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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">h4Dt8YzZcMFPcDrSbcgMdHs</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2013000100015</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(13)10000100015</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2013000100015</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Entendendo a disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica assintom&#225;tica na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Jorge</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>100</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>94</fpage>
      <lpage>101</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Entendendo a disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica assintom&#225;tica na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita<sup>I,II</sup>; Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge<sup>I</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; ecocardiografia; diagn&#243;stico por imagem; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca diast&#243;lica; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca sist&#243;lica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O conceito contempor&#226;neo da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) est&#225; fundamentado no <italic>continuum </italic>cardiovascular, que tem seu in&#237;cio na presen&#231;a de fatores de risco, seguido de mudan&#231;as assintom&#225;ticas na estrutura e fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e que evolui para as formas sintom&#225;ticas e finalmente para o est&#225;gio final (IC refrat&#225;ria)<sup>1</sup>. A presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, seja ela sist&#243;lica ou diast&#243;lica assintom&#225;tica, tem uma elevada preval&#234;ncia na popula&#231;&#227;o adulta com mais de 45 anos e &#233; uma etapa em que o paciente pode evoluir para a forma cl&#237;nica de IC; essa transi&#231;&#227;o aumenta em cinco vezes a mortalidade<sup>2</sup>. A identifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca assintom&#225;tica permitiria que interven&#231;&#245;es farmacol&#243;gicas ou n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gicas pudessem regredir as anormalidades funcionais e estruturais do cora&#231;&#227;o retardando o in&#237;cio da IC sintom&#225;tica. Esse conceito de que a IC apresenta est&#225;gios evolutivos e &#233;, portanto, uma condi&#231;&#227;o que possa ser pass&#237;vel de preven&#231;&#227;o foi proposto pelo American College of Cardiology (ACC) e o American Heart Association (AHA)<sup>3</sup> e incorporada pelas Diretrizes de IC cr&#244;nica da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia<sup>4</sup>. </p>
    <p>A IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o normal (ICFEN) &#233; hoje uma nova epidemia que acomete pacientes idosos e hipertensos e j&#225; representa mais de 50% dos pacientes internados por IC. O aparecimento da ICFEN &#233; precedido por anormalidades diast&#243;licas como alentencimento do relaxamento e altera&#231;&#245;es das press&#245;es de enchimento do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) e estruturais - hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (HVE) e aumento do volume do &#225;trio esquerdo (VAE). Dessa forma, &#233; importante a detec&#231;&#227;o dessas anormalidades em uma fase pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica<sup>2</sup>. </p>
    <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica assintom&#225;tica &#233; facilmente reconhecida pelo cl&#237;nico [pelo m&#233;dico cl&#237;nico geral?], por meio de um m&#233;todo de cardioimagem, pela presen&#231;a de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (Feve) menor que 50%. A caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica (DD) assintom&#225;tica &#233; feita por uma tr&#237;ade formada por aus&#234;ncia de sintomas de IC, evid&#234;ncias de DD e Feve <underline>&gt;</underline> 50% e sua presen&#231;a &#233; marcador para o aparecimento de IC sintom&#225;tica e redu&#231;&#227;o da expectativa de vida<sup>5</sup>. Todavia, a DD ainda &#233; pouco valorizada na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica di&#225;ria<sup>5</sup>, e sua detec&#231;&#227;o &#233; um processo complexo e exige m&#250;ltiplas medidas para sua correta identifica&#231;&#227;o, sendo o m&#233;todo invasivo o padr&#227;o-ouro<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>Atualmente, o m&#233;todo invasivo para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da DD &#233; substitu&#237;do por t&#233;cnicas modernas de ecodopplercardiografia utilizando o Doppler tecidual (EDT)<sup>7</sup> e tamb&#233;m com o emprego da dosagem dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos (PN)<sup>8</sup>. A avalia&#231;&#227;o pelo ecodopplercardiograma permite estratificar o grau da DD, sua gravidade e avaliar o impacto de medidas terap&#234;uticas e do progn&#243;stico<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os objetivos desta revis&#227;o s&#227;o apresentar os fundamentos epidemiol&#243;gicos do impacto cl&#237;nico da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica assintom&#225;tica (est&#225;gio B de IC), os recentes avan&#231;os fisiopatol&#243;gicos e os modernos m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos utilizados na sua caracteriza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Epidemiologia e estadiamento da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estadiamento da popula&#231;&#227;o em risco para o desenvolvimento de IC permite melhor entendimento do impacto progn&#243;stico da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e o estabelecimento de medidas preventivas que impe&#231;am o seu aparecimento ou retardem a sua evolu&#231;&#227;o para est&#225;gios mais avan&#231;ados (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a15fig01">Figura 1</xref>)<sup>2</sup>. </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a15fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0094-00015-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Est&#225;gio A</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O est&#225;gio A pode ser definido pela presen&#231;a de fatores de risco modific&#225;veis para o desenvolvimento de IC e sem a presen&#231;a de anormalidades card&#237;acas estruturais ou funcionais. Os fatores de risco que devem ser considerados s&#227;o aqueles bem estabelecidos em grandes estudos longitudinais como preditores de IC - hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabetes, obesidade e doen&#231;a coronariana<sup>1</sup>. Em nosso meio, devemos considerar tamb&#233;m o alcoolismo e a doen&#231;a de Chagas<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Est&#225;gio B</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O est&#225;gio B &#233; caracterizado pela presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais (remodelamento, fibrose e valvulopatias) e de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica ou sist&#243;lica assintom&#225;tica que pode ser identificada por anormalidades eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas e ecodopplercardiogr&#225;ficas na aus&#234;ncia de sinais ou sintomas de IC<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Atualmente para melhor identificar de forma objetiva os indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos, devemos utilizar a avalia&#231;&#227;o de sua capacidade funcional, sendo considerados assintom&#225;ticos aqueles capazes de desempenhar atividades que requeiram <underline>&gt;</underline> 7 METs de capacidade de exerc&#237;cio sem apresentar limita&#231;&#245;es por fadiga ou dispneia<sup>9</sup>. Em pacientes idosos que apresentam baixo n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica, a realiza&#231;&#227;o do teste de caminhada de 6 minutos ou o teste de esfor&#231;o com pico de consumo de oxig&#234;nio (VO<sub>2</sub> m&#225;x.) pode ser &#250;til para confirmar a presen&#231;a de DD assintom&#225;tica<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Est&#225;gio C</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No est&#225;gio C ocorre o aparecimento de sintomas ou sinais de IC, sendo as manifesta&#231;&#245;es mais precoces a dispneia de esfor&#231;o e a fadiga (capacidade ao exerc&#237;cio entre 2 e 7 METs)<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Est&#225;gio D</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O est&#225;gio D ou est&#225;gio final seriam os pacientes portadores de IC refrat&#225;ria e com severa limita&#231;&#227;o ao exerc&#237;cio (&lt; 2 METs), al&#233;m de m&#250;ltiplas interna&#231;&#245;es por descompensa&#231;&#227;o de IC<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>O pioneiro estudo de Ammar e cols.