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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">KkVNThDCMxVtfYmF6yB4mwd</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2013000100006</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(13)10000100006</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2013005000002</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Preval&#234;ncia de alta reatividade plaquet&#225;ria em pacientes tratados com aspirina encaminhados para angiografia coron&#225;ria</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Manica</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sarmento-Leite</surname>
            <given-names>Rog&#233;rio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Manfroi</surname>
            <given-names>Clara</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rodrigues Jr</surname>
            <given-names>La Hore</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gottschall</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marchini</surname>
            <given-names>Julio F</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Croce</surname>
            <given-names>Kevin</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Boston</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Harvard University</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Brigham and Women's Hospital </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Cardiovascular Division</institution>
        <country country="US">United States</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>100</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>29</fpage>
      <lpage>36</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2012</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: A aspirina (&#193;cido Acetilsalic&#237;lico - AAS) &#233; capaz de reduzir eventos adversos cardiovasculares em pacientes portadores de Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana (DAC) atrav&#233;s da inibi&#231;&#227;o da atividade plaquet&#225;ria. Alguns pacientes com DAC, apesar da terapia com AAS, apresentam Alta Reatividade Plaquet&#225;ria (ARP), o que determina um maior risco para o desenvolvimento de eventos cardiovasculares. OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar a preval&#234;ncia de ARP em pacientes tratados com AAS e encaminhados para cinecoronariografia, al&#233;m de avaliar se existe uma poss&#237;vel correla&#231;&#227;o entre a gravidade da DAC e o desenvolvimento de ARP. M&#201;TODOS: Estudo de centro &#250;nico onde foram inclu&#237;dos 115 pacientes consecutivos, tratados com AAS e portadores de DAC est&#225;vel. A reatividade plaquet&#225;ria induzida pelo ADP e col&#225;geno foram avaliadas atrav&#233;s da Agregometria de Transmit&#226;ncia Luminosa (ATL). Pacientes com agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria maior que 70%, induzida por ambos os reagentes, foram classificados como tendo ARP e, neste grupo, a ades&#227;o ao tratamento com AAS foi avaliada atrav&#233;s da dosagem dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de salicilato. RESULTADOS: A m&#233;dia de idade foi de 60,9 anos e a dose m&#233;dia de AAS foi de 164,2 mg. Tabagismo e diabetes melito estavam presentes em 28,7% e 31,5% dos pacientes, respectivamente. Foi encontrada ARP em 14 pacientes (13%), entretanto, em sete indiv&#237;duos (50%) com ARP observaram-se baixos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de salicilato (&lt; 2,0 &#181;g/mL), sugerindo n&#227;o ades&#227;o &#224; terapia medicamentosa. Em 6,5% dos pacientes com ARP identificou-se n&#237;veis detect&#225;veis de salicilato s&#233;rico, sugerindo uma efic&#225;cia reduzida do AAS. A ARP se correlacionou com o n&#250;mero e a gravidade das estenoses coron&#225;rias (p = 0,04). CONCLUS&#195;O: Em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes tratados com AAS e encaminhados para angiografia coron&#225;ria, a reatividade plaquet&#225;ria elevada &#233; prevalente (13%), sendo 50% destes pacientes n&#227;o aderentes &#224; terapia farmacol&#243;gica e 50% apresentam redu&#231;&#227;o da efetividade da droga.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Doen&#231;a coronariana</kwd>
        <kwd>agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria</kwd>
        <kwd>aspirina</kwd>
        <kwd>angiografia coron&#225;ria</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>08</day>
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2013</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>Preval&#234;ncia de alta reatividade plaquet&#225;ria em pacientes tratados com aspirina encaminhados para angiografia coron&#225;ria</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Andr&#233; Manica<sup>I,II</sup>; Rog&#233;rio Sarmento-Leite<sup>I</sup>; Clara Manfroi<sup>I</sup>; La Hore Rodrigues Jr.<sup>I</sup>; Carlos Gottschall<sup>I</sup>; Julio F Marchini<sup>II</sup>; Kevin Croce<sup>II</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul / Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia- Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Cardiovascular Division - Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO:</bold> A aspirina (&#193;cido Acetilsalic&#237;lico - AAS) &#233; capaz de reduzir eventos adversos cardiovasculares em pacientes portadores de Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana (DAC) atrav&#233;s da inibi&#231;&#227;o da atividade plaquet&#225;ria. Alguns pacientes com DAC, apesar da terapia com AAS, apresentam Alta Reatividade Plaquet&#225;ria (ARP), o que determina um maior risco para o desenvolvimento de eventos cardiovasculares. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar a preval&#234;ncia de ARP em pacientes tratados com AAS e encaminhados para cinecoronariografia, al&#233;m de avaliar se existe uma poss&#237;vel correla&#231;&#227;o entre a gravidade da DAC e o desenvolvimento de ARP. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Estudo de centro &#250;nico onde foram inclu&#237;dos 115 pacientes consecutivos, tratados com AAS e portadores de DAC est&#225;vel. A reatividade plaquet&#225;ria induzida pelo ADP e col&#225;geno foram avaliadas atrav&#233;s da Agregometria de Transmit&#226;ncia Luminosa (ATL). Pacientes com agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria maior que 70%, induzida por ambos os reagentes, foram classificados como tendo ARP e, neste grupo, a ades&#227;o ao tratamento com AAS foi avaliada atrav&#233;s da dosagem dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de salicilato. