamos os resultados do TMT A e B, e do RALVT. Os idosos hipertensos tiveram um desempenho significativamente mais lento do que os normotensos nos TMT-A e B. O desempenho cognitivo dos hipertensos idosos no RALVT tamb&#233;m foi significativamente menor do que o dos normotensos, como evidenciado pelo menor somat&#243;rio de A1-A5.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5070tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0444-30080-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5070tab03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0444-30080-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
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    <p>Controlada ou n&#227;o por idade, sexo, escolaridade e escore de depress&#227;o de Beck, a presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o arterial &#233; um preditor independente de menor desempenho cognitivo avaliado pelo escore global do CAMCOG-R, pelo tempo e percentil do TMT-A e pelo somat&#243;rio de A1-A5 do RAVLT em idosos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5070tab04">Tabelas 4</xref> e <xref ref-type="fn" rid="aop_5070tab06">6</xref>). Quando controlados pela idade, sexo, escolaridade e pelo escore de depress&#227;o de Beck, apenas os escores dos dom&#237;nios da praxia e aprendizado do CAMCOG-R s&#227;o significativamente reduzidos pela presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o arterial nos idosos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_5070tab05">Tabela 5</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_5070tab04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0444-30080-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
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      <fn id="aop_5070tab06">
        <p>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0444-30080-e01.jpg"/></p>
      </fn>
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    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os resultados das avalia&#231;&#245;es neuropsicol&#243;gicas utilizadas neste trabalho sugerem que os idosos portadores de hipertens&#227;o arterial apresentem desempenho reduzido em diversos dom&#237;nios cognitivos quando comparados aos idosos normotensos. Especificamente, idosos hipertensos apresentaram menor escore global do CAMCOG-R ajustado ou n&#227;o para idade, sexo, escolaridade e escore de depress&#227;o de Beck. Quando ajustado para esses fatores, o desempenho nos dom&#237;nios da praxia e aprendizado do CAMCOG-R est&#225; reduzido nos idosos hipertensos. O desempenho dos hipertensos idosos foi mais lento nos TMT-A e B, o que tamb&#233;m &#233; demonstrado pelos percentis significativamente menores obtidos por esses indiv&#237;duos. Da mesma forma, o somat&#243;rio do RAVLT foi significativamente menor nos idosos hipertensos. Contudo, quando ajustado para idade, sexo, escolaridade e pelo escore de depress&#227;o de Beck, a presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o arterial nos idosos deixou de ser um preditor independente da velocidade e do percentil do TMT-B.</p>
    <p>Em linhas gerais, os nossos resultados est&#227;o de acordo com a literatura na qual se evidencia associa&#231;&#227;o entre hipertens&#227;o arterial e redu&#231;&#227;o do desempenho cognitivo<sup>5,26</sup>. Por exemplo, um estudo transversal realizado por Harrington e cols.<sup>8 </sup>examinou o desempenho cognitivo em 107 hipertensos n&#227;o tratados e 116 normotensos com mais de 70 anos utilizando uma bateria de testes neuropsicol&#243;gicos computadorizada. Dessa forma, foram avaliados os seguintes dom&#237;nios: aten&#231;&#227;o, velocidade de processamento, concentra&#231;&#227;o, mem&#243;ria de trabalho, mem&#243;ria espacial, precis&#227;o, capacidade de armazenar e recuperar novas informa&#231;&#245;es. Notadamente, os hipertensos mais idosos tiveram desempenho significativamente pior em todos os dom&#237;nios avaliados. Ademais, o estudo longitudinal realizado por Elias e cols.<sup>26</sup> avaliou o desempenho cognitivo em mais de 500 participantes do Maine-Syracuse Longitudinal Study of Hypertension avaliados pelo WAIS. Os indiv&#237;duos foram divididos por faixa et&#225;ria de 18 a 46 anos e de 47 a 83 anos e avaliados ao longo de 20 anos. Medidas mais elevadas de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica estavam significativamente associadas ao decl&#237;nio cognitivo nos dom&#237;nios de visualiza&#231;&#227;o e de habilidades fluidas em ambos os grupos. Observa-se que v&#225;rios estudos com delineamento longitudinal indicam uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre HAS e o decl&#237;nio do desempenho cognitivo<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>Contudo, associa&#231;&#245;es entre HAS e altera&#231;&#245;es de desempenho cognitivo nem sempre foram observadas<sup>15,16</sup>. Por exemplo, n&#227;o se encontrou associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre HAS e desempenho cognitivo em idosos a partir de 64 anos avaliados pelo MEEM<sup>28-30</sup>. Tais resultados poderiam ser atribu&#237;dos a uma sensibilidade reduzida do MEEM, um teste de rastreio, para detectar altera&#231;&#245;es discretas da cogni&#231;&#227;o e a dificuldade de aplica&#231;&#227;o do MEEM para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de dom&#237;nios cognitivos isolados<sup>13</sup>. Utilizando o mesmo MEEM, entretanto, Guo e cols.