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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">ytHCcrBqdm7NRHZJpbCKy6r</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2013000500003</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(13)10000500003</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2013005000025</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Diabetes subdiagnosticado e necrose mioc&#225;rdica: preditores de hiperglicemia no infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ladeira</surname>
            <given-names>Renata Teixeira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Baracioli</surname>
            <given-names>Luciano Moreira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Faulin</surname>
            <given-names>Tanize Esp&#237;rito Santo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Abdalla</surname>
            <given-names>Dulcin&#233;ia Saes Parra</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Seydell</surname>
            <given-names>Talita Matttos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Maranh&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Raul Cavalcante</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mendon&#231;a</surname>
            <given-names>Berenice Bilharinho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Strunz</surname>
            <given-names>C&#233;lia Cassaro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castro</surname>
            <given-names>Isac de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Nicolau</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital da Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias Farmac&#234;uticas </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>100</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>404</fpage>
      <lpage>411</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>22</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: Hiperglicemia na fase aguda do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; importante fator progn&#243;stico. Entretanto, sua fisiopatologia n&#227;o est&#225; completamente elucidada. OBJETIVO: Analisar simultaneamente correla&#231;&#227;o entre hiperglicemia e marcadores bioqu&#237;micos relacionados ao estresse,metabolismo glic&#237;dico e lip&#237;dico, coagula&#231;&#227;o, inflama&#231;&#227;o e necrose mioc&#225;rdica. M&#201;TODOS: Oitenta pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio foram inclu&#237;dos prospectivamente. Os par&#226;metros analisados foram: glicose, horm&#244;nios do estresse (cortisol e norepinefrina), fatores do metabolismo glic&#237;dico [hemoglobina glicada (HbA1c), insulina], lipoprote&#237;nas (colesterol total, LDL, HDL, LDL eletronegativa minimamente modificada e adiponectina), glicer&#237;deos (triglic&#233;rides, VLDL e &#225;cido graxo), fatores da coagula&#231;&#227;o (fator VII, fibrinog&#234;nio,inibidor do ativador do plasminog&#234;nio-1), inflama&#231;&#227;o (prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel) e necrose mioc&#225;rdica (CK-MB e troponina). Vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram convertidas em graus de pertin&#234;ncia por interm&#233;dio de l&#243;gica fuzzy. RESULTADOS: Houve correla&#231;&#227;o significativa entre hiperglicemia e metabolismo glic&#237;dico (p &lt; 0,001), lipoprote&#237;nas (p = 0,03) e fatores de necrose (p = 0,03). Na an&#225;lise multivariada, somente metabolismo glic&#237;dico (OR = 4,3; IC = 2,1-68,9 e p &lt; 0,001) e necrose mioc&#225;rdica (OR = 22,5; IC = 2-253 e p = 0,012) mantiveram correla&#231;&#227;o independente e significativa.Para an&#225;lise da influ&#234;ncia da hist&#243;ria de diabetes mellitus , modelo de regress&#227;o, incluindo somente pacientes sem diabetes mellitus foi desenvolvido, e os resultados n&#227;o alteraram. Finalmente, no modelo ajustado para idade, sexo e vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas(hist&#243;ria de diabetes mellitus, hipertens&#227;o arterial e dislipidemia), tr&#234;s vari&#225;veis mantiveram associa&#231;&#227;o significativa e independente com hiperglicemia: metabolismo glic&#237;dico (OR = 24,1; IC = 4,8-122,1 e p &lt; 0,001) necrose mioc&#225;rdica (OR = 21,9; IC = 1,3-360,9 e p = 0,03) e hist&#243;ria de DM (OR = 27, IC = 3,7-195,7 e p = 0,001). CONCLUS&#195;O: Marcadores do metabolismo glic&#237;dico e necrose mioc&#225;rdica foram os melhores preditores de hiperglicemia em pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
        <kwd>Diabetes Mellitus</kwd>
        <kwd>Hiperglicemia</kwd>
        <kwd>Hemoglobina A Glicosilada</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>19</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>Diabetes subdiagnosticado e necrose mioc&#225;rdica: preditores de hiperglicemia no infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Renata Teixeira Ladeira; Luciano Moreira Baracioli; Tanize Esp&#237;rito Santo Faulin; Dulcin&#233;ia Saes Parra Abdalla; Talita Matttos Seydell; Raul Cavalcante Maranh&#227;o; Berenice Bilharinho Mendon&#231;a; C&#233;lia Cassaro Strunz; Isac de Castro; Jos&#233; Carlos Nicolau</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) - Hospital da Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo; Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias Farmac&#234;uticas da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo; Divis&#227;o de Endocrinologia e Metabolismo do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO:</bold> Hiperglicemia na fase aguda do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; importante fator progn&#243;stico. Entretanto, sua fisiopatologia n&#227;o est&#225; completamente elucidada. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Analisar simultaneamente correla&#231;&#227;o entre hiperglicemia e marcadores bioqu&#237;micos relacionados ao estresse,metabolismo glic&#237;dico e lip&#237;dico, coagula&#231;&#227;o, inflama&#231;&#227;o e necrose mioc&#225;rdica. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Oitenta pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio foram inclu&#237;dos prospectivamente. Os par&#226;metros analisados foram: glicose, horm&#244;nios do estresse (cortisol e norepinefrina), fatores do metabolismo glic&#237;dico [hemoglobina glicada (HbA1c), insulina], lipoprote&#237;nas (colesterol total, LDL, HDL, LDL eletronegativa minimamente modificada e adiponectina), glicer&#237;deos (triglic&#233;rides, VLDL e &#225;cido graxo), fatores da coagula&#231;&#227;o (fator VII, fibrinog&#234;nio,inibidor do ativador do plasminog&#234;nio-1), inflama&#231;&#227;o (prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel) e necrose mioc&#225;rdica (CK-MB e troponina). Vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram convertidas em graus de pertin&#234;ncia por interm&#233;dio de l&#243;gica fuzzy. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> Houve correla&#231;&#227;o significativa entre hiperglicemia e metabolismo glic&#237;dico (p &lt; 0,001), lipoprote&#237;nas (p = 0,03) e fatores de necrose (p = 0,03). Na an&#225;lise multivariada, somente metabolismo glic&#237;dico (OR = 4,3; IC = 2,1-68,9 e p &lt; 0,001) e necrose mioc&#225;rdica (OR = 22,5; IC = 2-253 e p = 0,012) mantiveram correla&#231;&#227;o independente e significativa.Para an&#225;lise da influ&#234;ncia da hist&#243;ria de diabetes mellitus , modelo de regress&#227;o, incluindo somente pacientes sem diabetes mellitus foi desenvolvido, e os resultados n&#227;o alteraram. Finalmente, no modelo ajustado para idade, sexo e vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas(hist&#243;ria de diabetes mellitus, hipertens&#227;o arterial e dislipidemia), tr&#234;s vari&#225;veis mantiveram associa&#231;&#227;o significativa e independente com hiperglicemia: metabolismo glic&#237;dico (OR = 24,1; IC = 4,8-122,1 e p &lt; 0,001) necrose mioc&#225;rdica (OR = 21,9; IC = 1,3-360,9 e p = 0,03) e hist&#243;ria de DM (OR = 27, IC = 3,7-195,7 e p = 0,001). </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O: </bold>Marcadores do metabolismo glic&#237;dico e necrose mioc&#225;rdica foram os melhores preditores de hiperglicemia em pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio. </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio, Diabetes Mellitus, Hiperglicemia, Hemoglobina A Glicosilada.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O primeiro estudo que avaliou a preval&#234;ncia de glicos&#250;ria em pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM), sem diabetes mellitus (DM) foi publicado em 1931<sup>1</sup>. Desde ent&#227;o, muitos outros t&#234;m demostrado a import&#226;ncia da hiperglicemia (HG) nos pacientes com IAM a curto<sup>2-6</sup> e longo prazo<sup>7-9</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, os n&#237;veis glic&#234;micos s&#227;o preditores do remodelamento ventricular ap&#243;s IAM<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>Entretanto, n&#227;o h&#225; consenso na literatura m&#233;dica sobre a defini&#231;&#227;o de hiperglicemia durante as s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas, e publica&#231;&#245;es recentes sugerem que m&#250;ltiplas dosagens durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o podem acrescentar informa&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas para essa popula&#231;&#227;o<sup>11</sup>. Outra controv&#233;rsia &#233; sobre o tratamento intensivo da HG, em que algumas publica&#231;&#245;es demonstram benef&#237;cio<sup>12,13</sup>enquanto outras n&#227;o<sup>14-16</sup>.</p>
    <p>Finalmente, pouco &#233; descrito sobre os mecanismos envolvidos no aumento da mortalidade relacionada &#224; HG durante o IAM, com a maioria dos estudos correlacionando a HG com somente uma das diversas vari&#225;veis que podem explicar a eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis glic&#234;micos. Assim, o objetivo principal deste estudo &#233; analisar simultaneamente, na mesma popula&#231;&#227;o, a glicemia com marcadores bioqu&#237;micos relacionados ao sistema hormonal de estresse, metabolismo glic&#237;dico e lip&#237;dico, coagula&#231;&#227;o, inflama&#231;&#227;o e &#224; necrose mioc&#225;rdica. Parte deste estudo foi publicada como resumo em congresso<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Pacientes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Foram inclu&#237;dos prospectivamente 80 pacientes com IAM (idade m&#233;dia de 60,5 anos; 81% sexo masculino), admitidos na unidade coronariana de um hospital terci&#225;rio.</p>
    <p>Crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o: pacientes com IAM com ou sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST com intervalo entre o in&#237;cio da dor e inclus&#227;o no estudo de 24-48h.</p>
    <p>Crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o: pacientes com idade &lt; 21, ou &gt; 80 anos, uso pr&#233;vio de corticoide, doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria conhecida, insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica (clearence de creatinina <underline>&lt;</underline> 60 mL/min), doen&#231;a neurol&#243;gica grave, hipo ou hipertireoidismo, instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica (Forester modificado &gt; IIa)<sup>18</sup>, doen&#231;a hematol&#243;gica conhecida, uso pr&#233;vio de anticoagulante, uso de fibrinol&#237;tico durante o evento em estudo, ou comorbidade com expectativa de vida &lt; 6 meses.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Avalia&#231;&#245;es laboratoriais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As amostras de sangue foram colhidas em jejum, 24-48h do in&#237;cio da dor e os seguintes par&#226;metros (e valores de refer&#234;ncia) foram avaliados: glicose (70-100 mg/dL), cortisol (7,3-24,7 ;&#181;g ;/ ;dL), norepinefrina (40-268 pg ;/ ;mL), HbA1c (&lt; ;6,1%), insulina (2,3-26,4 &#181;U/ml), &#225;cido graxo n&#227;o esterificado (NEFA) (0,1-0,6 mEq/L), fator VII da coagula&#231;&#227;o (50-150%) e prote&#237;na C reativa ultrassens&#237;vel (PCRus) (&lt; ;5mg/L). Adicionalmente, dosagens lip&#237;dicas e de marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica foram determinadas de acordo com a rotina dos pacientes com IAM e os valores de refer&#234;ncia s&#227;o: colesterol total (&lt; 200 mg/dL), lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL) (&lt; 100 mg/dL), lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL) (&gt; 40 mg/dL para homens e &gt; 50 mg ;/ ;dL para mulheres), lipoprote&#237;na de muito baixa densidade (VLDL) (sem refer&#234;ncia), triglic&#233;rides (&lt; 150 mg/dL), fra&#231;&#227;o MB da creatinofosfoquinase (CK-MB) (&lt; 4 ng/mL) e troponina I (&lt; ;0,1 ng/mL).</p>
    <p>LDL minimamente modificada eletronegativa [LDL (-)], anticorpo anti-LDL(-), adiponectina, inibidor do ativador do plasminog&#234;ncio (PAI-1) e fibrinog&#234;nio n&#227;o possuem valor de refer&#234;ncia, e as dosagens foram comparadas entre grupos com e sem hiperglicemia.</p>
    <p>Glicose, colesterol total, HDL, LDL e triglic&#233;rides foram determinados por meio de m&#233;todo enzim&#225;tico no analisador Cobas Integra 700 (Roche, Alemanha). PCRus foi medida por ensaio imunoturbim&#233;trico (Roche). A dosagem da HbA1c foi feita no analisador Hitachi 902 (Roche). VLDL foi calculado. Cortisol e insulina foram analisados com kits AutoDELFIA (PerkinElmer, Finl&#226;ndia). Norepinefrina foi medida com cromatografia l&#237;quida de alta performance. LDL (-) e anticorpos contra LDL (-) foram determinados com ELISA<sup>19</sup>. Para dosagem do NEFA foi usado kit HR Series NEFA C (Wako, Jap&#227;o). Fator VII da coagula&#231;&#227;o foi dosado com kit AMAX (Trinity, Estados Unidos). O kit LINCOplex Human Disease Panel I foi usado para dosagem simult&#226;nea da adiponectina e PAI-1 e SINGLEplex human cardiovascular disease (LINCO, Estados Unidos) foram usados para medir o fibrinog&#234;nio.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Defini&#231;&#245;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p>DM: DM conhecido, sob tratamento com dieta, hipoglicemiante oral, ou insulina.</p>
    <p>IAM: t&#237;pico aumento com queda gradual (troponina), ou aumento com redu&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pida (CK-MB) de marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica com no m&#237;nimo um dos seguintes itens: sintomas de isquemia, desenvolvimento de onda Q patol&#243;gica no eletrocardiograma, altera&#231;&#245;es sugestivas de presen&#231;a de isquemia no eletrocardiograma (supra ou infradesnivelamento do segmento ST), ou interven&#231;&#227;o em art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria<sup>20</sup></p>
    <p>Hiperglicemia: glicemia <underline>&gt;</underline> 108 mg/dL (glicemia mediana em nossa amostra). Inclusive j&#225; foi demonstrado que glicemia <underline>&gt;</underline> 110 mg/dL est&#225; associada a maior mortalidade em pacientes em terapia intensiva<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas s&#227;o apresentadas como m&#233;dias (&#177; DP) ou medianas (percentis 25-75%) e as categ&#243;ricas como n&#250;meros (propor&#231;&#245;es).</p>