<sup>2</sup> envolvendo 2.029 indiv&#237;duos selecionados de modo randomizado na comunidade (idade &gt; 45 anos) testou esse conceito de estadiamento e mostrou que 32% dos pacientes eram saud&#225;veis, ou seja, sem fatores de risco para IC (est&#225;gio 0), 22% estariam no est&#225;gio A, 34% no est&#225;gio B e 12% eram sintom&#225;ticos (est&#225;gio C e D). Esse estudo mostrou a associa&#231;&#227;o entre os diferentes est&#225;gios de IC com o aumento dos n&#237;veis de BNP e da mortalidade em cinco anos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a15fig02">Figura 2</xref>)<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a15fig02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0094-00015-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fatores de Risco e disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Diferentes estudos de interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica na ICFEN<sup>10-13</sup> n&#227;o apresentaram efeitos sobre a redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade, podendo significar que as interven&#231;&#245;es deveriam estar direcionadas nas fases iniciais do estadiamento da ICFEN, pois existem evid&#234;ncias cl&#237;nico-epidemiol&#243;gicas de que a interven&#231;&#227;o sobre os quatro principais fatores de risco envolvidos (diabetes, hipertens&#227;o, obesidade e doen&#231;a coronariana) possam interferir no <italic>continuum </italic>cardiovascular associado a ICFEN<sup>1,14</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica &#233; frequente a presen&#231;a de mais de um desses fatores associados, sendo importante ressaltar que o envelhecimento agrava as anormalidades diast&#243;licas na presen&#231;a de fatores de risco cardiovasculares<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Diabetes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica &#233; observada em 40% dos pacientes com diabetes e se correlaciona com inadequado controle glic&#234;mico<sup>15</sup>. M&#250;ltiplos mecanismos est&#227;o envolvidos na DD como anormalidades no metabolismo da adenosina trifosfato (ATP), piora do transporte de c&#225;lcio, ac&#250;mulo intersticial de produtos finais da glica&#231;&#227;o avan&#231;ada, desequil&#237;brio na s&#237;ntese e degrada&#231;&#227;o do col&#225;geno, fun&#231;&#227;o microvascular anormal, atividade do sistema renina angiotensina card&#237;aco, diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de adiponectina e altera&#231;&#245;es no metabolismo dos &#225;cidos graxos livres e glicose<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo de Framingham foi o primeiro a demonstrar um aumento do risco para IC em pacientes diab&#233;ticos. A incid&#234;ncia de IC em homens e mulheres foi de 2 a 5 vezes maior naqueles com diabetes do que em n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos<sup>16</sup>. A DD do VE &#233; apontada como o achado inicial da cardiomiopatia diab&#233;tica. Um estudo envolvendo 86 pacientes jovens com diabetes tipo 2 (m&#233;dia de idade de 43 anos), sem hipertens&#227;o arterial e com excelente controle da glicemia (hemoglobina glicada (HbA1c) m&#233;dia de 6,5 mg/dl) mostrou a presen&#231;a de DD assintom&#225;tica em mais de 40% desses pacientes<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>O <italic>Strong Heart Study</italic><sup>18</sup>, que estudou 2.411 pacientes, observou uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre diabetes tipo 2 e relaxamento anormal do VE independentemente de idade, press&#227;o arterial, massa do VE, e fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE. </p>
    <p>Os achados de DD em portadores de diabetes &#233; um forte marcador para progress&#227;o para os est&#225;gios sintom&#225;ticos de IC, e o controle glic&#234;mico e tratamento de fatores de risco associados est&#227;o fortemente recomendados nesses pacientes<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hipertens&#227;o arterial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica &#233; o fator de risco mais comum para IC. O risco de desenvolver IC em pacientes hipertensos quando comparados aos n&#227;o hipertensos &#233; cerca de tr&#234;s vezes mais elevado<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>Hipertens&#227;o induz a um espessamento da parede do VE como tentativa de normalizar o estresse da parede. Esse processo resulta em aumento da massa do VE denominado hipertrofia conc&#234;ntrica, que &#233; definido por um aumento da espessura da parede sem mudan&#231;as na forma do VE<sup>20</sup>. </p>
    <p>Muitos pacientes hipertensos em est&#225;gio B t&#234;m evid&#234;ncia de HVE ao ecocardiograma, ocasionando altera&#231;&#245;es na curva volume-press&#227;o, que diminui o gradiente de press&#227;o &#225;trio ventricular e reduz o enchimento do VE<sup>20</sup>. Nesses pacientes a HVE &#233; relacionada a mudan&#231;as na matriz extracelular e modifica&#231;&#245;es no equil&#237;brio das metaloproteinases da matriz (MMPs), com acumulo de col&#225;geno no espa&#231;o extracelular<sup>21</sup>. A sobrecarga de press&#227;o observada nesses pacientes ativa o sistema intracard&#237;aco renina angiotensina aldosterona (SRAA) resultando em crescimento do fibroblasto card&#237;aco e aumento do col&#225;geno levando a redu&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia ventricula<sup>22,23</sup>. </p>
    <p>O controle da press&#227;o arterial &#233; capaz de reduzir a hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica em hipertensos e diferentes hipotensores apresentam maior ou menor grau de redu&#231;&#227;o da HVE nos pacientes portadores de hipertens&#227;o arterial<sup>24</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Obesidade</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Obesidade tem sido considerada uma condi&#231;&#227;o de sobrecarga de volume cr&#244;nica porque o cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; obrigado a bombear sangue atrav&#233;s de um grande dep&#243;sito de tecido adiposo. Tamb&#233;m est&#225; associada a um conjunto de altera&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares mediadas por altera&#231;&#245;es neuro-hormonais, hemodin&#226;micas e inflamat&#243;rias que levam a mudan&#231;as estruturais e funcionais card&#237;acas<sup>25</sup>. </p>
    <p>A gordura visceral, metabolicamente ativa, pode interferir no aumento da massa do VE pela secre&#231;&#227;o de uma s&#233;rie de mol&#233;culas bioativas como a angiotensina II e citoquinas inflamat&#243;rias (adiponectina)<sup>25</sup>. Hiperinsulinemia e aumento da resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, que est&#227;o relacionadas &#224; obesidade, induzem a hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica por meio do efeito estimulador do crescimento celular provocado pela insulina e ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica. </p>
    <p>No estudo Mesa<sup>25</sup>, a massa do VE e o volume diast&#243;lico final foram associados positivamente com obesidade em ambos os sexos ap&#243;s ajuste para outros fatores de risco, e conseguiu demonstrar que a obesidade est&#225; ligada ao remodelamento conc&#234;ntrico do VE sem diminui&#231;&#227;o da Feve.</p>