<sup>31</sup> estudaram 1.736 idosos entre 75 e 101 anos por 3 anos e observaram que a hipertens&#227;o arterial associa-se &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o escore global do MEEM. O tamanho amostral elevado e desenho longitudinal deste estudo refor&#231;am a solidez dos resultados observados. Apesar de estar de acordo com os nossos resultados, este estudo recrutou indiv&#237;duos significativamente mais idosos e, portanto, mais sucet&#237;veis ao decl&#237;nio cognitivo n&#227;o sendo poss&#237;vel descartar uma intera&#231;&#227;o entre idade muito avan&#231;ada e hipertens&#227;o arterial.</p>
    <p>Por sua vez, Izquierdo-Porrera e Waldstein<sup>17</sup> n&#227;o encontraram correla&#231;&#227;o significativa entre n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial e desempenho cognitivo em 43 indiv&#237;duos com idade entre 43 a 82 avaliados por meio de uma bateria neuropsicol&#243;gica mais completa. Precisamente, a avalia&#231;&#227;o neuropsicol&#243;gica constava do teste do desenho do rel&#243;gio, do Executive Interview 25 (EXIT 25) para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o executiva, do teste dos d&#237;gitos em ordem direta e inversa, e um teste para avaliar aprendizagem. Os resultados negativos observados poderiam ser atribu&#237;dos &#224; inclus&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos relativamente jovens quando comparados ao estudo ora apresentado.</p>
    <p>Uma caracter&#237;stica peculiar deste projeto foi o uso do CAMCOG-R para a avalia&#231;&#227;o cognitiva de indiv&#237;duos idosos hipertensos sendo, at&#233; onde sabemos, o &#250;nico estudo que utilizou o CAMCOG-R com esse prop&#243;sito. Portanto, a redu&#231;&#227;o do escore global do CAMCOG-R corrobora resultados da literatura que mostraram a redu&#231;&#227;o do desempenho cognitivo em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos idosos avaliados com outros instrumentos. Essa observa&#231;&#227;o est&#225; de acordo com o conceito de que a hipertens&#227;o arterial est&#225; de fato associada &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do desempenho cognitivo. Ainda no presente estudo, o desempenho mais lento no TMT-A sugere uma redu&#231;&#227;o na velocidade de processamento da informa&#231;&#227;o. O desempenho reduzido no RAVLT, por sua vez, sugere uma redu&#231;&#227;o na capacidade de aprendizado de novas informa&#231;&#245;es. Outros autores tamb&#233;m encontram acometimento nesses dom&#237;nios cognitivos espec&#237;ficos em idosos hipertensos<sup>32,33</sup>.</p>
    <p>Algumas limita&#231;&#245;es importantes do estudo devem ser discutidas. Uma cr&#237;tica em potencial seria o seu tamanho amostral reduzido. Como explicado em detalhe nos m&#233;todos, entretanto, nota-se que o n&#250;mero de participantes recrutado por grupo ultrapassou o n&#250;mero m&#237;nimo que confere ao estudo um poder de 95% para encontrar uma diferen&#231;a de 8 pontos em m&#233;dia no escore global do CAMCOG-R, com um p-valor &lt; 0,05. Outra limita&#231;&#227;o diz respeito &#224; an&#225;lise de m&#250;ltiplos desfechos secund&#225;rios para os quais o poder do estudo n&#227;o foi definido <italic>a priori</italic>. Portanto, os resultados referentes ao desempenho por dom&#237;nio cognitivo devem ser considerados com cautela. Enfatiza-se, contudo, que o estudo demonstra um desempenho cognitivo significativamente menor nos participantes hipertensos refletido pelo seu desfecho principal, ou seja, o escore global do CAMCOG-R.</p>
    <p>Sabe-se que o desempenho cognitivo medido pelo CAMCOG-R sofre influ&#234;ncia significativa da escolaridade<sup>34</sup>. Para minimizar esse vi&#233;s, foram avaliados participantes com no m&#237;nimo 5 anos de estudo formal. Ainda assim, verificou-se que o grupo dos normotensos era significativamente mais escolarizado. Contudo, o ajuste pela idade, sexo, escolaridade e escore de depress&#227;o de Beck mostra que a presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o arterial &#233; um preditor independente do desempenho cognitivo avaliado pelo escore global do CAMCOG-R, do tempo e percentil do TMT-A e do somat&#243;rio de A1-A5 do RAVLT. Apesar disso, cabe ressaltar que na nossa casu&#237;stica, o efeito estimado da escolaridade &#233; mais preciso do que o efeito da hipertens&#227;o arterial com rela&#231;&#227;o a predi&#231;&#227;o do escore global do CAMCOG-R. Especificamente, apesar do coeficiente n&#227;o ajustado ("B") do fator hipertens&#227;o arterial ter um valor absoluto maior do que o coeficiente associado &#224; escolaridade, o intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% (IC95%) relacionado &#224; escolaridade &#233; muito mais estreito do que aquele relacionado &#224; hipertens&#227;o arterial ("B" hipertens&#227;o arterial = -5,69 com IC95% de -10,1 at&#233; -1,27 e p-valor = 0,01; "B" escolaridade = 1,06, IC95% de 0,52 at&#233; 1,59 e p-valor &lt; 0,001).</p>