    <p>An&#225;lise univariada: regress&#227;o n&#227;o linear, qui-quadrado e teste de Kruskal Wallis foram usados quando indicados.</p>
    <p>An&#225;lise multivariada: convertemos os valores originais das vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas em graus de pertin&#234;ncia por meio da utiliza&#231;&#227;o dos princ&#237;pios da l&#243;gica fuzzy. Assim, com a curva ROC, foram calculados os valores de sensibilidade e especificidade das vari&#225;veis para glicemia <underline>&gt;</underline> 108 mg/dL. A seguir foram selecionados valores de coorte das vari&#225;veis segundo a maior soma e maior produto da sensibilidade e especificidade. Os graus de pertin&#234;ncia para soma e produto foram derivados do quociente do valor da vari&#225;vel por estes valores de corte.</p>
    <p>Assim podem-se associar as vari&#225;veis nos seus grupos originais com sete dom&#237;nios:</p>
    <p>1 - Sistema hormonal de estresse: cortisol e norepinefrina.</p>
    <p>2 - Metabolismo glic&#237;dico: HbA1c e insulina.</p>
    <p>3 - Lipoprote&#237;nas: colesterol total, LDL, HDL, LDL (-), anticorpo anti LDL (-), adiponectina.</p>
    <p>4 - Glicer&#237;deos: triglic&#233;rides, VLDL (uma vez que triglic&#233;rides &#233; seu maior componente) e NEFA.</p>
    <p>5 - Coagula&#231;&#227;o: fator VII coagula&#231;&#227;o, PAI-1 e fibrinog&#234;nio.</p>
    <p>6 - Inflama&#231;&#227;o: PCRus.</p>
    <p>7 - Necrose mioc&#225;rdica: CK-MB e troponina.</p>
    <p>Foram criadas m&#233;dias ponderais com base dos valores fuzzy para soma e produto da sensibilidade e especificidade. Ent&#227;o, novamente utilizando curva ROC, selecionou-se o valor de corte para os sete grupos de vari&#225;veis, categorizando-se os mesmos.</p>
    <p>An&#225;lises univariadas foram feitas por meio de qui-quadrado e multivariada por regress&#227;o log&#237;stica binominal.</p>
    <p>Diferen&#231;as foram consideradas estatisticamente significativas com p &lt; 0,05. Dados foram analisados usando programa estat&#237;stico SPSS, vers&#227;o 19.0 para Windows.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Considera&#231;&#245;es &#233;ticas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O protocolo do estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#233;tica desta institui&#231;&#227;o, em consoante &#224; Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki e o termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido foi obtido de cada participante.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESULTADOS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Caracter&#237;sticas dos pacientes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Caracter&#237;sticas basais da popula&#231;&#227;o, medica&#231;&#245;es e terapia invasiva utilizada durante a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o est&#227;o especificadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_1376tab01">tabela 1</xref>. H&#225; uma maioria de pacientes do sexo masculino, como &#233; frequente no IAM, apesar de um crescente aumento de mulheres com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda. Os fatores de risco t&#234;m uma incid&#234;ncia similiar &#224; da literatura. Como nosso hospital &#233; terci&#225;rio, temos um n&#250;mero elevado de pacientes com IAM com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST. No protocolo institucional &#233; preconizado usar como segundo antiagregante, associado ao &#225;cido acetil salic&#237;lico, o inibidor de glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa e clopidogrel &#233; dado apenas no seguimento para aqueles que estiverem em tratamento cl&#237;nico ou ap&#243;s angioplastia coronariana. Assim se somarmos o uso de clopigogrel e inibidor de glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa teremos 96,3% dos pacientes com dois antiagregantes. Apenas 16,3% dos pacientes fizeram angioplastia prim&#225;ria uma vez que 30% dos IAM eram com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST e assim a grande maioria n&#227;o tinha indica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_1376tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Correla&#231;&#227;o entre glicemia e vari&#225;veis estudadas - an&#225;lise univariada</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Como demonstrado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_1376tab02">Tabela 2</xref>, as vari&#225;veis que tiveram correla&#231;&#227;o estatisticamente significativa com glicemia na an&#225;lise univariada foram: HbA1c, insulina, LDL, HDL, adiponectina, triglic&#233;rides, VLDL, NEFA, e fibrinog&#234;nio. A correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre glicose e insulina sugere um aumento da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina. De fato, HOMA-IR<sup>22</sup> teve uma mediana de 2,4 (1,1-4,5).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_1376tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>A correla&#231;&#227;o entre hiperglicemia e os sete dom&#237;nios: sistema hormonal de estresse, metabolismo glic&#237;dico, lipoprote&#237;nas, glicer&#237;deos, coagula&#231;&#227;o, inflama&#231;&#227;o e necrose mioc&#225;rdica s&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_1376tab03">Tabela 3</xref>. Houve uma correla&#231;&#227;o positiva e significante entre hiperglicemia e metabolismo glic&#237;dico e necrose mioc&#225;rdica, e correla&#231;&#227;o negativa e significante com lipoprote&#237;nas.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_1376tab03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Correla&#231;&#227;o entre glicemia e vari&#225;veis estudadas - an&#225;lise multivariada</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Na an&#225;lise multivariada, incluindo os sete dom&#237;nios de vari&#225;veis, somente metabolismo glic&#237;dico e necrose mioc&#225;rdica mantiveram correla&#231;&#227;o significativa e independente com a hiperglicemia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_1376tab04">Tabela 4</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_1376tab04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Para analisar a influ&#234;ncia da hist&#243;ria do DM nos resultados, um segundo modelo ajustado, incluindo os sete dom&#237;nios, por&#233;m somente paciente sem DM foi desenvolvido. Como mostrado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_1376tab05">Tabela 5</xref>, os resultados mantiveram-se inalterados.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_1376tab05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt05.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Finalmente um terceiro modelo foi desenvolvido, ajustado para idade, sexo e vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas associadas &#224; glicemia (hist&#243;ria de DM, hipertens&#227;o arterial e dislipidemia). Neste modelo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop_1376tab06">Tabela 6</xref>), tr&#234;s vari&#225;veis correlacionaram-se significante e independentemente com hiperglicemia: metabolismo glic&#237;dico, necrose mioc&#225;rdica e hist&#243;ria de DM. Ou seja, durante a fase aguda do IAM, h&#225; um grupo de pacientes sem DM conhecido que j&#225; tem disfun&#231;&#227;o subdiagnosticada do metabolismo glic&#237;dico.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop_1376tab06">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt06.