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> A m&#233;dia de idade foi de 60,9 anos e a dose m&#233;dia de AAS foi de 164,2 mg. Tabagismo e diabetes melito estavam presentes em 28,7% e 31,5% dos pacientes, respectivamente. Foi encontrada ARP em 14 pacientes (13%), entretanto, em sete indiv&#237;duos (50%) com ARP observaram-se baixos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de salicilato (&lt; 2,0 &#181;g/mL), sugerindo n&#227;o ades&#227;o &#224; terapia medicamentosa. Em 6,5% dos pacientes com ARP identificou-se n&#237;veis detect&#225;veis de salicilato s&#233;rico, sugerindo uma efic&#225;cia reduzida do AAS. A ARP se correlacionou com o n&#250;mero e a gravidade das estenoses coron&#225;rias (p = 0,04). </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> Em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes tratados com AAS e encaminhados para angiografia coron&#225;ria, a reatividade plaquet&#225;ria elevada &#233; prevalente (13%), sendo 50% destes pacientes n&#227;o aderentes &#224; terapia farmacol&#243;gica e 50% apresentam redu&#231;&#227;o da efetividade da droga.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Doen&#231;a coronariana, agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, aspirina/uso terap&#234;utico, angiografia coron&#225;ria.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A aspirina (AAS) &#233; um importante f&#225;rmaco na preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria da doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV), pois reduz Eventos Cardiovasculares Maiores (ECVM) em 25% dos pacientes com S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda (SCA) e com Doen&#231;a Arterial Coronariana (DAC) previamente estabelecida<sup>1</sup>. Apesar do tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado, o qual inclue o AAS, as taxas de ECM s&#227;o superiores a 10% em pacientes com DAC est&#225;vel e acima de 28% em pacientes com SCA<sup>2</sup>. Diversos estudos demonstram que existem subgrupos de pacientes tratados com aspirina os quais persistem com elevada reatividade plaquet&#225;ria residual (hiporrespondedores ao AAS), portanto, a variabilidade farmacol&#243;gica e a efic&#225;cia terap&#234;utica reduzida poderiam contribuir para as taxas relativamente elevadas de eventos CV recorrentes em pacientes com DAC e tratados com aspirina [Gum, 2003 # 24] [Angiolillo, 2009 # 711] [Helgason, 1994 # 26]. Al&#233;m disso, ap&#243;s uma angioplastia coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea, os pacientes que apresentam reatividade plaquet&#225;ria elevada possuem um maior risco para o desenvolvimento de Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio periprocedimento (IM), ECVM e trombose de stent<sup>3,4</sup>.</p>
    <p>A preval&#234;ncia da Alta Reatividade Plaquet&#225;ria (ARP) em pacientes tratados com AAS varia entre 0,4 e 34%, dependendo da popula&#231;&#227;o estudada (indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, com CAD est&#225;vel, com SCA, ou diab&#233;ticos), do tipo de metodologia utilizada na avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e do par&#226;metro ou valor de corte escolhido para definir ARP<sup>5,6</sup>. A falta de uma padroniza&#231;&#227;o laboratorial e cl&#237;nica para definir a hiporresponsividade &#224; aspirina, tamb&#233;m chamada de resist&#234;ncia, resulta em confus&#227;o sobre a incid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica deste fen&#244;meno<sup>7,8</sup>.</p>
    <p>O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar a preval&#234;ncia de ARP em pacientes tratados com aspirina e encaminhados para angiografia coronariana, al&#233;m de demonstrar se a ocorr&#234;ncia deste fen&#244;meno pode estar relacionada a m&#225;-ades&#227;o ao tratamento farmacol&#243;gico ou a redu&#231;&#227;o da efic&#225;cia da droga.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O projeto do estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica do Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul e todos os pacientes preencheram o termo de consentimento livre informado. O estudo incluiu pacientes consecutivos de um &#250;nico centro, com DAC est&#225;vel e que foram encaminhados para angiografia coron&#225;ria entre janeiro de 2006 e julho de 2007. Foram arrolados indiv&#237;duos que faziam uso de terapia medicamentosa com AAS h&#225; mais de duas semanas, com idade &gt; 18 anos e que aceitaram preencher o termo de consentimento livre informado. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1">Tabela 1</xref> apresenta os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o. Os pacientes eram exclu&#237;dos caso estivessem tomando medica&#231;&#245;es concomitantes as quais poderiam interferir com a medida da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria (como por exemplo anticoagulantes orais ou Anti-Inflamat&#243;rios N&#227;o Esteroides - AINES), ou caso apresentassem condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que pudessem influenciar na hemostasia. Foram coletadas amostras de sangue da art&#233;ria ou da veia femoral ap&#243;s a inser&#231;&#227;o da bainha e antes da administra&#231;&#227;o de heparina ou de inibidores da glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa. As amostras foram imediatamente colocadas em tubos de v&#225;cuo contendo 3,2% de citrato ou 1,8% de EDTA. Os exames de agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria foram realizados em at&#233; 2 horas ap&#243;s a coleta das amostras. A reatividade plaquet&#225;ria foi avaliada atrav&#233;s da Agregometria por Transmit&#226;ncia Luminosa (ATL) de plasma rico em plaquetas em agreg&#244;metro de duplo canal Net Lab 2020, utilizando a metodologia padr&#227;o. O sangue total foi centrifugado a 162 g durante 6 minutos para se preparar o Plasma Rico em Plaquetas (PRP). Uma al&#237;quota do PRP foi centrifugada a 838 g por 15 minutos a fim de se obter o plasma pobre em plaquetas, o qual corresponde ao valor basal de turbidez equivalente a 100% da agrega&#231;&#227;o. A atividade plaquet&#225;ria foi medida