    <p>Depress&#227;o tamb&#233;m est&#225; associada a um desempenho cognitivo reduzido<sup>35</sup>. No presente estudo, o escore da escala de depress&#227;o de Beck foi semelhante nos hipertensos e normotensos idosos. Sendo assim, o impacto de sintomas associados &#224; depress&#227;o se distribuiu homog&#234;neamente entre os dois grupos atenuando a possibilidade de vi&#233;s. Ademais, em nenhum dos modelos de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla a escala de depress&#227;o de Beck se mostrou um preditor independente de desempenho cognitivo (resultados n&#227;o apresentados).</p>
    <p>O uso de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos pelos participantes hipertensos idosos poderia confundir os resultados. Contudo, haveria uma tend&#234;ncia em subestimar o impacto da hipertens&#227;o arterial sobre o desempenho cognitivo<sup>10-14</sup>. De fato, alguns estudos sugerem que o tratamento farmacol&#243;gico da hipertens&#227;o previne o desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o do decl&#237;nio cognitivo<sup>10,14</sup>. Enfatiza-se ainda que nenhum idoso hipertenso estava sendo tratado com betabloqueadores que poderiam <italic>per se</italic> reduzir o desempenho cognitivo. Por sua vez, o uso de medicamentos psicotr&#243;picos foi vedado pelo protocolo do estudo. Portanto, presume-se que o impacto do uso de medicamentos n&#227;o esteja associado &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do desempenho cognitivo observado nos participantes hipertensos. Ademais, os resultados n&#227;o podem ser extrapolados para idosos com hipertens&#227;o grave, pois aqueles com press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline> 180 mmHg e / ou diast&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline> 110 mmHg, ou em uso de quatro ou mais medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, foram exclu&#237;dos do estudo. Por fim, ressaltamos que o estudo teve delineamento transversal. Consequentemente, n&#227;o se pode estabelecer uma rela&#231;&#227;o causal entre hipertens&#227;o arterial e decl&#237;nio cognitivo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#245;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo apresentado confirma e expande o conceito de que a hipertens&#227;o arterial est&#225; associada &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do desempenho cognitivo em indiv&#237;duos idosos. Por meio de diversos instrumentos de avalia&#231;&#227;o neuropsicol&#243;gica, demonstrou-se que o decl&#237;nio de desempenho ocorre em diferentes dom&#237;nios da cogni&#231;&#227;o, sugerindo que a disfun&#231;&#227;o neuropsicol&#243;gica no hipertenso idoso n&#227;o se localiza em &#225;reas cerebrais isoladas, ao contr&#225;rio do que foi observado em outros estudos na literatura<sup>36</sup>. Apesar de haver uma redu&#231;&#227;o mensur&#225;vel no desempenho cognitivo dos hipertensos idosos, o estudo n&#227;o apresenta evid&#234;ncia de que essa redu&#231;&#227;o de desempenho seja clinicamente significativa, pois foi vedada a participa&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos com s&#237;ndrome demencial ou com diagn&#243;stico estabelecido de doen&#231;a vascular cerebral. Entretanto, os resultados desse e de outros estudos sugerem plausibilidade psicobiol&#243;gica para essa hip&#243;tese.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Juliana Magalh&#227;es Duarte Matoso </p>
        <p> Rua Visconde de Tocantins, 43 / 402, M&#233;ier </p>
        <p> CEP 20775-050, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#150; Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="juduartte@yahoo.com.br">juduartte@yahoo.com.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="jmduartte@bol.com.br">jmduartte@bol.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 16/08/12, revisado em 21/12/12, aceito em 14/01/13.