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Analisando somente pacientes sem DM conhecido e levando em conta a classifica&#231;&#227;o da HbA1c recentemente publicada pelo American Diabetes Association<sup>25</sup>,nos encontramos 3,6% de diab&#233;ticos (hba1c <underline>&gt;</underline> 6,5%), 28,6% tinham intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose (HbA1c &gt; 5,7% e &lt; 6,4%), e 67,8% foram normais (HbA1c <underline>&lt;</underline> 5,6%). Houve uma diferen&#231;a significativa entre n&#237;veis glic&#234;micos durante a fase aguda do IAM e as tr&#234;s classes de HbA1c (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop_1376fig01">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="aop_1376fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o houve correla&#231;&#227;o significativa entre glicemia e mortalidade ou eventos card&#237;acos adversos (isquemia refrat&#225;ria, reinfarto, choque cardiog&#234;nico e &#243;bito), que foi uma an&#225;lise secund&#225;ria. Entretanto, o pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes inclu&#237;dos no estudo n&#227;o permite qualquer conclus&#227;o sobre essa quest&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo tem dois principais achados. Primeiro, hiperglicemia durante a fase aguda do IAM, independentemente da hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de DM, est&#225; associada a vari&#225;veis relacionadas ao metabolismo glic&#237;dico (HbA1c e insulina), sugerindo que a hiperglicemia, inicialmente considerada de estresse, pode ser em virtude da intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose ou DM que n&#227;o foram diagnosticadas at&#233; o IAM. O segundo achado importante foi que os n&#237;veis glic&#234;micos est&#227;o correlacionados significativamente com a extens&#227;o do IAM, representado pelos marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica (CK-MB e troponina). </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hiperglicemia e intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose/DM subdiagnosticados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O fato de ter sido encontrada correla&#231;&#227;o da glicemia com HbA1c inicialmente parece evidente. Por&#233;m, a HbA1c representa a glicemia m&#233;dia dos dois &#250;ltimos meses e &#233; minimamente afetada pela hiperglicemia aguda<sup>24</sup>. Se a hiperglicemia na fase inicial do IAM fosse por uma rea&#231;&#227;o de estresse agudo apenas, n&#227;o teria qualquer correla&#231;&#227;o com glicose e HbA1c nos pacientes n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos. Assim, uma das etiologias prov&#225;veis da hiperglicemia no IAM &#233; a disglicemia, sem diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio.</p>
    <p>Analisando pacientes com IAM e sem diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de DM, Tenerz e cols.<sup>25 </sup>reportaram que testes de rotina, como teste oral de toler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose, ou uma glicemia isolada ap&#243;s 60 min da ingest&#227;o de 75 g de glicose, no momento da alta hospitalar, pode predizer o diagn&#243;stico de intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose em 3 meses. Esse estudo corrobora nosso achado que a hiperglicemia durante o IAM pode estar associada com dist&#250;rbio cr&#244;nico do metabolismo glic&#237;dico.</p>
    <p>Desde os anos 1980, o papel da HbA1c como marcador progn&#243;stico no IAM tem sido estudado<sup>26-30</sup>. No estudo OPTIMAAL a HbA1c foi dosada em 2.841 pacientes com IAM e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Dentre esses pacientes, 495 ;(17%) reportaram uma hist&#243;ria de DM. Dos pacientes sem hist&#243;ria de DM, aumento dos n&#237;veis de HbA1c correlacionou-se com mortalidade: 13% para pacientes com HbA1c &lt; 4,95; 17% para pacientes com HbA1c entre 4,9 e 5,1% e 22% para pacientes com HbA1c ;&gt; ;5,1% (p ;= ;0,02)<sup>31</sup>. Outro estudo, que tamb&#233;m avaliou uma popula&#231;&#227;o com IAM e sem hist&#243;ria de DM, confirmou DM em 27% dos pacientes, intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose em 39% e metabolismo normal da glicose em 34%<sup>32</sup>. N&#227;o havia nenhuma padroniza&#231;&#227;o para diagn&#243;stico de HbA1c at&#233; 2010 e cada autor usava diferentes valores de coorte. No presente trabalho, aplicamos o crit&#233;rio do American Diabetes Association<sup>23</sup> e encontramos 32,2% de pacientes com metabolismo da glicose alterado.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hiperglicemia e resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Insulina, outro componente do metabolismo glic&#237;dico, correlacionou significantemente com n&#237;veis de glicose, sugerindo aumento da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, o que ficou demonstrado pela eleva&#231;&#227;o do HOMA-IR. Esse achado &#233; similar aos de Choi e cols.<sup>33</sup>, que demonstraram uma correla&#231;&#227;o significativa entre toler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose e DM com resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina em pacientes com IAM. Todavia, esse aumento da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina poder ser cr&#244;nico ou relacionado &#224; doen&#231;a aguda.</p>
    <p>Numa avalia&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica em pacientes com IAM, sem DM conhecido foram dosadas glicemia, insulina (no 2&#186;, 5&#186; dias e tr&#234;s meses ap&#243;s IAM), HbA1c e TOTG (cinco dias e tr&#234;s meses ap&#243;s IAM)<sup>25</sup>. Observou-se aumento significativo da HOMA-IR no 2&#186; em rela&#231;&#227;o ao 5&#186; dia (p &lt; 0,001), entretanto n&#227;o houve altera&#231;&#227;o entre o 5&#186; dia e tr&#234;s meses. Houve uma correla&#231;&#227;o entre a resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina elevada e pacientes diab&#233;ticos (86%), aqueles com intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose (65%) e normoglic&#234;micos (52%) de acordo com o TOTG em tr&#234;s meses (p0.004 ). Esse estudo sugere que os pacientes que n&#227;o sabiam ter DM ou intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose tinham resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina mais elevada que os normoglic&#234;micos. Por&#233;m, nos primeiros dois dias ocorreu um incremento no HOMA-IR que pode ser pela fase aguda, associada a horm&#244;nios de estresse. Ou seja, os dois mecanismos n&#227;o s&#227;o excludentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hiperglicemia e necrose mioc&#225;rdica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A extens&#227;o do IAM, representada pelos marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica, foi um fator relacionado significante e independentemente com a hiperglicemia neste estudo. Essa rela&#231;&#227;o j&#225; tinha sido descrita por outros autores<sup>34-36</sup>. Foi encontrada uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre elevados n&#237;veis de glicose e diferentes vari&#225;veis associadas com tamanho do IAM, incluindo uma classe elevada de Killip, uma baixa fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de CPK, CPK MB, troponina I, pr&#243;-BNP e &#225;cido l&#225;tico<sup>36</sup>. O uso de resson&#226;ncia nuclear magn&#233;tica para determinar o tamanho do IAM revelou uma correla&#231;&#227;o significativa entre glicemia da admiss&#227;o e a extens&#227;o do IAM, independentemente de altera&#231;&#245;es pr&#233;vias do metabolismo da glicose (HbA1c) ou marcadores de necrose<sup>37</sup>.</p>