    <p>A apneia obstrutiva do sono associada &#224; obesidade, pode contribuir tamb&#233;m para a HVE pela exacerba&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o noturna, aumento do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico e hipoxemia cr&#244;nica<sup>25</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica coronariana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Isquemia mioc&#225;rdica aguda ou cr&#244;nica pode levar a DD por piora do sequestro de c&#225;lcio durante o processo ativo de relaxamento ventricular. Isquemia mioc&#225;rdica tamb&#233;m piora a rigidez passiva devido a forma&#231;&#227;o de fibrose<sup>26</sup>.</p>
    <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e DD &#233; uma situa&#231;&#227;o comum na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, e o tratamento da isquemia &#233; capaz de melhorar as altera&#231;&#245;es na fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, reduzindo assim a chance de desenvolver IC nesses pacientes<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fisiopatologia da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca do VE depende principalmente de duas grandes camadas mioc&#225;rdicas. As fibras da parede m&#233;dia, que s&#227;o orientadas de modo circunferencial, e as fibras subendoc&#225;rdicas e epic&#225;rdicas, que s&#227;o alinhadas longitudinalmente da ponta para base e t&#234;m uma disposi&#231;&#227;o em dupla h&#233;lice (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a15fig03">Figura 3</xref>). Essa distribui&#231;&#227;o permite o mecanismo de tor&#231;&#227;o e destor&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo durante a s&#237;stole e di&#225;stole e, dessa forma, levando a uma interdepend&#234;ncia entre as fases do ciclo card&#237;aco<sup>27,28</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a15fig03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0094-00015-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Di&#225;stole &#233; a fase do ciclo card&#237;aco durante a qual o mioc&#225;rdio relaxa e os ventr&#237;culos dilatam permitindo que suas c&#226;maras se encham de sangue com press&#245;es de enchimento adequadas (12 mmHg em repouso e at&#233; 15 mmHg durante o exerc&#237;cio). O processo mec&#226;nico da di&#225;stole pode ser dividido em uma fase ativa chamada relaxamento e uma passiva chamada rigidez, e o enchimento ventricular em sua fase inicial, que corresponde a 70% do processo, &#233; feito pelo fen&#244;meno de suc&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica que depende do relaxamento<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>O relaxamento ventricular &#233; um processo com gasto energ&#233;tico regulado principalmente por meio da bomba de c&#225;lcio do ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico (Serca). Redu&#231;&#245;es dos n&#237;veis de atividade da Serca podem reduzir a remo&#231;&#227;o do c&#225;lcio do citosol, alentecendo o relaxamento ventricular. A isquemia mioc&#225;rdica &#233; o principal determinante para o alentecimento do relaxamento por meio da diminui&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de ATP<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>O aumento da tens&#227;o em repouso (F passivo - for&#231;a passiva do cardiomi&#243;cito em repouso) dos cardiomi&#243;citos &#233; outro importante achado relacionado &#224; presen&#231;a de DD. Aumento do F passivo dos cardiomi&#243;citos tem sido atribu&#237;do &#224; prote&#237;na gigante do citoesqueleto chamada titina, que pode ser vista como mola bidirecional que se contrai no in&#237;cio do relaxamento e oferece resist&#234;ncia da distens&#227;o ventricular ao final da di&#225;stole, determinando assim a rigidez ventricular e a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<sup>30</sup>. A titina &#233; expressa em duas isoformas: a N2B (forma mais r&#237;gida) e N2BA (forma mais complacente); e a modula&#231;&#227;o do F passivo pode ocorrer por meio de mudan&#231;as da express&#227;o dessas isoformas e do seu estado de fosforila&#231;&#227;o. Pacientes com ICFEN, por exemplo, apresentam uma rela&#231;&#227;o N2BA/N2B menor do que a observada em pacientes com IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida (ICFER), e essa maior express&#227;o da isoforma N2B poderia explicar o aumento da rigidez ventricular (F passivo) presente na disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<sup>30</sup>.</p>
    <p>Mudan&#231;as na estrutura da matriz extracelular promovem aumento da rigidez do VE. Altera&#231;&#245;es observadas no col&#225;geno em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; quantidade, geometria, distribui&#231;&#227;o, forma&#231;&#227;o de pontes cruzadas com produtos finais da glica&#231;&#227;o e taxas de col&#225;geno tipo I e III levam a disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<sup>31,32</sup>. Modifica&#231;&#245;es nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de enzimas proteol&#237;ticas como as MMPs que controlam a degrada&#231;&#227;o do col&#225;geno tamb&#233;m desempenham importante papel no desenvolvimento da rigidez ventricular<sup>15</sup>. </p>
    <p>A DD incide ent&#227;o nas anormalidades do relaxamento e/ou na rigidez da c&#226;mara ventricular que ir&#225; interferir com o enchimento ventricular esquerdo fazendo com que a contra&#231;&#227;o atrial tenha importante papel no enchimento ventricular com a progress&#227;o da DD. Nas formas mais avan&#231;adas de DD, ocorre aumento da press&#227;o m&#233;dia atrial esquerda, hipertens&#227;o venocapilar pulmonar, eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar e redu&#231;&#227;o da reserva diast&#243;lica e que s&#227;o causadas principalmente por mudan&#231;as na regula&#231;&#227;o do c&#225;lcio, das prote&#237;nas do citoesqueleto (titina), da matriz extracelular, hipertrofia dos mi&#243;citos e da fibrose intersticia<sup>33,34</sup>.</p>
    <p>A hiperativa&#231;&#227;o do SRAA contribui para a DD n&#227;o somente por meio do desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o arterial, mas tamb&#233;m pela piora do relaxamento ventricular, hipertrofia ventricular, fibrose e remodelamento vascula<sup>35,36</sup>. </p>
    <p>A fun&#231;&#227;o vascular arterial colabora de forma importante para as anormalidades diast&#243;licas. Altera&#231;&#245;es na parede vascular associadas ao envelhecimento e a hipertens&#227;o arterial interferem com a p&#243;s-carga e com a reflex&#227;o da propaga&#231;&#227;o das ondas na parede arterial, aumentando a imped&#226;ncia do VE, ocasionando alentecimento do relaxamento e hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>Inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose desempenham papel importante no desenvolvimento de altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais card&#237;acas que fazem progredir o estadiamento da IC do est&#225;gio A para o B. No mioc&#225;rdio, a inflama&#231;&#227;o perivascular precede a fibrose reativa, que &#233; uma determinante-chave de progn&#243;stico adverso e que tem efeito no transporte de oxig&#234;nio no mioc&#225;rdio, na rigidez tecidual e como fator de risco para arritmias card&#237;acas. A maior consequ&#234;ncia da resposta fibroinflamat&#243;ria &#233; a disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, que pode ser definida pelo ecodopplercardiograma. Por&#233;m, por causa do grande n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos em est&#225;gio B de IC, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecodopplercardiograma se torna um procedimento caro e de dif&#237;cil realiza&#231;&#227;o na pr&#225;tica di&#225;ria. Nesses pacientes, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de marcadores s&#233;ricos de inflama&#231;&#227;o que refletem mudan&#231;as estruturais e histopatol&#243;gicas no cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; apontada como nova op&#231;&#227;o<sup>37</sup>.</p>