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Elderly hypertensives show decreased cognitive performance compared with elderly normotensives</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Essential hypertension has been associated with decreased cognitive performance; however, the literature is conflicting. OBJECTIVE: This study aims at comparing cognitive performance between elderly normotensives ("N"; n = 17; age 68 &#177; 1; blood pressure = 133 &#177; 3/74 &#177;2 mmHg) and hypertensives ("H"; n = 28; age 69 &#177; 1, blood pressure = 148 &#177; 4/80 &#177; 1mmHg) with at least 5 years of education. METHODS: The comprehensive neuropsychological assessment was comprised of the Cambridge Cognition-Revised (CAMCOG-R), the Trail Making Test A and B (TMT A and B) and the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT). RESULTS: Elderly hypertensives presented lower CAMCOG-R global scores (N = 87.6 &#177; 1.8; H = 78.6 &#177; 1.4; p = 0.002). The hypertensive's performance was slower in the TMT A and B (TMT A: N = 39 &#177; 3s; H = 57 &#177; 3s; p = 0.001; TMT B: N = 93 &#177; 7s; H = 124 &#177; 7s; p = 0.006), which was also reflected in smaller percentiles achieved by hypertensives in these tests. Hypertensive subjects exhibited a significantly lower RAVLT summation score (N = 51.8 &#177; 1.7; H = 40.7 &#177; 1.5; p &lt; 0.0001). Even when adjusted for age, sex, education and depression symptoms, hypertension was an independent predictor of cognitive performance as measured by CAMCOG-R global score, TMT A and RAVLT summation score. CONCLUSION: Cognitive performance is lower in elderly hypertensives as compared with elderly normotensives.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>Aged</kwd>
        <kwd>Cognition</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="enda-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Elderly hypertensives show decreased cognitive performance compared with elderly normotensives</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Juliana Magalh&#227;es Duarte Matoso; Wellington Bruno Santos; Irene de Freitas Henriques Moreira; Roberto Alves Louren&#231;o; Marcelo Lima de Gusm&#227;o Correia</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasil</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND:</bold> Essential hypertension has been associated with decreased cognitive performance; however, the literature is conflicting.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE:</bold> This study aims at comparing cognitive performance between elderly normotensives ("N"; n = 17; age 68 &#177; 1; blood pressure = 133 &#177; 3/74 &#177;2 mmHg) and hypertensives ("H"; n = 28; age 69 &#177; 1, blood pressure = 148 &#177; 4/80 &#177; 1mmHg) with at least 5 years of education.</p>
      <p> METHODS: The comprehensive neuropsychological assessment was comprised of the Cambridge Cognition-Revised (CAMCOG-R), the Trail Making Test A and B (TMT A and B) and the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT).</p>
      <p> RESULTS: Elderly hypertensives presented lower CAMCOG-R global scores (N = 87.6 &#177; 1.8; H = 78.6 &#177; 1.4; p = 0.002). The hypertensive's performance was slower in the TMT A and B (TMT A: N = 39 &#177; 3s; H = 57 &#177; 3s; p = 0.001; TMT B: N = 93 &#177; 7s; H = 124 &#177; 7s; p = 0.006), which was also reflected in smaller percentiles achieved by hypertensives in these tests. Hypertensive subjects exhibited a significantly lower RAVLT summation score (N = 51.8 &#177; 1.7; H = 40.7 &#177; 1.5; p &lt; 0.0001). Even when adjusted for age, sex, education and depression symptoms, hypertension was an independent predictor of cognitive performance as measured by CAMCOG-R global score, TMT A and RAVLT summation score.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> Cognitive performance is lower in elderly hypertensives as compared with elderly normotensives.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Hypertension; Aged; Cognition.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), there are 18 million people over 60 years of age living in the country, representing 12% of the population<sup>1</sup>. </p>
      <p>Population aging is associated with an increased prevalence of chronic diseases, including high blood pressure (HBP)<sup>2</sup>. HBP is considered to be an important risk factor for multiple diseases, such as coronary insufficiency, stroke and renal insufficiency, which are also associated with changes in cognitive performance<sup>3-5</sup>. According to the Ministry of Health<sup>6</sup>, the proportion of Brazilians diagnosed with HBP has grown from 21.5% in 2006 to 24.4% in 2009. This study was performed with 54 thousand adults and showed that the predominance of the disease in the period 2006 through 2009 increased in all age ranges. Currently, 63.2% of people aged 65 years of age or older have HBP, compared with 57.8% in 2006<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>Elderly hypertensives, compared with elderly normotensives, are at increased risk of cognitive decline, including slow response and declining memory and executive functioning<sup>7-9</sup>. In addition, untreated elderly hypertensives present a higher risk of cognitive loss than treated elderly hypertensives<sup>9-14</sup>. However, some studies reveal a negative association between HBP and cognitive deficit<sup>15-17</sup>. Therefore, the relationship between HBP and changes in cognitive performance in the elderly is not fully understood. Some of the conflicting results in the literature can be attributed to the use of insufficiently sensitive neuropsychological assessment instruments such as the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE). The goal of the present study is to evaluate and compare cognitive performance in elderly hypertensives and normotensives through the employment of different neuropsychological assessment instruments, which allows for a detailed diagnosis of the various cognitive domains potentially altered in these individuals.