    <p>O mecanismo exato que explica o impacto da hiperglicemia na extens&#227;o do IAM n&#227;o &#233; completamente conhecido, mas uma correla&#231;&#227;o significativa entre hiperglicemia e altera&#231;&#227;o da microcircula&#231;&#227;o j&#225; foi previamente demonstrada<sup>38</sup>. Estudos cl&#237;nicos em pacientes com IAM submetidos a terap&#234;uticas de recanaliza&#231;&#227;o sugerem que a hiperglicemia se associa a disfun&#231;&#227;o da microcircula&#231;&#227;o, o chamado fen&#244;meno de <italic>no-reflow</italic><sup>39</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; associa&#231;&#227;o clara entre hiperglicemia e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e choque cardiog&#234;nico<sup>4,5</sup>, que poderia ser explicada por um maior tamanho do IAM.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Limita&#231;&#245;es do estudo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A maior limita&#231;&#227;o deste estudo &#233; o fato que nem todas as vari&#225;veis que correlacionam significativamente com hiperglicemia em diferentes publica&#231;&#245;es poderiam ser analisadas em um &#250;nico estudo, como o presente. Por&#233;m uma extensa revis&#227;o da literatura foi conduzida para minimizar esta limita&#231;&#227;o, e os autores procuraram incluir as vari&#225;veis com evid&#234;ncia mais robusta. Outra limita&#231;&#227;o foi a inclus&#227;o de diab&#233;ticos, a qual foi parcialmente corrigida por constru&#231;&#227;o de modelo estat&#237;stico incluindo hist&#243;ria de DM e outra an&#225;lise j&#225; pr&#233; especificada apenas de pacientes n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Conclui-se que os marcadores de metabolismo glic&#237;dico e de necrose mioc&#225;rdica foram os melhores preditores da hiperglicemia em pacientes com IAM, sugerindo um dist&#250;rbio pr&#233;vio do metabolismo da glicose n&#227;o diagnosticado. Assim estes achados refor&#231;am a import&#226;ncia de valorizar a hiperglicemia durante a fase aguda do IAM como indicador de intoler&#226;ncia &#224; glicose ou DM pr&#233;vio.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Agradecimentos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este estudo recebeu suporte financeiro da Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (Fapesp) e incluiu os resultados principais da tese de doutorado defendida na Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela FAPESP.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de Renata Teixeira Ladeira pelo Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) - Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Renata Teixeira Ladeira </p>
        <p> Av. Sargento Geraldo Santana, 94/181, Jardim Taquaral </p>
        <p> CEP 04674-225, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="rtlad@cardiol.br">rtlad@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="rtlad@terra.com.br">rtlad@terra.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 22/5/12;revisado em 22/5/12; aceito em 17/12/12.</p>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Unrecognized diabetes and myocardial necrosis: predictors of hyperglycemia in myocardial infarction</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Hyperglycemia in the acute phase of myocardial infarction is an important prognostic factor. However, its pathophysiology is not fully understood. OBJECTIVE: To analyze simultaneously the correlation between hyperglycemia and biochemical markers related to stress, glucose and lipid metabolism, coagulation, inflammation, and myocardial necrosis. METHODS Eighty patients with acute myocardial infarction were prospectively included. The following parameters were analyzed: blood glucose; stress hormones (cortisol and norepinephrine); glucose metabolism factors [glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c); insulin]; lipoproteins (total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, minimally modified electronegative LDL, and adiponectin); glycerides (triglycerides, VLDL and fatty acids); coagulation factors (factor VII, fibrinogen, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1); inflammation (high-sensitivity C reactive protein); and myocardial necrosis (CK-MB and troponin). Continuous variables were converted into degrees of relevance using fuzzy logic. RESULTS: Significant correlation was observed between hyperglycemia and glucose metabolism (p &lt; 0.001), lipoproteins (p = 0.03), and necrosis factors (p = 0.03). In the multivariate analysis, only glucose metabolism (OR = 4.3; CI = 2.1-68.9; and p &lt; 0.001) and myocardial necrosis (OR = 22.5; CI = 2-253; and p = 0.012) showed independent and significant correlation. For the analysis of the influence of history of diabetes mellitus, a regression model including only patients without diabetes mellitus was developed, and the results did not change. Finally, in the model adjusted for age, gender, and clinical variables (history of diabetes mellitus, hypertension and dyslipidemia), three variables maintained a significant and independent association with hyperglycemia: glucose metabolism (OR = 24.1; CI = 4.8-122.1; and p &lt; 0.001), myocardial necrosis (OR = 21.9; CI = 1.3-360.9; and p = 0.03), and history of DM (OR = 27; CI = 3.7-195.7; and p = 0.001). CONCLUSION: Glucose metabolism and myocardial necrosis markers were the best predictors of hyperglycemia in patients with acute myocardial infarction.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Myocardial Infarction</kwd>
        <kwd>Diabetes Mellitus</kwd>
        <kwd>Hyperglicemia</kwd>
        <kwd>Hemoglobin A, Glycosylated</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="front-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Unrecognized diabetes and myocardial necrosis: predictors of hyperglycemia in myocardial infarction</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Renata Teixeira Ladeira; Luciano Moreira Baracioli; Tanize Esp&#237;rito Santo Faulin; Dulcin&#233;ia Saes Parra Abdalla; Talita Matttos Seydell; Raul Cavalcante Maranh&#227;o; Berenice Bilharinho Mendon&#231;a; C&#233;lia Cassaro Strunz; Isac de Castro; Jos&#233; Carlos Nicolau</bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) - Hospital da Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo; Faculdade de Ci&#234;ncias Farmac&#234;uticas da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo; Divis&#227;o de Endocrinologia e Metabolismo do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND:</bold> Hyperglycemia in the acute phase of myocardial infarction is an important prognostic factor. However, its pathophysiology is not fully understood.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE:</bold> To analyze simultaneously the correlation between hyperglycemia and biochemical markers related to stress, glucose and lipid metabolism, coagulation, inflammation, and myocardial necrosis.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS</bold> Eighty patients with acute myocardial infarction were prospectively included. The following parameters were analyzed: blood glucose; stress hormones (cortisol and norepinephrine); glucose metabolism factors [glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c); insulin]; lipoproteins (total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, minimally modified electronegative LDL, and adiponectin); glycerides (triglycerides, VLDL and fatty acids); coagulation factors (factor VII, fibrinogen, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1); inflammation (high-sensitivity C reactive protein); and myocardial necrosis (CK-MB and troponin). Continuous variables were converted into degrees of relevance using fuzzy logic.