por meio da avalia&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o por turbidimetria em resposta &#224; adi&#231;&#227;o de 20 &#181;mol/mL de ADP e de 10 &#181;g/mL de col&#225;geno. A ARP foi definida como agrega&#231;&#227;o maior ou igual a 70% em at&#233; 5 minutos ap&#243;s adi&#231;&#227;o dos reagentes ADP e col&#225;geno. Posteriormente as amostras de plasma foram armazenadas a -80 oC para permitir a avalia&#231;&#227;o da ades&#227;o &#224; terapia farmacol&#243;gica nos pacientes que apresentavam ARP atrav&#233;s da aferi&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de salicilato (Sigma Chemical Co., EUA). Determinou-se que os pacientes com n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de salicilato inferiores a 2 &#181;g/mL n&#227;o estavam sob terapia cr&#244;nica com aspirina. A extens&#227;o e a gravidade da DAC foi avaliada por dois cardiologistas intervencionistas independentes que desconheciam os resultados dos exames da fun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria. As estenoses coronarianas foram consideradas significativas caso ambos os cardiologistas avaliassem a gravidade da estenose como sendo superior a 50%. An&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram realizadas utilizando o software SPSS 15.0 e o Stata 9.0 (StataCorp, College Station, TX). Os dados s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o e os dados com distribui&#231;&#227;o normal foram avaliados atrav&#233;s do teste t de Student. Para a correla&#231;&#227;o entre a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e a gravidade da DAC, foi utilizado o coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson e para as vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foi utilizado o teste exato de Fischer. A correla&#231;&#227;o entre a hiporresponsividade &#224; aspirina e o n&#250;mero de art&#233;rias com estenose significativa foi avaliada atrav&#233;s da de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica. Achados de p &lt; 0,05 foram considerados significativos.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Dos 125 pacientes arrolados inicialmente no estudo, 115 foram inclu&#237;dos na an&#225;lise final; tr&#234;s pacientes foram exclu&#237;dos devido a coagula&#231;&#227;o das amostras de sangue antes da an&#225;lise das mesmas e sete pacientes devido a atraso superior a 2 horas na realiza&#231;&#227;o dos testes de agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria. As caracter&#237;sticas basais dos pacientes est&#227;o descritos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab2">Tabela 2</xref>. A dose m&#233;dia da aspirina utilizada foi de 164,7 &#177; 60,3 mg. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop11912fig01">Figura 1</xref> mostra uma curva representativa dos resultados da agregometria encontrada. Nas avalia&#231;&#245;es realizadas em cada indiv&#237;duo, a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria induzida tanto pelo ADP quanto pelo col&#225;geno mostrou uma significativa correla&#231;&#227;o entre os seus resultados quando avaliada pelo coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson (r = 0.68) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop11912fig02">Figura 2</xref>). A intensidade da inibi&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria n&#227;o demonstrou diferen&#231;a significativa quando comparadas as diferentes doses de AAS administradas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop11912fig03">Figura 3</xref>), os &#237;ndices de agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria induzidos pelo ADP e pelo col&#225;geno est&#227;o demonstrados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab3">tabela 3</xref>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="aop11912fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="en_aop11912fig02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="aop11912fig03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <table-wrap id="tab3">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Os resultados dos testes de agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria demonstraram que 101 pacientes (87%) atingiram &#237;ndices classificados como uma resposta adequada &#224; terapia com aspirina (agrega&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo col&#225;geno ou pelo ADP &lt; 70%); entretanto 14 indiv&#237;duos (13%) obtiveram valores superiores a 70% com ambos os reagentes, sendo classificados com ARP. Quando analisado o sangue dos 14 pacientes com ARP, sete destes indiv&#237;duos (50%) apresentaram n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de salicilato inferiores a 2 &#181;g/mL (0,57 &#177; 0,24 &#181;g/mL), tendo sido considerados, conseq&#252;entemente, como n&#227;o aderentes &#224; terapia com AAS. Observou-se ainda, entre os outros sete pacientes que apresentavam agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria maior que 70% com ambos os reagentes (ADP e col&#225;geno), n&#237;veis m&#233;dios de salicilato s&#233;rico de 18,4 &#177; 6,1 &#181;g/mL, sendo, portanto, diagnosticados como hiporrespondedores &#224; aspirina. Quando estes indiv&#237;duos, hiporrespondedores ao AAS, foram comparados com aqueles com inibi&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria normal, os grupos n&#227;o apresentaram diferen&#231;a significativa em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; idade, sexo, hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio (IM) ou dose de aspirina utilizada (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop11912tab04">Tabela 4</xref>). A preval&#234;ncia de tabagismo e Diabetes Melito (DM) foi maior no grupo hiporrespondedor ao AAS (RC diabetes 3,16; IC95% 0,66 a 14,9; p = 0,2 e RC tabaco 3,61; IC95% 0,75 a 17,24; p = 0,19), por&#233;m estes achados n&#227;o alcan&#231;aram signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica. Quando avaliada a presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de DAC (definida como estenose &gt; 50% em pelo menos uma art&#233;ria epic&#225;rdica); em 85,7% dos pacientes hiporrespondedores ao AAS observou-se DAC significativa em compara&#231;&#227;o a 39,6% dos pacientes com adequada inibi&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria (RC 9,15; IC95% 1,06 a 78,8). A hiporresponsividade &#224; aspirina parece ainda se correlacionar ao n&#250;mero de art&#233;rias coronarianas acometidas por estenose significativa (RC 3,58 por vaso; IC95% 1,69 a 7,61; r<sup>2 </sup>= 0,24), sendo que os pacientes hiporrespondedores apresentaram uma m&#233;dia de 1,85 &#177; 0,89 art&#233;rias coronarianas com estenose/paciente em compara&#231;&#227;o a 0.43 &#177; 0,79 no grupo de indiv&#237;duos sens&#237;veis ao f&#225;rmaco (p = 0,04) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop11912tab04">Tabela 4</xref>). Quando os pacientes foram estratificados de acordo com o n&#250;mero de art&#233;rias coronarianas com estenose &gt; 50%, a incid&#234;ncia de resist&#234;ncia ao AAS aumentou proporcionalmente com o n&#250;mero de art&#233;rias acometidas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop11912fig04">Figura 4</xref>). N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a entre os pacientes responsivos &#224; aspirina e os hiporrespondedores em rela&#231;&#227;o a quais art&#233;rias haviam sido acometidas por estenose (tronco da coron&#225;ria esquerda, art&#233;ria descendente anterior, circunflexa e art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria direita).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="aop11912tab04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="aop11912fig04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Recentemente observa-se maior n&#250;mero de evid&#234;ncias que confirmam a exist&#234;ncia de uma variabilidade interindividual significativa no grau da inibi&#231;&#227;o da atividade plaquet&#225;ria alcan&#231;ado com as terapias antiplaquet&#225;rias usuais. A variabilidade da resposta &#224; terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria &#233; um problema cl&#237;nico importante, uma vez que os pacientes portadores de DAC que demonstram ARP residual, ap&#243;s uso de AAS ou antagonistas de receptores P2Y12-ADP, apresentam maior risco para o desenvolvimento de eventos CV<sup>9</sup>. O maior risco da hiporresponsividade &#224; terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria ocorre ap&#243;s a ICP e o implante de stent, onde a ARP em vig&#234;ncia de terapia antiagregante plaquetaria dupla (TAPD), com AAS e antagonista do receptor de ADP, est&#225; associada ao aumento de duas vezes no risco de desenvolvimento de trombose de stent<sup>3,10</sup>. A trombose de stent constitui uma complica&#231;&#227;o rara, por&#233;m grave, visto que a sua ocorr&#234;ncia determina taxas de IM superiores a 60%, taxas de mortalidade que variam entre 10 e 45%<sup>11-14 </sup>e em aumento de ECVM a longo prazo nestes indiv&#237;duos<sup>15</sup>. Diversos fatores cl&#237;nicos, que incluem a presen&#231;a de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda, de diabetes e de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Congestiva (ICC), al&#233;m do &#205;ndice de Massa Corporal (IMC) &gt; 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, est&#227;o associados ao desenvolvimento do fen&#244;meno de hiporresponsividade aos antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios<sup>16</sup>. A preval&#234;ncia da hiporresponsividade &#224; terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria apresenta uma importante varia&#231;&#227;o (0,4 a 83,3%), dependendo do f&#225;rmaco avaliado, da apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica dos pacientes e da etnia da popula&#231;&#227;o estudada<sup>17</sup>; al&#233;m de sofrer influ&#234;ncia de acordo com o m&#233;todo utilizado para determinar a ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e do ponto de corte escolhido para aferir a responsividade<sup>5</sup>. Mais de cinco m&#233;todos para avalia&#231;&#227;o da atividade plaquet&#225;ria residual est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis comercialmente, e os testes espec&#237;ficos diferem em sua capacidade de prever ECVM<sup>4,18</sup>. A ATL foi utilizada neste estudo por ser um m&#233;todo validado previamente e ser capaz de correlacionar a presen&#231;a de ARP com um maior risco de ECVM e de trombose de stent<sup>10,18</sup>.</p>
    <p>&#201; cada vez mais evidente que os pacientes submetidos &#224; ICP, hiporresponsivos tanto &#224; aspirina quanto ao clopidogrel, apresentam um risco acentuadamente elevado para o desenvolvimento de ECVM<sup>3</sup>. Recentemente, os mecanismos de hiporresponsividade do clopidogrel t&#234;m sido foco de diversos estudos cl&#237;nicos que demonstraram que a hiporresponsividade ao clopidogrel resulta em parte aos polimorfismos gen&#233;ticos que determinam uma redu&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o do mecanismo enzim&#225;tico do citocromo P450, o qual converte a pr&#243;-droga do clopidogrel em sua forma ativa<sup>10</sup>. Outros mecanismos adicionais de hiporresponsividade do clopidogrel foram revisados previamente<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>A aspirina inibe a ativa&#231;&#227;o das plaquetas atrav&#233;s da acetila&#231;&#227;o da ciclooxigenase plaquet&#225;ria (COX), resultando na inativa&#231;&#227;o e na supress&#227;o irrevers&#237;vel da produ&#231;&#227;o de tromboxano (TX) mediada pela COX, o qual &#233; um potente ativador da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria. Em compara&#231;&#227;o com o clopidogrel, os mecanismos de hiporresponsividade ao AAS n&#227;o foram ainda t&#227;o bem estudados. A n&#227;o ades&#227;o &#224; terapia medicamentosa &#233; um fator muito importante que contribui para a redu&#231;&#227;o da efic&#225;cia da droga e um aumento da reatividade plaquet&#225;ria. Uma metan&#225;lise recente demonstrou que a n&#227;o ades&#227;o ou a suspens&#227;o do tratamento com aspirina em pacientes com DAC &#233; bastante comum, e que por sua vez determina um risco tr&#234;s vezes maior para o desenvolvimento de ECVM nestes indiv&#237;duos <sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os mecanismos da hiporresponsividade ao AAS est&#227;o possivelmente relacionados &#224; variabilidade farmacodin&#226;mica e farmacogen&#233;tica de diversos processos fisiol&#243;gicos. A biodisponibilidade da aspirina pode ser afetada por altera&#231;&#245;es na absor&#231;&#227;o intestinal; o AAS pode ser hidrolisado e inativado por esterases da mucosa intestinal e existe uma