    <p>Desse modo, a avalia&#231;&#227;o contempor&#226;nea da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica envolve a integra&#231;&#227;o desses conceitos fisiopatol&#243;gicos com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de medidas que possam refletir anormalidades do processo de relaxamento ativo (consumo de ATP) e a rigidez passiva. Essa divis&#227;o &#233; arbitr&#225;ria porque estruturas e processos que se alteram no relaxamento podem tamb&#233;m resultar em anormalidades na rigidez. Contudo, a divis&#227;o &#233; pragm&#225;tica e oferece uma base racional para o entendimento dos m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos que avaliam a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Como diagnosticar a disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O cardiologista cl&#237;nico frequentemente utiliza o ecodopplercardiograma para avaliar pacientes hipertensos, diab&#233;ticos e portadores de doen&#231;a coronariana, sendo comum o achado de anormalidades diast&#243;licas isoladas em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos. Portanto &#233; fundamental o entendimento das novas t&#233;cnicas ecodopplercardiogr&#225;ficas como o eco Doppler tecidual (EDT) e o <italic>Speckle Tracking</italic> que permitem uma quantifica&#231;&#227;o mais completa da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, bem como os novos biomarcadores que avaliam as press&#245;es de enchimento do VE, a presen&#231;a de inflama&#231;&#227;o e fibrose que atualmente est&#227;o em uso para identificar a presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Biomarcadores</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Biomarcadores como os pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos (PN) s&#227;o importantes para o diagn&#243;stico e progn&#243;stico da IC, pois s&#227;o capazes de avaliar de modo r&#225;pido a disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE sendo uma ferramenta &#250;til principalmente quando existe dificuldade de acesso ao ecocardiograma<sup>38</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para o diagn&#243;stico de DD n&#227;o existe ainda estabelecido um valor de corte de PN bem institu&#237;do. Ammar e cols.<sup>2</sup> observou em 2.029 pacientes valores crescentes de pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos tipo B (BNP) conforme a progress&#227;o da DD, todavia sem definir o ponto ideal para caracterizar esses pacientes na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica<sup>2</sup>. </p>
    <p>Uma compara&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de BNP e dados do ecodopplercardiograma foram realizados em 294 pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE normal ou anormal. Foi observado que pacientes com DD tinham uma concentra&#231;&#227;o media do BNP de 286 &#177; 31 pg/mL enquanto indiv&#237;duos normais tinham uma concentra&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia de 33 &#177; 3 pg/mL. Neste estudo, pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica alterada eram subdivididos em pacientes com piora do relaxamento, pseudonormal e padr&#227;o restritivo com e sem sintomas de IC, e foi mostrado que BNP era muito acurado em predizer o padr&#227;o restritivo com &#225;rea sob a curva ROC de 0,98 (IC95% 0,95-0,97; p &lt; 0,001). Pacientes que apresentavam sintomas de IC tinham valores mais elevados de BNP do que os pacientes assintom&#225;ticos<sup>39</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em outro estudo realizado com 135 pacientes assintom&#225;ticos com hipertens&#227;o arterial, n&#237;veis de BNP foram comparados com &#237;ndices ecodopplercardiogr&#225;ficos de DD que inclu&#237;am massa do VE indexada, rela&#231;&#227;o E/A e tempo de relaxamento isovolum&#233;trico. Neste estudo, a curva ROC revelou uma &#225;rea sobre a curva (AUC) de 0,904 (p &lt; 0,01) utilizando um valor de corte maior que 40 pg/mL com uma especificidade de 92% e uma sensibilidade de 79% para o BNP diagnosticar aumento das press&#245;es diast&#243;licas do VE<sup>40</sup>. </p>
    <p>Biomarcadores de fibrose e inflama&#231;&#227;o trazem novas expectativas para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de desenvolver ICFEN bem como para o seu diagn&#243;stico. Um recente estudo observou que ICFEN pode estar associada ao aumento de biomarcadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o como interleucina 6 (IL 6), interleucina 8 (IL 8) e prote&#237;na quimiot&#225;tica de mon&#243;citos 1 (MCP1) e do metabolismo do col&#225;geno como o carboxiterminal telopept&#237;deo do col&#225;geno 1 (CITP), metaloproteinase da matriz 2 (MMP2) e metaloproteinase da matriz 9 (MMP9)<sup>41</sup>. Em outro estudo, um valor de corte de 1.585 ng/mL de MMP2 mostrou uma sensibilidade de 91% e uma especificidade de 76% para predizer ICFEN<sup>42</sup>. </p>
    <p>A identifica&#231;&#227;o de aumento do volume do &#225;trio esquerdo pelo ecodopplercardiograma &#233; um dado importante na avalia&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes, porque seu aumento se relaciona com a presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE e a rela&#231;&#227;o entre o MMP9 e o inibidor tecidual da metaloproteinase da matriz 1 (TIMP1) foi capaz de identificar pacientes com aumento do volume do &#225;trio esquerdo, concluindo que biomarcadores relacionados &#224; fibrose podem refletir o remodelamento conc&#234;ntrico cr&#244;nico do VE<sup>41</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ecocardiograma</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O ecodopplercardiograma &#233; o m&#233;todo mais utilizado para avalia&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, por&#233;m existem limita&#231;&#245;es causadas pelo envelhecimento e aspectos t&#233;cnicos relacionadas &#224; execu&#231;&#227;o do exame. Recentemente, as Sociedades Americana e Europeia de Ecocardiografia desenvolveram uma diretriz para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica ventricular<sup>7</sup>. Nesse documento, os valores de normalidade dos par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos s&#227;o relacionados com a faixa et&#225;ria (<xref ref-type="table" rid="a15tab01">Tabela 1</xref>) e &#233; dado &#234;nfase as novas t&#233;cnicas do EDT e do estresse diast&#243;lico para a correta caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da DD<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a15tab01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0094-00015-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>Ecodopplercardiograma &#233; um m&#233;todo que pode identificar de modo precoce altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais e funcionais card&#237;acas em pacientes com risco para desenvolver IC. Embora par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos utilizados para avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e a medida da Feve sejam influenciadas por mudan&#231;as na pr&#233; e p&#243;s-carga, esses &#237;ndices s&#227;o amplamente empregados para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e sist&#243;lica<sup>43</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outros par&#226;metros que s&#227;o utilizados na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica para avaliar a DD e caracterizar o remodelamento ventricular s&#227;o a massa do VE indexada e VAE indexado<sup>44</sup>.</p>
    <p>As vari&#225;veis hemodin&#226;micas que ajudam a classificar a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica podem ser obtidas pelo ecodopplercardiograma e o EDT e incluem a medida do fluxo transmitral (rela&#231;&#227;o E/A), o tempo de relaxamento isovolum&#233;trico (Triv), o fluxo da veia pulmonar, o tempo de desacelera&#231;&#227;o da onda E (TD), press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar e a rela&#231;&#227;o entre o fluxo transmitral no in&#237;cio da di&#225;stole com a velocidade do anel mitral no in&#237;cio da di&#225;stole (E/E') que, quando maior que 15, tem alta especificidade para caracterizar eleva&#231;&#245;es das press&#245;es diast&#243;licas do VE.</p>