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS: </bold>Significant correlation was observed between hyperglycemia and glucose metabolism (p &lt; 0.001), lipoproteins (p = 0.03), and necrosis factors (p = 0.03). In the multivariate analysis, only glucose metabolism (OR = 4.3; CI = 2.1-68.9; and p &lt; 0.001) and myocardial necrosis (OR = 22.5; CI = 2-253; and p = 0.012) showed independent and significant correlation. For the analysis of the influence of history of diabetes mellitus, a regression model including only patients without diabetes mellitus was developed, and the results did not change. Finally, in the model adjusted for age, gender, and clinical variables (history of diabetes mellitus, hypertension and dyslipidemia), three variables maintained a significant and independent association with hyperglycemia: glucose metabolism (OR = 24.1; CI = 4.8-122.1; and p &lt; 0.001), myocardial necrosis (OR = 21.9; CI = 1.3-360.9; and p = 0.03), and history of DM (OR = 27; CI = 3.7-195.7; and p = 0.001).</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION: </bold>Glucose metabolism and myocardial necrosis markers were the best predictors of hyperglycemia in patients with acute myocardial infarction.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords: </bold>Myocardial Infarction; Diabetes Mellitus; Hyperglicemia; Hemoglobin A, Glycosylated</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The first study to evaluate the prevalence of glycosuria in patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) without diabetes mellitus (DM) was published in 1931<sup>1</sup>. Since then, many other studies have demonstrated the short<sup>2-6</sup> and long-term<sup>7-9</sup> importance of hyperglycemia (HG) in patients with AMI. In addition, blood glucose levels are predictive of ventricular remodeling after AMI<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>However, there is no consensus in the medical literature regarding the definition of hyperglycemia during acute coronary syndromes, and recent publications suggest that multiple determinations during hospitalization could add prognostic information for this population<sup>11</sup>. There is also a controversy over the intensive treatment of HG; some publications show benefits, whereas others do not<sup>14-16</sup>.</p>
      <p>Finally, little has been described on the mechanisms involved in the increased mortality related to HG during AMI, with most of the studies correlating HG with only one of the several variables that may explain the elevation in blood glucose levels. Thus, the main objective of this study is to analyze simultaneously, in the same population, blood glucose levels and biochemical markers related to the stress hormone system, glucose and lipid metabolism, coagulation, inflammation, and myocardial necrosis. Part of this study has been published in a congress as an abstract<sup>17</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Patients</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A total of 80 patients with AMI (mean age of 60.5 years; 81% males) admitted in a coronary care unit of a tertiary-care hospital were prospectively included.</p>
      <p>Inclusion criteria: patients with AMI with or without ST-segment elevation with an interval of 24-48 h between the beginning of pain and inclusion in the study.</p>
      <p>Exclusion criteria: patients with age &lt; 21 or &gt; 80 years; previous use of corticosteroids; known inflammatory disease; chronic renal failure (creatinine clearance <underline>&lt;</underline> 60 mL/min); severe neurological disease; hypo- or hyperthyroidism; hemodynamic instability (modified Forester &gt; IIa)<sup>18</sup>; known hematological disease; previous use of anticoagulant drugs; use of fibrinolytic agents during the event studied; or comorbidity with a life expectancy &lt; 6 months.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Laboratory assessments</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Blood samples were collected under fasting conditions, 24-48 h prior to the beginning of pain, and the following parameters (and respective reference values) were assessed: glucose (70-100 mg/dL); cortisol (7.3-24.7 &#181;g / dL); norepinephrine (40-268 pg/mL); HbA1c (&lt; 6.1%); insulin (2.3-26.4 &#181;U/mL); nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA) (0.1-0.6 mEq/L); coagulation factor VII (50-150%); and high-sensitivity C reactive protein (hsPCR) (&lt; 5 mg/L). In addition, levels of lipids and myocardial necrosis markers were determined according to the routine protocol for patients with AMI, and the reference values are as follows: total cholesterol (&lt; 200 mg/dL); low-density lipoprotein (LDL) (&lt; 100 mg/dL); high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (&gt; 40 mg/dL for men and &gt; 50 mg/dL for women); very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) (no reference value); triglycerides (&lt; 150 mg/dL); MB fraction of creatine phosphokinase (CK-MB) (&lt; 4 ng/mL); and troponin I (&lt; 0.1 ng/mL).</p>
      <p>Minimally-modified electronegative LDL [LDL (-)], anti-LDL(-) antibody, plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1), and fibrinogen have no reference values, and their levels were compared between the groups with and without hyperglycemia.</p>
      <p>Glucose, total cholesterol, HDL, LDL and triglycerides levels were determined using the enzymatic method in a Cobas Integra 700 analyzer (Roche, Germany). hsCRP was measured using immunoturbidimetric essay (Roche). HbA1c levels were determined in a Hitachi 902 analyzer (Roche). VLDL was calculated. Cortisol and insulin levels were analyzed using AutoDELFIA kits (PerdinElmer, Finland). Norepinephrine levels were measured using high-performance liquid chromatography. LDL (-) and anti-LDL (-) antibodies were determined using ELISA<sup>19</sup>. For NEFA determination, the HR Series NEFA C kit (Wako, Japan) was used. Coagulation factor VII levels were determined using the AMAX kit (Trinity, USA). The LINCOplex Human Disease Panel I was used for simultaneous determinations of adiponectin and PAI-1; SINGLEplex Human Cardiovascular Disease (LINCO, USA) was used to determine fibrinogen levels. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Definitions</bold>
      </p>
      <p>DM: known DM, under treatment with diet, oral hypoglycemic agents, or insulin.</p>
      <p>AMI: typical rise and gradual fall (troponin), or more rapid rise and fall (CK-MB) of biochemical markers of myocardial necrosis with at least one of the following: ischemic symptoms, development of pathologic Q waves on electrocardiogram, ECG changes indicative of ischemia (ST-segment elevation or depression), or coronary artery intervention<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Hyperglycemia: blood glucose <underline>&gt;</underline> 108 mg/dL (median blood glucose in our sample). Blood glucose levels <underline>&gt;</underline> 108 mg/dL have already been demonstrated to be associated with higher mortality in intensive care unit patients<sup>21</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Statistical analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Continuous variables are presented as means (&#177; SD) or medians (25-75% percentiles), and categorical variables, as numbers (proportions).</p>
      <p>Univariate analysis: nonlinear regression, chi square and Kruskal Wallis tests were used when indicated.</p>