poss&#237;vel variabilidade interindividual na express&#227;o e atividade destas enzimas. Al&#233;m disso, a dose da aspirina pode afetar o grau de inibi&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e diversos estudos cl&#237;nicos examinaram a dose ideal de AAS com o objetivo de maximizar o benef&#237;cio CV, buscando reduzir o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas. Embora alguns ensios tenham demonstrado que doses AAS de apenas 30 mg por dia s&#227;o capazes de inibir totalmente a atividade plaquet&#225;ria da COX-1<sup>20</sup>, a dose recomendada para a preven&#231;&#227;o CV secund&#225;ria varia entre 75 mg e 325 mg<sup>21</sup>. Estudos preliminares levantaram a possibilidade de que doses di&#225;rias de AAS inferiores a 100 mg poderiam resultar em aumento das taxas de atividade residual plaquet&#225;ria elevadas e em um aumento de ECVM em pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana est&#225;vel<sup>22</sup>. No entanto, apesar desta preocupa&#231;&#227;o inicial, estudos que arrolaram uma grande quantidade de indiv&#237;duos participantes e que avaliaram desfechos cl&#237;nicos para esta quest&#227;o da dose da aspirina demonstraram efic&#225;cia CV semelhante para posologias acima de 100 mg/dia<sup>1,23,24</sup>.</p>
    <p>Intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas tamb&#233;m podem alterar a efic&#225;cia do AAS. Particularmente, demonstrou-se que diversos AINEs competem com o AAS pela liga&#231;&#227;o aos receptores ativos da COX-1. Considerando-se que estes AINEs s&#227;o inibidores n&#227;o covalentes e com meia-vida curta (6-12h), a utiliza&#231;&#227;o concomitante com o AAS resulta no bloqueio alost&#233;rico do s&#237;tio ativo da COX. Este bloqueio do s&#237;tio ativo da COX mediado pelos AINEs, impede a inativa&#231;&#227;o irrevers&#237;vel da COX realizada pelo AAS e resulta na r&#225;pida recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o da COX e no conseq&#252;ente aumento da forma&#231;&#227;o de TX pelas plaquetas. O uso de AINEs concomitantes a terapia com AAS em pacientes com DAC demonstrou um aumento no risco para o desenvolvimento de IM em estudos cl&#237;nicos previamente publicados<sup>7</sup>. Os Inibidores da Bomba de Pr&#243;tons (IBP) tamb&#233;m podem alterar a biodisponibilidade do AAS atrav&#233;s de uma poss&#237;vel potencia&#231;&#227;o na hidr&#243;lise g&#225;strica deste f&#225;rmaco<sup>20</sup>. Os IBP s&#227;o frequentemente prescritos em combina&#231;&#227;o com a terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria a fim de se evitar a hemorragia gastrointestinal. Apesar das poss&#237;veis intera&#231;&#245;es entre a utiliza&#231;&#227;o concomitante do AAS e do clopidogrel com os IBP, estudos anteriores falharam na tentativa de demonstrar que o uso de IBP aumenta ECVM em pacientes tratados com TAPD ap&#243;s IBP<sup>25</sup>.</p>
    <p>O &#205;ndice de Massa Corporal elevado (IMC) e a DM est&#227;o associados com ARP<sup>4,26 </sup>e pacientes com SCA apresentam atividade plaquet&#225;ria basal elevada no cen&#225;rio de TAPD<sup>26</sup>. Embora a obesidade, o DM e a SCA estejam associados &#224; hiporresponsividade ao AAS, o mecanismo molecular envolvido no fen&#244;meno de resist&#234;ncia a este f&#225;rmaco nesses pacientes n&#227;o foi claramente estabelecido<sup>6,27</sup>. O aumento do processo inflamat&#243;rio que ocorre na obesidade, no diabetes e na SCA provavelmente promovem a ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e contribuem para a efic&#225;cia antiplaquet&#225;ria reduzida, aumentando a ativa&#231;&#227;o de vias inflamat&#243;rias que aumentam a atividade plaquet&#225;ria da COX<sup>28</sup>. Embora doses de AAS &gt; 100 mg/dia possam efetivamente bloquear a fun&#231;&#227;o da COX-1, a a&#231;&#227;o da COX-2 tem sido proposta como uma poss&#237;vel fonte adicional de TX s&#233;rico e que poderia contribuir para a atividade plaquet&#225;ria residual elevada<sup>29,30</sup>. At&#233; recentemente, pensava-se que a COX-1 era a &#250;nica isoforma expressa nas plaquetas, por&#233;m reconhece-se atualmente que as plaquetas de pacientes com um processo inflamat&#243;rio aumentado (cirurgia, infec&#231;&#227;o e elevada produ&#231;&#227;o de plaquetas) expressam a COX-2 na sua superf&#237;cie<sup>31</sup>. Entretanto, o quanto a COX-2 poder&#225; contribuir para a produ&#231;&#227;o in vivo de TX, ainda n&#227;o est&#225; claro<sup>22</sup>. O que observa-se &#233; que o aumento de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios como o que ocorre na SCA e no diabetes, podem aumentar a ativa&#231;&#227;o da COX, resultando em um incrmento na ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria basal. Dados recentes sustentam a premissa de que a inflama&#231;&#227;o aumenta as vias de ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, uma vez que observou-se que plaquetas de pacientes com SCA apresentam maiores taxas de transcritos de RNA mensageiro pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios derivados dos megacari&#243;citos<sup>32</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os polimorfismos gen&#233;ticos das prote&#237;nas envolvidas nas vias de ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria tamb&#233;m podem contribuir para os mecanismos de hiporresponsividade ao AAS. Os Polimorfismos de Nucleot&#237;deo &#218;nico (PNU) na COX-1 podem afetar a atividade enzim&#225;tica e/ou a efic&#225;cia de inibidores como o AAS, contribuindo assim para o desenvolvimento da hiporresponsividade<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>A preval&#234;ncia da hiporresponsividade ao AAS na nossa amostra (6,5%) &#233; semelhante a valores previamente reportados. Neste estudo, escolhemos a ATL para avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, pois trata-se de um m&#233;todo com adequada valida&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via e apresenta uma boa capacidade para identificar pacientes com ARP os quais apresentam um maior risco para desenvolver ECVM<sup>10,33</sup>. Coma inten&#231;&#227;o de se avaliar a ades&#227;o &#224; terapia farmacol&#243;gica, foi utilizado um ensaio padr&#227;o para a medi&#231;&#227;o de salicilato plasm&#225;tico<sup>27</sup>. Publica&#231;&#245;es anteriores demonstraram que ap&#243;s a ingest&#227;o de 320 mg de aspirina os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de salicilato foram iguais a 19 &#181;g/mL &#177; 3 &#181;g/mL<sup>34</sup>. Observamos nas nossas amostras, que os usu&#225;rios de aspirina nos quais observava-se uma atividade plaquet&#225;ria residual elevada, apresentavam n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de salicilato similares aos reportados em outras publica&#231;&#245;es (18,4 &#177; 6,1 &#181;g/mL), o que confirma a ades&#227;o &#224; medica&#231;&#227;o. A avalia&#231;&#227;o do TX urin&#225;rio &#233; outro m&#233;todo que pode ser utilizado para se avaliar a ades&#227;o &#224; terapia com AAS<sup>35</sup>; entretanto este m&#233;todo &#233; menos espec&#237;fico uma vez que pode ser influenciado pela forma&#231;&#227;o de TX dependente da atividade da COX-2 n&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, tal como foi discutido anteriormente<sup>36</sup>.</p>