    <p>A DD pode ser classificada em graus de 1 a 4, e os principais crit&#233;rios para classificar a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica pelo ecodopplercardiograma e EDT est&#227;o listados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="a15tab02">Tabela 2</xref>. </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a15tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0094-00015-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Eco de estresse</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Muitos pacientes com DD s&#227;o assintom&#225;ticos em repouso e se tornam dispneicos somente ao fazer esfor&#231;o quando press&#245;es de enchimento do VE est&#227;o elevadas. Ecodopplercardiograma de estresse &#233; ent&#227;o uma ferramenta valiosa com potencial para identificar pacientes com piora da capacidade funcional e aumento das press&#245;es de enchimento do VE<sup>45-47</sup>. </p>
    <p>O ecodopplercardiograma de estresse com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um ciclo erg&#244;metro supino &#233; tecnicamente fact&#237;vel para demonstrar as mudan&#231;as da rela&#231;&#227;o E/E' e de varia&#231;&#245;es da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar com o exerc&#237;cio, al&#233;m de permitir uma imagem cont&#237;nua do cora&#231;&#227;o e a obten&#231;&#227;o das medidas de enchimento do VE imediatamente na fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o, o que &#233; importante na interpreta&#231;&#227;o das mudan&#231;as na fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica<sup>47</sup>.</p>
    <p>Pacientes idosos ou com hipertens&#227;o arterial tem evid&#234;ncias ao ecodopplercardiograma de piora da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, mas n&#227;o apresentam nenhum sintoma em repouso. Do mesmo modo, pacientes com IC em classe funcional I NYHA podem ser assintom&#225;ticos em repouso, mas ir&#227;o desenvolver sintomas com o exerc&#237;cio.</p>
    <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o E/E' obtida em repouso pode n&#227;o ser suficientemente sens&#237;vel para identificar pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica em sua fase inicial, nos quais as press&#245;es de enchimento s&#243; aumentam com o esfor&#231;o. Al&#233;m disso, intoler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio com aumento do E/E' de repouso pode n&#227;o se apresentar suficientemente espec&#237;fica, pois a dispneia pode ser um equivalente anginoso e, nesses casos, o emprego do ecodopplercardiograma de estresse pode ajudar a esclarecer o diagn&#243;stico<sup>48-52</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica assintom&#225;tica &#233; um achado comum na pr&#225;tica ambulatorial principalmente em adultos e particularmente em associa&#231;&#227;o com fatores de risco, como hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabetes, obesidade e doen&#231;a coronariana que aumenta o risco para desenvolver IC. Por&#233;m sua caracteriza&#231;&#227;o nesses pacientes &#233; um processo complexo que exige por parte do cardiologista cl&#237;nico o conhecimento das novas t&#233;cnicas de avalia&#231;&#227;o sistematizada da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica com o emprego do ecodopplercardiograma e biomarcadores, tanto em repouso como durante o esfor&#231;o e tamb&#233;m do impacto cl&#237;nico da DD no progn&#243;stico desses pacientes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge </p>
        <p> Rua Coronel Bittencourt, 66 </p>
        <p> CEP 24900-000 - Boa Vista, Maric&#225;, RJ, Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="lagoeiro@cardiol.br">lagoeiro@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="lagoeiro@globo.com">lagoeiro@globo.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Recebido em 18/03/12, revisado em 01/06/12; aceito em 30/07/12.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Understanding asymptomatic diastolic dysfunction in clinical practice</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="enda-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Understanding asymptomatic diastolic dysfunction in clinical practice</bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Evandro Tinoco Mesquita<sup>I,II</sup>; Antonio Jos&#233; Lagoeiro Jorge<sup>I</sup></bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i </p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> Heart failure; ventricular dysfunction; echocardiography; diagnostic imaging; heart failure diastolic; heart failure systolic.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The contemporary concept of heart failure (HF) is based on the cardiovascular continuum, which begins in the presence of risk factors, proceeds to asymptomatic changes in cardiac structure and function, and then evolves into the symptomatic forms and eventually to the final stage (refractory HF)<sup>1</sup>. Cardiac dysfunction, either systolic or asymptomatic diastolic, has a high prevalence in the adult population older than 45 years, and is a phase during which the patient can progress to the clinical form of HF; this transition brings a five-fold increase in mortality<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>Identifying patients with asymptomatic cardiac dysfunction may allow the implementation of nonpharmacological or pharmacological interventions aiming at reversing heart functional and structural abnormalities, thus delaying the onset of symptomatic HF. The concept that HF has progressive stages and is therefore a preventable condition was proposed by the American College of Cardiology (ACC) and the American Heart Association (AHA)<sup>3</sup> and was incorporated by the Chronic HF Guidelines of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>HF with normal ejection fraction (HFNEF) is now a new epidemic that affects elderly hypertensive patients and represents more than 50% of patients hospitalized for HF. The onset of HFNEF is preceded by diastolic abnormalities such as slowing in relaxation and alterations in the filling pressures and structure of the left ventricle (LV) - left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), and increased left atrial volume (LAV). Thus, it is important to detect these abnormalities in a preclinical phase<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>Asymptomatic systolic dysfunction is easily recognized by clinicians using a cardiac imaging method, for the presence of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) &lt; 50%. The characterization of asymptomatic diastolic dysfunction (DD) is made by a triad consisting of absence of HF symptoms, evidence of DD and LVEF <underline>&gt;</underline> 50%, and its presence is a marker for the onset of symptomatic HF and reduced life expectancy<sup>5</sup>. However, DD is still overlooked in daily clinical practice<sup>5</sup> and its detection is a complex process that requires multiple measures for its correct identification, with the invasive method being the gold standard<sup>6</sup>. </p>