      <p>Multivariate analysis: the original values of continuous variables were converted into degrees of relevance using the fuzzy logic principles. Thus, with the ROC curve, sensitivity and specificity values of variables for blood glucose <underline>&gt;</underline> 108 mg/dL were calculated. Next, cohort values of variables were selected according to the highest sum and highest product of sensitivity and specificity. The degrees of relevance for sum and product were derived from the quotient of the variable value by these cohort values.</p>
      <p>Thus, the variables in their original groups can be associated with seven domains:</p>
      <p>1 - Stress hormone system: cortisol and norepinephrine.</p>
      <p>2 - Glucose metabolism: HbA1c and insulin.</p>
      <p>3 - Lipoproteins: total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, LDL (-), anti-LDL (-) antibody, adiponectin.</p>
      <p>4 - Glycerides: triglycerides, VLDL (since triglycerides are its major component), and NEFA.</p>
      <p>5 - Coagulation: coagulation factor VII, PAI-1, and fibrinogen.</p>
      <p>6 - Inflammation: hsCRP.</p>
      <p>7 - Myocardial necrosis: CK-MB and troponin.</p>
      <p>Weighted means were created based on fuzzy values for the sum and product of sensitivity and specificity. Then, using the ROC curve again, the cut-off value for the seven groups of variables was selected, and these groups were categorized. </p>
      <p>Univariate analyses were carried out using the chi square test, and multivariate analysis, using binominal logistic regression.</p>
      <p>Differences were considered statistically significant when p &lt; 0.05. Data were analyzed using the SPSS statistical program, version 19.0 for Windows.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Ethical considerations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The study protocol was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee, according to the Declaration of Helsinki, and participants gave written informed consent.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Patients' characteristics</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Baseline population characteristics, medications and invasive therapy used during hospitalization are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_4902tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>. There is a majority of male patients, as is common in AMI, despite a growing increase of women with acute coronary syndrome. The incidence of risk factors is similar to that reported in the literature. Since our hospital is a tertiary-care hospital, we have a high number of patients with ST-segment elevation AMI. According to our institutional protocol, glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors are recommended as a second antiplatelet agent in combination with acetylsalicylic acid, and clopidogrel is given only in the follow-up for those undergoing medical therapy or after coronary angioplasty. Thus, if we add the use of clopidogrel to glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors, we have 96.3% of patients with two antiplatelet agents. Only 16.3% of patients underwent primary angioplasty, since 30% of AMI had ST-segment elevation; thus the procedure was not indicated for the vast majority of them.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_4902tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Correlation between blood glucose levels and the variables studied - univariate analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>As shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_4902tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>, the variables that showed a statistically significant correlation with blood glucose levels in the univariate analysis were: HbA1c, insulin, LDL, HDL, adiponectin, triglycerides, VLDL, NEFA, and fibrinogen. The positive correlation between blood glucose levels and insulin suggests increased insulin resistance. In fact, the median HOMA-IR<sup>22</sup> was 2.4 (1.1 - 4.5).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_4902tab02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The correlation between hyperglycemia and the seven domains (stress hormone system, glucose metabolism, lipoproteins, glycerides, coagulation, inflammation, and myocardial necrosis) is shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_4902tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>. There was a positive and significant correlation between hyperglycemia and glucose metabolism and myocardial necrosis, and a negative and significant correlation with lipoproteins.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_4902tab03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Correlation between blood glucose levels and the variables studied - multivariate analysis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the multivariate analysis including the seven domains of variables, only glucose metabolism and myocardial necrosis maintained a significant and independent correlation with hyperglycemia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_4902tab04-body2">Table 4</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_4902tab04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>In order to analyze the influence of history of DM in the results, a second adjusted model including the seven domains was developed, however only with patients without DM. As shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_4902tab05-body2">Table 5</xref>, the results remained unchanged.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_4902tab05-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt05-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Finally, a third model adjusted to age, gender and clinical variables associated with blood glucose levels (history of DM, hypertension and dyslipidemia) was developed. In this model (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop_4902tab06-body2">Table 6</xref>), three variables showed a significant and independent correlation with hyperglycemia: glucose metabolism, myocardial necrosis and history of DM. This means that during the acute phase of AMI there is a group of patients without known DM who already present with underdiagnosed impaired glucose metabolism.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop_4902tab06-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gt06-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>When only patients without known DM are analyzed, and taking into consideration the HbA1c classification recently published by the American Diabetes Association<sup>23</sup>, we found that 3.6% of patients were diabetics (HbA1c <underline>&gt;</underline> 6.5%), 28.6% had glucose intolerance (HbA1c &gt; 5.7% and &lt; 6.4%), and 67.8% were normal (HbA1c <underline>&lt;</underline> 5.6%). There was a significant difference between blood glucose levels during the acute phase of AMI and the three HbA1c classes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop_4902fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop_4902fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-05-0404-00025-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>No significant correlation was observed between blood glucose levels and mortality or adverse cardiac events (refractory ischemia, reinfarction, cardiogenic shock, and death), which was a secondary analysis. However, the small number of patients included in the study did not allow any conclusion regarding this issue.