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This was a randomized, observational, cross-sectional and comparative study. Normotensive subjects (n = 17) and hypertensive subjects (n = 28) aged <underline>&gt;</underline> 60 years and &lt; 80 years with at least 5 years of education were included. In order to be considered hypertensive, subjects were required to have a systolic pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 140 mmHg and/or diastolic pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 90 mmHg, or were taking stable antihypertensive medication for at least 3 months. These people were recruited from outpatient geriatric and general medical clinics, and from the university outreach program of the University Open to the Third Age (UNATI, as per its acronyms in Portuguese) of the Rio de Janeiro State University (UERJ).</p>
      <p>We excluded elderly patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction, atrial fibrillation or other clinically relevant arrhythmias, diabetes mellitus type 1 or 2, renal insufficiency, history of transient ischemic attack or stroke, Parkinson's disease, use of psychotropic medications, dementia, abnormal results of MMSE according to level of education (24/25, <underline>&gt;</underline> 1 year education), individuals with uncorrected sensory deficits, those confined to a wheelchair or those with motor deficits that could compromise performance in neuropsychological testing. We also excluded older adults with systolic blood pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 180 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 110 mmHg and those individuals using four or more antihypertensive medications.</p>
      <p>Two groups were studied: elderly hypertensives (n = 28) and elderly normotensives (n = 17). The participants underwent a thorough physical examination performed by a cardiologist. Blood pressure was measured with the patient in the sitting position, after a 10-minute rest, with an automatic sphygmomanometer (Omron HEM-711, Omron Healthcare, USA)<sup>18</sup>. Blood pressure values used in the study correspond to the average of three measurements at least 5 minutes apart.</p>
      <p>The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Pedro Ernesto University Hospital of UERJ. According to Resolution No. 196/1996 of the National Health Council, all volunteers agreed to participate and signed a consent form.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Neuropsychological assessment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Neuropsychological assessment consisted of the Cambridge Cognition Examination-Revised (CAMCOG-R), which is section B of the cognitive assessment of the Cambridge Examination for Mental Disorders of the Elderly-revised (CAMDEX-R)<sup>19</sup> adapted and validated for Portuguese<sup>20</sup>, by the Trail Making Test A and B (TMT A and B)<sup>21</sup>, and by the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT)<sup>22</sup>. To screen for depression, the Brazilian version of Beck's Depression Inventory was used<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>The neuropsychological evaluations were conducted over two days, always in the morning by a single researcher trained and supervised by a neuropsychologist. The researcher who applied the neuropsychological tests was not "blind" regarding the hypertension diagnosis. However, the measurements taken were mostly objective, and it was not up to the researcher to interpret the results. Each meeting lasted approximately one hour and a half. On the first day we administered CAMCOG-R and Beck's Depression Inventory, and on the second day the RAVLT and TMT A and B. The results of the neuropsychological evaluations were organized and analyzed by the same investigator who conducted the tests.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sample size calculation and statistical analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>To calculate the sample size, we considered that the averages and standard deviations from the overall score on the CAMCOG-R of hypertensives and normotensives would be comparable to the averages and standard deviations observed in groups with minimal cognitive impairment and the control groups, respectively, in the study performed by Nunes et al<sup>24</sup>. Therefore, the average and standard deviation of the overall score on the CAMCOG-R in the elderly normotensives group was estimated at 99&#177;3; in the elderly hypertensives it was estimated at 91&#177;7. Considering a p-value of 0.05 and a study power of 0.95, the minimum sample size per group was estimated at 14. The sample size was calculated by means of the GPower 3.1.0 program of Kiel University, Germany.</p>