      <p>Currently, the invasive method for DD assessment has been replaced by modern techniques of Doppler echocardiography using tissue Doppler (TDE)<sup>7</sup> and also the measurement of natriuretic peptide (NP) levels<sup>8</sup>. The assessment by Doppler echocardiography allows the stratification of the degree of DD, its severity and the assessment of the impact of therapeutic measures and prognosis<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>The objectives of this review are to show the epidemiological bases of the clinical impact of asymptomatic DD (stage B of HF), recent advances in pathophysiology and modern diagnostic methods used for its characterization.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Epidemiology and staging of heart failure</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Staging of the population at risk for the development of HF allows better understanding of the prognostic impact of ventricular dysfunction and implementation of measures to prevent its onset or delay its progression to more advanced stages (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a15fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>)<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a15fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0094-00015-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Stage A</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Stage A can be defined by the presence of modifiable risk factors for the development of HF without the presence of structural or functional cardiac abnormalities. Risk factors that should be considered are those well established as predictive of HF in large longitudinal studies - hypertension, diabetes, obesity and coronary artery disease<sup>1</sup>. In our country, alcoholism and Chagas disease<sup>4 </sup> should also be considered. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Stage B</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Stage B is characterized by the presence of structural changes (remodeling, fibrosis and valvular heart disease) and asymptomatic systolic or diastolic dysfunction, which can be identified by electrocardiographic and Doppler echocardiographic abnormalities in the absence of signs or symptoms of HF<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>Currently, in order to achieve a better and objective identification of asymptomatic individuals, the patient's functional capacity should be assessed; those capable of performing activities requiring <underline>&gt;</underline> 7 METs of exercise capacity without limitations due to fatigue or dyspnea are considered asymptomatic<sup>9</sup>. In elderly patients with a low level of physical activity, the 6-minute walk test or exercise testing with peak oxygen consumption (VO<sub>2</sub> max.) may be useful to confirm the presence of asymptomatic DD<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Stage C</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Stage C shows the onset of symptoms or signs of HF, with the earliest signs being exertional dyspnea and fatigue (exercise capacity between 2 and 7 METs)<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Stage D</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Stage D or the final stage consists of patients with refractory HF and severe exercise limitation (&lt; 2 METs), in addition to multiple hospitalizations for decompensated HF<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>The pioneering study by Ammar et al<sup>2</sup> involving 2029 individuals randomly selected from the community (age &gt; 45 years) tested the staging concept and showed that 32% of the patients were healthy, i.e., had no risk factors for HF (stage 0 ), 22% were in stage A, 34% in stage B and 12% were symptomatic (stages C and D). This study showed the association between different stages of HF and increased levels of B-type natriuretic peptides (BNPs) and five-year mortality (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a15fig02-body2">Figure 2</xref>)<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a15fig02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0094-00015-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Risk factors and diastolic dysfunction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Different therapeutic intervention studies in HFNEF<sup>10-13</sup> showed no effect on mortality reduction, which may mean that interventions should be targeted at the initial phases of HFNEF, as there is clinical and epidemiological evidence that intervention on the four main risk factors involved (diabetes, hypertension, obesity and coronary heart disease) can affect the cardiovascular continuum associated with HFNEF<sup>1,14</sup>. </p>
      <p>The presence of more than one of these associated factors is common in clinical practice and it is important to emphasize that aging exacerbates diastolic abnormalities in the presence of cardiovascular risk factors<sup>1</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Diabetes</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Diastolic dysfunction is observed in 40% of patients with diabetes and correlates with poor glycemic control<sup>15</sup>. Multiple mechanisms are involved in DD, such as abnormalities in the metabolism of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), impaired calcium transport, interstitial accumulation of advanced glycation end products, imbalance in collagen synthesis and degradation, abnormal microvascular function, renin-angiotensin system activation, decreased adiponectin levels, and alterations in the metabolism of free fatty acids and glucose<sup>15</sup>. </p>
      <p>The Framingham study was the first to demonstrate an increased risk for HF in diabetic patients. The incidence of HF in men and women was 2 to 5-fold higher in those with diabetes than in nondiabetics<sup>16</sup>. The LVDD is identified as the initial finding of diabetic cardiomyopathy. A study involving 86 young patients with type-2 diabetes (mean age of 43 years) without hypertension and with excellent glycemic control (mean glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) of 6.5 mg/dL) showed the presence of asymptomatic DD in more than 40% of these patients<sup>17</sup>. </p>
      <p>The Strong Heart Study<sup>18</sup>, which studied 2411 patients, found an association between type-2 diabetes and abnormal LV relaxation regardless of age, blood pressure, LV mass, and LV systolic function.</p>
      <p>The DD findings in patients with diabetes are a strong marker for the progression to the symptomatic stages of HF and glycemic control and treatment of associated risk factors are strongly recommended in these patients<sup>4</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Arterial hypertension</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Arterial hypertension is the most common risk factor for HF. The risk of developing HF in hypertensive patients, when compared with non-hypertensive patients, is approximately three-fold higher<sup>19</sup>. </p>
      <p>Hypertension induces LV wall thickening in an attempt to normalize wall stress. This process results in increased LV mass, called concentric hypertrophy, which is defined by an increase in wall thickness without changes in LV shape<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Many stage-B hypertensive patients have evidence of LVH on echocardiography, causing changes in the pressure-volume curve, which decreases the atrioventricular pressure gradient and reduces LV filling<sup>20</sup>. LVH in these patients is related to changes in the extracellular matrix and alterations in the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) balance, with collagen accumulation in the extracellular space<sup>21</sup>. The pressure overload observed in these patients activates the intracardiac renin-angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS) resulting in cardiac fibroblast growth and increased collagen, leading to reduced ventricular compliance<sup>22,23</sup>. </p>
      <p>Blood pressure control can reduce myocardial hypertrophy in hypertensive individuals and different antihypertensive medications show a greater or lesser degree of LVH reduction in patients with hypertension<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Obesity</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Obesity has been considered a condition of chronic volume overload because the heart is forced to pump blood through a large deposit of fat tissue. It is also associated with a number of cardiovascular disorders mediated by neurohormonal, hemodynamic and inflammatory changes that lead to structural and functional cardiac alterations<sup>25</sup>. </p>