    <p>Com o intuito de aumentar a acur&#225;cia dos nossos achados, escolhemos um ponto de corte rigoroso para identifica&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes hiporresponsivos ao AAS, ou seja, uma reatividade plaquet&#225;ria maior ou igual a 70% ap&#243;s est&#237;mulo tanto do ADP quanto do col&#225;geno. A escolha desta metodologia vai ao encontro de outras pesquisas previamente publicadas e que avaliaram similarmente a ades&#227;o ao tratamento com o AAS<sup>36-38</sup>. Embora um ponto de corte menor (= 50%) e uma menor dose dos reagentes tenha sido utilizado por alguns outros autores (5 &#181;M/mL a 20 &#181;M/mL de ADP), para se avaliar a hiporresponsividade tanto ao AAS, quanto ao clopidogrel<sup>10,18</sup>, optamos por usar 10 &#181;g/mL de col&#225;geno e 20 &#181;M/mL de ADP com objetivo de obtermos uma maior especificadade dos nossos resultados. Os achados de agrega&#231;&#227;o obtidos com o est&#237;mulo do ADP e do col&#225;geno mostraram uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o entre o grau de ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria (coeficiente de Pearson, r = 0,68). Esta correla&#231;&#227;o entre a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria mediada por diferentes reagentes, nos demonstra um semelhante estado de reatividade plaquet&#225;ria ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o realizada atrav&#233;s de duas vias diferentes de ativa&#231;&#227;o molecular. Embora n&#227;o tenhamos avaliado diretamente as vias de ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria dependentes da COX, atrav&#233;s da utiliza&#231;&#227;o do &#225;cido araquid&#244;nico, o presente estudo fornece uma leitura adequada da inibi&#231;&#227;o da atividade plaquet&#225;ria secund&#225;ria ao AAS mediadas pela a&#231;&#227;o do col&#225;geno e do ADP (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop11912fig03">Figura 3</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, nossos achados sugerem a exist&#234;ncia de uma poss&#237;vel correla&#231;&#227;o entre a presen&#231;a da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e o achado de hiporresponsividade plaquet&#225;ria &#224; aspirina (<xref ref-type="table" rid="aop11912tab04">Tabela 4</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="aop11912fig04">Figura 4</xref>). Esta correla&#231;&#227;o entre a hiporresponsividade ao AAS e a gravidade da DAC vai ao encontro de estudos anteriores os quais demonstraram uma persistente forma&#231;&#227;o de TX em pacientes tratados com AAS e com DAC grave previamente identificada<sup>40 </sup> , e em indiv&#237;duos submetidos a cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica<sup>39 </sup>. Mecanisticamente, um maior status inflamat&#243;rio em pacientes com DAC grave pode promover a ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e, conseq&#252;entemente, contribuir para a hiporresponsividade a terapia com o AAS.</p>
    <p>No presente estudo, n&#227;o foi poss&#237;vel se identificar poss&#237;veis diferen&#231;as na resposta &#224; terapia com a aspirina uma vez que os n&#237;veis de salicilato s&#233;rico foram avaliados apenas nos pacientes com ARP. Al&#233;m disso, o tamanho pequeno da amostra limita as conclus&#245;es sobre o papel de fatores cl&#237;nicos, tais como o uso do tabaco e o DM na resposta ao AAS, mesmo que estes fatores tenham alcan&#231;ado uma tend&#234;ncia &#224; signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica, como t&#234;m sido demonstrado em estudos anteriores. Todos os m&#233;dicos foram informados sobre os resultados da atividade plaquet&#225;ria residual de seus pacientes. No entanto, at&#233; agora n&#227;o existem dados que sugiram que a altera&#231;&#227;o da terapia antiplaquet&#225;ria em pacientes com elevada atividade plaquet&#225;ria residual diminua o risco cardiovascular.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em uma coorte de pacientes com DAC est&#225;vel encaminhados para angiografia, 6,5% dos pacientes apresentaram ARP apesar da terapia com AAS. Pesquisas futuras devem se concentrar na compreens&#227;o dos mecanismos de resist&#234;ncia a esta droga, e em determinar se estrat&#233;gias alternativas de doses diferentes deste f&#225;rmaco ou a associa&#231;&#227;o de uma farmacoterapia adjuvante podem reduzir o risco de eventos cardiovasculares em pacientes rrespondedores ao AAS.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Andr&#233; Manica </p>
        <p> Av. Princesa Isabel, 370 - Santana </p>
        <p> 90620-000 - Porto Alegre, RS, Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="andrelmanica@yahoo.com.br">andrelmanica@yahoo.com.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="editoracao-pc@cardiologia.org.br">editoracao-pc@cardiologia.org.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Recebido em 25/01/12; revisado recebido em 02/05/12; aceito em 26/09/12.</p>
  </body>
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          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Eikelboom</surname>
              <given-names>JW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Hirsh</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Weitz</surname>
              <given-names>JI</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Johnston</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yi</surname>