      <p>The results were presented in the form of average &#177; standard error or median and respective minimum and maximum values and interquartile intervals. We used Mann Whitney <italic>U</italic> test for discrete variables with distribution presumably not normal<sup>25</sup>. The continuous or discrete variables with normal distribution were evaluated by unpaired Student t test with similar variance for both groups. Multivariate linear regression analysis was used to verify the effect of the presence of hypertension, adjusted for age, sex, education and depression symptoms, over several scores of cognitive performance. The p-value &lt; 0.05 was considered statistically significant. For statistical calculations, we used Excel (Microsoft, 2007) and SPSS v.20 (IBM, 2011).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The sociodemographic characteristics of the study groups are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_5070tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>. Age, sex, marital status, smoking habits, physical activity, body mass index, and Beck's Depression Inventory scores are similar in both groups. However, the education levels of elderly hypertensives are significantly lower. As expected, the values of systolic and diastolic pressures are higher in hypertensive individuals.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_5070tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0444-30080-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The elderly hypertensives showed a lower cognitive performance compared with normotensives by global score of CAMCOG-R (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_5070tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>). When evaluated by the isolated cognitive domain of CAMCOG-R, the comprehension and expression of language, remote memory, attention, praxes, executive functioning and perception were significantly lower in the elderly hypertensives (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_5070tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>). In <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_5070tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>, we demonstrate the results of TMT A and B and RALVT. The elderly hypertensives had a significantly slower performance than the normotensives in TMT A and B. The cognitive performance of the elderly hypertensives in RALVT was also significantly lower than that of the normotensives, as evidenced by the lower sum of A1-A5.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_5070tab02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0444-30080-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_5070tab03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0444-30080-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Regardless of controlling for age, sex, education and Beck's Depression Inventory score, the presence of high blood pressure is an independent predictor of lower cognitive performance measured by the overall score of CAMCOG-R, by the time and percentile of TMT-A, and sum of A1-A5 of the RAVLT in the elderly (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_5070tab04-body2">Tables 4</xref> and <xref ref-type="fn" rid="en_aop_5070tab06-body2">6</xref>). When controlling for age, sex, education and Beck's Depression Inventory score, only the scores of the domains of praxes and learning on the CAMCOG-R are significantly reduced by the presence of high blood pressure in the elderly (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_5070tab05-body2">Table 5</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_5070tab04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0444-30080-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fn id="en_aop_5070tab06-body2">