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The present study comprises two main findings. First, hyperglycemia during the acute phase of AMI, regardless of a previous history of DM, is associated with variables related to glucose metabolism (Hba1c and insulin), thus suggesting that hyperglycemia, initially considered stress-derived, may result from glucose intolerance or DM not diagnosed until AMI. The second important finding is that blood glucose levels are significantly correlated with the AMI extension, as represented by myocardial necrosis markers (CK-MB and troponin). </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Hyperglycemia and underdiagnosed glucose intolerance/DM</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The fact that a correlation between blood glucose levels and HbA1c was initially found seems to be evident. However, HbA1c represents the mean blood glucose level in the past two months and is minimally affected by the acute hyperglycemia<sup>24</sup>. If the hyperglycemia observed in the initial phase of AMI were merely a response to acute stress, it would have no correlation with glucose metabolism and Hba1c in non-diabetic patients. Thus, one of the probable causes of hyperglycemia in AMI is previously undiagnosed dysglycemia. </p>
      <p>Tenerz et al<sup>25</sup> analyzed patients with AMI and no previous diagnosis of DM, and reported that routine tests, such as oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), or blood glucose determination alone 60 min after the intake of 75g of glucose at the moment of hospital discharge can predict the diagnosis of glucose intolerance within 3 months. Their study corroborates our finding that hyperglycemia during AMI may be associated with a chronic impairment of the glucose metabolism.</p>
      <p> Since the 1980's, the role of HbA1c as a prognostic marker in AMI has been studied<sup>26-30</sup>. In the OPTIMAAL study, HbA1c was determined in 2,841 patients with AMI and heart failure. Among these patients, 495 (17%) reported a history of DM. Of the patients without history of DM, increased HbA1c levels correlated with mortality: 13% for patients with HbA1c &lt; 4.95%; 17% for patients with HbA1c between 4.9% and 5.1%, and 22% for patients with HbA1c &gt; 5.1% (p = 0.02)<sup>31</sup>. Another study, which also evaluated a population with AMI without history of DM, confirmed DM in 27% of patients, glucose intolerance in 39%, and normal glucose metabolism in 34%<sup>32</sup>. There was no standardization for the diagnosis of abnormal HbA1c levels until 2010, and each author used different cohort values. In the present study, we applied the American Diabetes Association criterion<sup>23</sup> and found 32.2% of patients with impaired glucose metabolism. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Hyperglycemia and insulin resistance</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Insulin, another component of the glucose metabolism, significantly correlated with blood glucose levels, thus suggesting increased insulin resistance, which was demonstrated by the HOMA-IR elevation. This finding is similar to those of Choi et al<sup>33</sup>, who demonstrated a significant correlation of glucose tolerance and DM with insulin resistance in patients with AMI. However, this increased insulin resistance may be chronic or related to the acute disease. </p>
      <p> In an assessment of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome in patients with AMI without known DM, blood glucose, insulin (on the 2<sup>nd</sup> day, 5<sup>th</sup> day and three months after AMI), HbA1c and OGTT levels (five days and three months after AMI) were determined<sup>25</sup>. Significant elevation of HOMA-IR on the 2<sup>nd</sup> in relation to the 5<sup>th</sup> day (p &lt; 0.001) was observed; however, no changes were observed between the 5<sup>th</sup> day and three months. There was a correlation between increased insulin resistance and diabetic patients (86%), those with glucose intolerance (65%), and patients with normal blood glucose (52%), according to the OGTT at three months (p &lt;? 0.004). This study suggests that the patients who were not aware of having DM or glucose intolerance had higher insulin resistance than patients with normal blood glucose. However, in the first two days, an increase in HOMA-IR occurred, which may be related to the acute phase, associated with stress hormones. This means that the two mechanisms are not mutually exclusive.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Hyperglycemia and myocardial necrosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>AMI extent, as represented by myocardial necrosis markers, was significant and independently related to hyperglycemia in the present study. This relationship had already been described by other authors<sup>34-36</sup>. An association between high blood glucose levels and different variables associated with AMI size, including a high Killip class, low ejection fraction, and increased levels of CPK, CPK-MB, troponin I, pro-BNP and lactic acid was found<sup>36</sup>. The use of magnetic resonance imaging for the determination of the AMI size revealed a significant correlation between the blood glucose levels at admission and AMI extent, regardless of previous changes in glucose metabolism (HbA1c) or necrosis markers<sup>37</sup>.</p>
      <p>The precise mechanism that explains the impact of hyperglycemia on the AMI extent is not fully understood, but a significant correlation between hyperglycemia and microcirculation abnormalities has already been demonstrated<sup>38</sup>. Clinical studies in patients with AMI undergoing recanalization therapy suggest that hyperglycemia is associated with impaired microvascular function, the so-called no-reflow phenomenon<sup>39</sup>. In addition, there is a clear association between hyperglycemia and heart failure and cardiogenic shock<sup>4,5</sup>, that could be explained by a larger AMI size. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study limitations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The major limitation of the present study is the fact that not all variables which significantly correlate with hyperglycemia in different publications could be analyzed in a single study, such as the present one. However, an extensive literature review was carried out to minimize this limitation, and the authors sought to include the variables with more robust evidence. Another limitation was the inclusion of diabetic patients, which was partially corrected by the construction of a statistical model including history of DM and another pre-specified analysis only for non-diabetic patients. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We concluded that glucose metabolism and myocardial necrosis markers were the best predictors of hyperglycemia in patients with AMI, which suggests a previous undiagnosed impaired glucose metabolism. Thus, these findings corroborate the importance of considering hyperglycemia during the acute phase of AMI as an indicator of glucose intolerance or previous DM. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgements</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was financially supported by <italic>Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</italic> (Fapesp) and includes the major results of the doctoral thesis defended at the School of Medicine, University of S&#227;o Paulo. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by FAPESP.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by Renata Teixeira Ladeira, from Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) - Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