      <p>Visceral fat, which is metabolically active, can interfere with the increase in LV mass by secreting a variety of bioactive molecules, such as angiotensin II and inflammatory cytokines (adiponectin)<sup>25</sup>. Hyperinsulinemia and increased insulin resistance, which are related to obesity, induce myocardial hypertrophy through the stimulating effect of cell growth caused by insulin and sympathetic activation.</p>
      <p>In Mesa's study<sup>25</sup>, LV mass and end-diastolic volume were positively associated with obesity in both genders after adjustment for other risk factors and it demonstrated that obesity is associated with LV concentric remodeling with no decrease in LVEF.</p>
      <p>Obstructive sleep apnea is associated with obesity and may also contribute to the exacerbation of LVH by nocturnal hypertension, increased sympathetic tone and chronic hypoxemia<sup>25</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Coronary atherosclerotic disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Acute or chronic myocardial ischemia can lead to DD through worsening in calcium sequestration during active ventricular relaxation. Myocardial ischemia also worsens passive stiffness due to fibrosis formation<sup>26</sup>. </p>
      <p>The association between myocardial ischemia and DD is a common situation in clinical practice, and the treatment of ischemia is capable of improving the alterations in diastolic function, thus reducing the chance of development of HF in these patients<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pathophysiology of diastolic dysfunction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>LV cardiac function depends mainly on the two large myocardial layers - the fibers of the midwall, which are circumferentially oriented, and the subendocardial and epicardial fibers, which are longitudinally aligned from tip to base and have a double helix configuration (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a15fig03-body2">Figure 3</xref>). This distribution allows the LV twist-untwist mechanism during systole and diastole, thus leading to an interdependence between the phases of the cardiac cycle<sup>27,28</sup>. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a15fig03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0094-00015-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Diastole is the phase of the cardiac cycle during which the myocardium relaxes and the ventricles dilate, allowing their chambers to fill with blood with adequate filling pressures (12 mmHg at rest and up to 15 mmHg during exercise). The mechanical process of diastole can be divided into an active phase called relaxation and a passive phase called stiffness; the ventricular filling in its initial phase, which corresponds to 70% of the process, is carried out by the phenomenon of diastolic suction, which depends on relaxation<sup>29</sup>. </p>
      <p>Ventricular relaxation is a process with energy expenditure mainly regulated by the calcium pump of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (Serca). Reductions in Serca activity levels can reduce the removal of calcium from the cytosol, slowing ventricular relaxation. Myocardial ischemia is the main determinant for the slowing of relaxation by reducing ATP production<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>The increase in resting tension (F passive - passive force of cardiomyocytes at rest) is another important finding related to the presence of DD. Increase in F passive of cardiomyocytes has been attributed to the giant cytoskeletal protein called titin, which can be seen as a bi-directional spring that contracts at the beginning of relaxation and offers resistance to ventricular distension at end-diastole, thereby determining ventricular stiffness and diastolic function<sup>30</sup>. </p>
      <p>Titin is expressed as its two isoforms: N2B (more rigid form) and N2BA (more compliant), and the modulation of F passive can occur through changes in the expression of these isoforms and their phosphorylation state. Patients with HFNEF, for instance, have a lower N2BA/N2B association than that observed in patients with HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFREF); this increased expression of the N2B isoform can explain the increased ventricular stiffness (F passive) found in diastolic dysfunction<sup>30</sup>.</p>
      <p>Changes in the extracellular matrix structure promote increased LV stiffness. The changes observed in collagen regarding the quantity, geometry, distribution, formation of cross-bridges with glycation end-products and rates of collagen types I and III lead to diastolic dysfunction<sup>31,32</sup>. Changes in the levels of proteolytic enzymes such as MMPs, which control collagen degradation, also play an important role in the development of ventricular stiffness<sup>15</sup>. </p>
      <p>DD then causes abnormalities in relaxation and/or stiffness of the ventricular chamber, which in turn will interfere with LV filling, causing the atrial contraction to have an important role in ventricular filling with the progression of DD. In more advanced forms of DD, there is an increase in the mean left atrial pressure, pulmonary venocapillary hypertension, elevated pulmonary artery systolic pressure and decreased diastolic reserve, which are caused mainly by changes in calcium regulation, cytoskeletal proteins (titin), extracellular matrix, myocyte hypertrophy and interstitial fibrosis<sup>33,34</sup>.</p>
      <p>The RAAS hyperactivation contributes to DD not only through the development of arterial hypertension, but also by impairment of ventricular relaxation, ventricular hypertrophy, fibrosis and vascular remodeling<sup>35,36</sup>.</p>
      <p>The arterial vascular function contributes significantly to diastolic abnormalities. Changes in the vascular wall associated with aging and arterial hypertension interfere with the afterload and the reflection of wave propagation on the arterial wall, increasing LV impedance, causing slowing of relaxation and myocardial hypertrophy<sup>15</sup>. </p>
      <p>Inflammation and fibrosis play an important role in the development of cardiac structural changes that can cause the progress of HF stage A to B. In the myocardium, perivascular inflammation precedes reactive fibrosis, which is a key determinant of adverse prognosis and that has an effect on myocardial oxygen transport, on tissue stiffness and is a risk factor for cardiac arrhythmias. The major consequence of the fibro-inflammatory response is ventricular dysfunction, which can be defined by Doppler echocardiography. However, because of the large number of individuals in stage B of HF, Doppler echocardiography becomes an expensive and difficult-to-perform procedure in daily practice. In these patients, the use of serum markers of inflammation that reflect structural and histopathological alterations in the heart is considered a new option<sup>37</sup>. </p>
      <p>Thus, the contemporary evaluation of diastolic function involves the integration of these pathophysiological concepts, with the use of measures that may reflect abnormalities of the active relaxation process (ATP consumption) and passive stiffness. This division is arbitrary because the structures and processes that change in the relaxation process can also result in stiffness abnormalities. However, the division is pragmatic and provides a rationale for the understanding of noninvasive methods that assess diastolic function<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>How to diagnose diastolic dysfunction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Clinical cardiologists often use Doppler echocardiography to assess patients with hypertension, diabetes and coronary disease, and the finding of isolated diastolic abnormalities is common in asymptomatic patients. Therefore it is essential to understand the new Doppler echocardiographic techniques such as tissue Doppler echocardiography (TDE) and Speckle Tracking, which allow a more complete quantification of diastolic function, as well as the new biomarkers that assess LV filling pressures, the presence of inflammation and fibrosis that are currently used to identify the presence of diastolic dysfunction. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Biomarkers</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Biomarkers such as natriuretic peptides (NP) are important for the diagnosis and prognosis of HF as they are able to quickly assess LV dysfunction, being especially useful when there is limited access to echocardiography<sup>38</sup>. </p>