              <given-names>Q</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yusuf</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Prevalence of high platelet reactivity in aspirin-treated patients referred for coronary angiography</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Aspirin (ASA) reduces adverse events in coronary artery disease (CAD) patients by inhibiting platelets. Some CAD patients have high platelet reactivity (HPR) despite ASA therapy and these individuals have increased risk of adverse events. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of HPR in ASA-treated patients referred for coronary angiography and to assess whether the HPR correlates with the severity of CAD. METHODS: This single center investigation enrolled 115 consecutive ASA-treated patients with stable CAD. ADP- and collagen-induced platelet reactivity were evaluated by light transmittance aggregometry (LTA). Patients with greater than 70% ADP- and collagen-induced aggregation were determined to have HPR and, in this group, ASA compliance was assessed by examining blood salicylate levels. Mean age was 60.9 years and average ASA dose was 164.2 mg. RESULTS: Smoking and DM were present in 28.7% and 31.5% respectively. HPR was found in 14 patients (13%) however 7 of the 14 patients (50%) with HPR had low serum salicylate levels (&lt; 2.0 &#181;g/mL) suggesting medication noncompliance. Of the entire cohort, 6.5% of patients had HPR and detectable serum salicylate levels suggesting reduced ASA efficacy. HPR correlated with number and severity of coronary stenosis (p = 0.04). CONCLUSION: In a general population of ASA-treated patients referred for coronary angiography, elevated platelet reactivity is prevalent (13%) with 50% related to noncompliance and 50% related to reduced aspirin efficacy.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Coronary disease</kwd>
        <kwd>platelet aggregation</kwd>
        <kwd>aspirin</kwd>
        <kwd>coronary angiography</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <fn id="enda-body2">
          <label>
            <bold>Prevalence of high platelet reactivity in aspirin-treated patients referred for coronary angiography </bold>
          </label>
          <p>
            <bold>Andr&#233; Manica<sup>I,II</sup>; Rog&#233;rio Sarmento-Leite<sup>I</sup>; Clara Manfroi<sup>I</sup>; La Hore Rodrigues Jr.<sup>I</sup>; Carlos Gottschall<sup>I</sup>; Julio F Marchini<sup>II</sup>; Kevin Croce<sup>II</sup></bold>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul/Funda&#231;&#227;o Universit&#225;ria de Cardiologia - Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Cardiovascular Division - Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA</p>
      <p>Mailing Address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND:</bold> Aspirin (ASA) reduces adverse events in coronary artery disease (CAD) patients by inhibiting platelets. Some CAD patients have high platelet reactivity (HPR) despite ASA therapy and these individuals have increased risk of adverse events. </p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE:</bold> The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of HPR in ASA-treated patients referred for coronary angiography and to assess whether the HPR correlates with the severity of CAD.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> This single center investigation enrolled 115 consecutive ASA-treated patients with stable CAD. ADP- and collagen-induced platelet reactivity were evaluated by light transmittance aggregometry (LTA). Patients with greater than 70% ADP- and collagen-induced aggregation were determined to have HPR and, in this group, ASA compliance was assessed by examining blood salicylate levels. Mean age was 60.9 years and average ASA dose was 164.2 mg. </p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> Smoking and DM were present in 28.7% and 31.5% respectively. HPR was found in 14 patients (13%) however 7 of the 14 patients (50%) with HPR had low serum salicylate levels (&lt; 2.0 &#181;g/mL) suggesting medication noncompliance. Of the entire cohort, 6.5% of patients had HPR and detectable serum salicylate levels suggesting reduced ASA efficacy. HPR correlated with number and severity of coronary stenosis (p = 0.04).</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> In a general population of ASA-treated patients referred for coronary angiography, elevated platelet reactivity is prevalent (13%) with 50% related to noncompliance and 50% related to reduced aspirin efficacy.</p>
      <p><bold>Keywords: </bold>Coronary disease; platelet aggregation; aspirin/therapeutic use; coronary angiography.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Aspirin (ASA) is a primary therapy for the treatment of cardiovascular (CV) disease because it reduces major adverse CV events (MACE) by 25% in acute coronary syndrome (ACS) and stable coronary artery disease (CAD) patients<sup>1</sup>. Despite treatment with optimized medical regimens that include ASA, MACE rates are greater than 10% in stable CAD patients and greater than 28% in ACS patients<sup>2</sup>. Pharmacologic variability and reduced therapeutic efficacy may contribute to relatively high rates of recurrent CV events in CAD patients, and several studies have demonstrated that subsets of aspirin-treated patients have elevated residual platelet reactivity (ASA hyporesponders){Gum, 2003 #24}{Angiolillo, 2009 #711}{Helgason, 1994 #26}. Following percutaneous coronary intervention, ASA-treated patients with elevated platelet reactivity are at increased risk for periprocedural myocardial infarction (M.I.), MACE, and stent thrombosis<sup>3,4</sup>.</p>
      <p>The prevalence of high platelet reactivity (HPR) in ASA-treated patients varies between 0.4 and 34% depending on the patient population (healthy, stable CAD, ACS, diabetic), the type of platelet function test used, and the parameter or cutoff value which is chosen to define HPR<sup>5,6</sup>. The lack of standard laboratory methods and definitions to define aspirin hyporesponsiveness, also called resistance, has resulted in confusion about the clinical incidence of this phenomenon<sup>7,8</sup>.</p>