          <p>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0444-30080-e01-en.jpg"/></p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_5070tab05-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0444-30080-gt05-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The results of neuropsychological assessments used in this study suggest that elderly patients with hypertension have reduced performance in several cognitive domains when compared with elderly normotensives. Specifically, elderly hypertensives had lower overall scores on the CAMCOG-R, whether or not adjustment was made for age, sex, education and Beck's depression score. When adjusting for these factors, performance in the domains of praxes and learning of the CAMCOG-R is reduced in elderly hypertensives. The performance of elderly hypertensives was slower in the TMT A and B, which is also demonstrated by significantly lower percentiles obtained by these individuals. Likewise, the sum of RAVLT was significantly lower in elderly hypertensives. However, when adjusted for age, sex, education and Beck's depression score, the presence of hypertension in the elderly is no longer an independent predictor of speed and percentile on the TMT-B.</p>
      <p>Overall, our results are in agreement with the literature, which revealed an association between hypertension and decreased cognitive performance<sup>5,26</sup>. For instance, a cross-sectional study performed by Harrington et al<sup>8</sup> examined the cognitive performance of 107 untreated hypertensives and 116 normotensives older than 70 years of age, using a battery of computerized neuropsychological tests. Thus, we evaluated the following areas: attention, processing speed, concentration, working memory, spatial memory, accuracy and ability to store and retrieve new information. Notably, older hypertensive patients had significantly worse performances in all areas evaluated. Furthermore, a longitudinal study by Elias et al<sup>26</sup> evaluated the cognitive performance of more than 500 participants from the Maine-Syracuse Longitudinal Study of Hypertension, assessed by WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale). The subjects were divided by age into groups from 18 to 46 years and from 47 to 83 years and assessed over 20 years. Higher measurements of systolic and diastolic blood pressure were significantly associated with cognitive decline in the areas of visualization and fluid abilities in both groups. We observe that several studies with a longitudinal outline indicate an association between HBP and declining cognitive performance<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>However, associations between HBP and changes in cognitive performance were not always observed<sup>15,16</sup>. For instance, no significant association was found between HBP and cognitive performance in the elderly 64 years of age or older evaluated by MMSE<sup>28-30</sup>. Such results could be attributed to a reduced sensitivity of the MMSE (a tracking test used to detect discreet cognition changes) and the difficulty in applying the MMSE for the assessment of isolated cognitive areas<sup>13</sup>. However, using the same MMSE, Guo et al<sup>31</sup> studied 1736 elderly individuals between 75 and 101 years of age for three years and observed that blood pressure is associated with a reduced global score on the MMSE. The large sample size and longitudinal design of this study reinforce the robustness of the results observed. Despite being in accordance with our results, this study recruited individuals significantly older and presumably more susceptible to cognitive decline, and therefore it was not possible to rule out an association between very advanced age and hypertension.</p>
      <p>In turn, Izquierdo-Porrera and Waldstein<sup>17</sup> found no significant correlation between blood pressure and cognitive performance in 43 subjects aged 43 to 82 years, assessed through a more complete set of neuropsychological tests. Specifically, the neuropsychological evaluation consisted of the clock drawing test, the Executive Interview 25 (EXIT 25) for assessment of executive function, testing of digits in the forward and reverse order and a test to assess learning. The negative results observed could be attributed to the inclusion of individuals who were relatively young when compared with the individuals in the study presented here.</p>
      <p>A unique feature of this project was the use of the CAMCOG-R for cognitive assessment of the elderly hypertensive individuals. To our knowledge, ours is the only study that has used CAMCOG-R for this purpose. Therefore, reduction of the global score on the CAMCOG-R corroborates the results of the literature that showed a reduction in cognitive performance in elderly hypertensive subjects evaluated with other instruments. This observation is consistent with the concept that hypertension is in fact associated with reduced cognitive performance. Also shown in this study, the slower performance in TMT-A suggests a reduction in the speed of information processing. The reduced performance in RAVLT, in turn, suggests a reduction in the ability to learn new information. Other authors also find deficits in these specific cognitive domains in elderly hypertensive subjcts<sup>32,33</sup>.</p>