      <p>A well-established cutoff value for NP is yet to be defined for the diagnosis of DD. Ammar et al<sup>2</sup> observed, in 2029 patients, increasing BNP values with the progression of DD, but did not define the ideal point to characterize these patients in clinical practice<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>A comparison of BNP levels and Doppler echocardiography data was performed in 294 patients with normal or abnormal LV diastolic function. It was observed that patients with DD had mean levels of BNP of 286 &#177; 31 pg/mL, whereas normal individuals had a mean of 33 &#177; 3 pg/mL. In this study, patients with abnormal diastolic function were subdivided into patients with impaired relaxation, pseudonormal and restrictive pattern with and without symptoms of HF, and it was demonstrated that BNP levels were very accurate to predict the restrictive pattern with an area under the ROC curve of 0.98 (95% CI: 0.95 to 0.97, p &lt;0.001). Patients with symptoms of HF had higher levels of BNP than asymptomatic patients<sup>39</sup>. </p>
      <p>In another study with 135 asymptomatic patients with hypertension, BNP levels were compared with Doppler echocardiographic DD indexes that included indexed LV mass, E/A ratio and isovolumetric relaxation time. In this study, the ROC curve showed an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.904 (p &lt; 0.01), using a cutoff value &gt; 40 pg / mL with specificity of 92% and sensitivity of 79% for BNP to diagnose LV diastolic pressure increase<sup>40</sup>. </p>
      <p>Biomarkers of fibrosis and inflammation bring new expectations for the assessment of the risk of developing HFNEF, as well as for its diagnosis. A recent study showed that HFNEF may be associated with increased levels of biomarkers of inflammation, such as interleukin 6 (IL - 6), interleukin 8 (IL-8) and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1), and of collagen metabolism such as type I collagen carboxyterminal telopeptide (ICTP), matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9)<sup>41</sup>. In another study, a cutoff value of 1585 ng / mL of MMP2 showed sensitivity of 91% and specificity of 76% for predicting HFNEF<sup>42</sup>.</p>
      <p>The finding of increased left atrial volume by Doppler echocardiography is an important piece of information in the evaluation of these patients, as it is related to the presence of LV diastolic dysfunction; the association between MMP9 and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP1) was able to identify patients with increased left atrial volume, leading to the conclusion that biomarkers related to fibrosis may reflect chronic LV concentric remodeling<sup>41</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Echocardiography</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Doppler echocardiography is the most widely used method for the assessment of diastolic dysfunction, but there are limitations caused by aging and technical aspects related to the test performance. Recently, the American and European Societies of Echocardiography developed a guideline for the evaluation of ventricular diastolic function<sup>7</sup>. In this document, the normal values of echocardiographic parameters are related to the age range (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_a15tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>), giving emphasis to the new TDE techniques and diastolic stress for the correct characterization of DD<sup>7</sup>. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_a15tab01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0094-00015-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Doppler echocardiography is a method that can identify such early structural and functional cardiac alterations in patients at risk for the development of HF. Although the echocardiographic parameters used to assess diastolic function and LVEF are influenced by changes in preload and afterload, these indexes are widely used for the assessment of systolic and diastolic function<sup>43</sup>. </p>
      <p>Other parameters used in clinical practice to evaluate and characterize DD ventricular remodeling are indexed LV mass and indexed LAV<sup>44</sup>.</p>
      <p>The hemodynamic variables that help classify diastolic function can be obtained by Doppler echocardiography and TDE and include the measurement of transmitral flow (E/A ratio), isovolumetric relaxation time (IVRT), pulmonary vein flow, E-wave deceleration time (DT), pulmonary artery systolic pressure and the ratio between transmitral flow in early diastole with mitral annular velocity during early diastole (E/E' ratio) which, when &gt; 15, have high specificity to characterize elevations of LV diastolic pressures. </p>
      <p>DD can be classified into grades 1-4, and the main criteria to classify diastolic function by Doppler echocardiography and TDE are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_a15tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_a15tab02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0094-00015-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Stress echocardiography</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Many patients with DD are asymptomatic at rest and become dyspneic only on exertion, when LV filling pressures are elevated. Stress echocardiography is therefore a valuable tool with the potential to identify patients with impaired functional capacity and increased LV filling pressures<sup>45-47</sup>. </p>
      <p>Stress Doppler echocardiography with the use of a supine cycle ergometer is technically feasible to demonstrate the changes in E/E' and variations of systolic pulmonary artery pressure with exercise; it also allows continuous imaging of the heart and provides LV filling measurements immediately in the recovery phase, which is important for the interpretation of alterations in diastolic function<sup>47</sup>.</p>
      <p>Elderly patients or patients with arterial hypertension show evidence of impaired diastolic function on Doppler echocardiography, but no symptoms at rest. Similarly, patients with HF in NYHA functional class I may be asymptomatic at rest, but will develop symptoms with exercise. </p>
      <p>The E/E' ratio obtained at rest might not be sufficiently sensitive to identify patients with diastolic dysfunction in its initial phase, in which the filling pressures only increase with exertion. Furthermore, exercise intolerance with increased E/E' at rest might not be specific enough, as dyspnea may be an angina equivalent and, in these cases, the use of stress echocardiography may help clarify the diagnosis<sup>48-52</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Asymptomatic diastolic dysfunction is a common finding in ambulatory practice mainly in adults and particularly in association with risk factors, such as hypertension, diabetes, obesity and coronary heart disease, which increases the risk for the development of HF. However, its characterization in these patients is a complex process that requires, on the part of the clinical cardiologist, knowledge of new techniques for the systematic assessment of diastolic function with the use of Doppler echocardiography and biomarkers, both at rest and during exercise, as well as the clinical impact of DD on patient prognosis. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study is not associated with any post-graduation program.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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  </sub-article>
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