      <p>Some important limitations of the study should be discussed. A potential criticism would be its small sample size. As explained in detail in the methods section, however, it should be noted that the number of participants recruited per group exceeded the minimum number, which gives the study a power of 95% to find a difference of 8 points on average in the global score of the CAMCOG-R, with a p-value of &lt; 0.05. Another limitation has to do with the analysis of multiple secondary outcomes, for which the power of the study was not defined <italic>a priori.</italic> Therefore, the results relative to the performance specific to cognitive domains should be considered with caution. It is emphasized, however, that the study demonstrates a significantly lower cognitive performance in hypertensive participants reflected in its main outcome, i.e. the global score of the CAMCOG-R.</p>
      <p>It is known that the cognitive performance measured by CAMCOG-R is significantly influenced by level of education<sup>34</sup>. To minimize this bias, participants with at least 5 years of formal study were evaluated. Despite this, it was found that the group of normotensives was significantly better educated. However, adjusting for age, sex, education and Beck's score, we show that the presence of hypertension is an independent predictor of cognitive performance measured by the global score on the CAMCOG-R, the time and percentile on the TMT A and the sum of A1-A5 of the RAVLT. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that, in our case, the estimated effect of schooling is more accurate than the effect of hypertension when compared with the prediction of overall score on the CAMCOG-R. Specifically, although the unadjusted coefficient ("B") of the hypertension factor has an absolute value greater than the coefficient associated with education, the confidence interval of 95% (CI 95%) related to schooling is much narrower than that related to hypertension ("B" hypertension = - 5.69 with CI 95% of -10.1 up to -1.27 and p-value = 0.01; "B" schooling = 1.06, CI 95% of 0.52 up to 1.59 and p-value &lt; 0.001).</p>
      <p>Depression is also associated with reduced cognitive performance<sup>35</sup>. In this study, the Beck's Depression Inventory score was similar in elderly hypertensives and normotensives. Thus, the impact of symptoms associated with depression was homogeneously distributed between the two groups, attenuating the possibility of bias. Moreover, in none of the multiple linear regression models did Beck's depression scale prove to be an independent predictor of cognitive performance (results not shown).</p>
      <p>The use of antihypertensive medications by elderly hypertensive participants could confound the results. However, there would be a tendency to underestimate the impact of hypertension on the cognitive performance<sup>10-14</sup>. In fact, a few studies suggest that the pharmacological treatment of hypertension prevents the development and progression of cognitive decline<sup>10,14</sup>. It is further emphasized that none of the elderly hypertensives were being treated with beta blockers that could <italic>per se </italic>reduce cognitive performance. In addition, the use of psychotropic medications was prohibited by the study protocol. Therefore, it is presumed that the impact of the use of medication is not associated with the reduction of cognitive performance observed in subjects with hypertension. Furthermore, the results cannot be extrapolated for the elderly with severe hypertension, since those with systolic blood pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 180 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 110 mmHg, or those using four or more antihypertensive medications, were excluded from the study. Finally, we emphasize that the study was cross-sectional. Consequently, one cannot establish a causal relationship between hypertension and cognitive decline.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusions</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The present study confirms and expands the concept that hypertension is associated with reduced cognitive performance in elderly individuals. By means of various neuropsychological assessment tools, it was demonstrated that the decline in performance occurs in different domains of cognition, suggesting that the neuropsychological disorder in elderly hypertensives is not located in isolated areas of the brain, contrary to what was previously observed in other studies in the literature<sup>36</sup>. Although there is a measurable reduction in the cognitive performance of elderly hypertensives, the study does not present evidence that this performance reduction is clinically significant, because the participation of individuals with dementia or with an established diagnosis of stroke was not permitted. However, the results of this and other studies suggest the psychobiological plausibility of this hypothesis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