      <p>The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of HPR in aspirin-treated patients referred for coronary angiography with the goal of demonstrating the proportion of HPR related to medication noncompliance vs. reduced aspirin efficacy.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The clinical investigation protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Instituto de Cardiologia do Rio Grande do Sul and all patients provided informed consent. This single center study enrolled consecutive patients with stable CAD who were referred for coronary angiography between January 2006 and July 2007. Inclusion criteria required ongoing ASA use for more than 2 weeks, age &gt; 18 years, and willingness to participate with informed consent. Exclusion criteria are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1-body2">Table 1</xref>. Patients were excluded if they were taking concomitant medications (anticoagulants or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug -NSAID) that could inhibit platelet function or if they had medical conditions that influence hemostasis. Blood samples were collected from femoral artery or vein after sheath insertion and before administration of heparin or IIbIIIa inhibitors. Samples were immediately placed in evacuated tubes containing 3.2% citrate or EDTA 1.8%. Blood samples were obtained prior to administration of aspirin in preparation for coronary angiography, and platelet function testing occurred within 2 hours of obtaining samples. Platelet reactivity was assessed using light transmittance aggregometry (LTA) of platelet rich plasma on a dual channel Net Lab 2020 aggregometer using standard methods. Whole blood was centrifuged at 162g for 6 minutes to prepare platelet rich plasma (PRP). An aliquot of PRP was further centrifuged at 838g for 15 minutes to prepare platelet poor plasma that represented the baseline turbidity value equivalent to 100% aggregation. Platelet activity was measured by assessing aggregation in response to activation with 20&#181;mol/mL of ADP or 10&#181;g/mL of collagen. HPR was defined as 70% or greater aggregation for both ADP- and collagen-induced activation at 5 minutes. Plasma samples were stored at -80&#186;C to enable assessment of compliance in patients that had HPR by measuring blood salicylate levels using a commercial assay (Sigma Chemical Co., USA). Patients with blood salicylate levels less than 2 &#181;g/mL were determined to not be taking chronic aspirin therapy. The extent and severity of coronary artery disease was assessed by two independent interventional cardiologists who were blinded to the results of the platelet function testing. Coronary stenoses were counted if both cardiologists assessed severity to be greater than 50%. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 15.0 statistical analysis software and Stata 9.0 (StataCorp, College Station, TX). Data are reported as mean &#177; standard deviation and normally distributed data were assessed using the Student <italic>t</italic> test. For correlation between platelet aggregation and severity of CAD, Pearson correlation coefficient was used, and for categorical variables, the Fischer exact test was used. The correlation between aspirin hyporesponsiveness and the number of diseased arteries was evaluated with logistic regression analysis. Findings with p &lt; 0.05 were considered significant.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Of the 125 patients enrolled in the study, 115 were included in the final analysis; 3 patients were excluded due to evidence of coagulation in the blood samples and 7 patients were excluded because there was greater than a 2 hour delay in the time required to perform aggregation studies. The baseline characteristics of the patients are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab2-body2">Table 2</xref>. The mean dose of aspirin was 164.7 &#177; 60.3 mg. A representative LTA curve is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop11912fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>. For individual patients, ADP- and collagen-induced aggregation showed significant correlation when assessed by Pearson's coefficient (r = 0.68) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop11912fig02-body2">Figure 2</xref>). The extent of ADP- and collagen-stimulated aggregation did not vary across a spectrum of ASA doses (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop11912fig03-body2">Figure 3</xref>), and specific indices of ADP- and collagen-initiated platelet aggregation are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab3-body2">Table 3</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop11912fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop11912fig02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop11912fig03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab3-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Results of the platelet aggregation studies demonstrated that 101 patients (87%) met criteria for adequate ASA response (&lt;70% collagen- or ADP-induced aggregation), while 14 patients (13%) had HPR with aggregation values greater than 70%. When we analyzed the blood from the 14 patients with HPR, 7 patients (50%) had blood salicylate levels less than 2 &#181;g/mL (0.57 &#177; 0.24 &#181;g/mL), and this group was determined to be noncompliant with ASA therapy. The remaining 7 patients had both HPR and a plasma salicylate level greater than 2 &#181;g/mL. These 7 patients were determined to be ASA hyporesponders, and had a mean salicylate level of 18.4 &#177; 6.1 &#181;g/mL. When ASA hyporesponsive patients were compared to those with normal responses, the groups did not differ in age, gender, presence of diabetes mellitus, history previous myocardial infarction or aspirin dose (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop11912tab04-body2">Table 4</xref>). The rates of smoking and diabetes were higher numerically in the ASA hyporesponsive group (Diabetes OR 3.16, 95% CI 0.66 to 14.9, p = 0.2; Tobacco 3.61, 95% CI 0.75 to 17.24, p = 0.19) but these differences did not meet statistical significance. When the presence of CAD, (defined as &gt; 50% stenosis of any epicardical heart artery) was evaluated, 85.7% of the ASA hyporesponders had significant CAD compared to 39.6% of the ASA responsive patients (OR 9.15, 95% CI 1.06 to 78.8). Aspirin hyporesponsiveness was associated with a higher number of diseased coronary arteries (OR 3.58 per vessel, 95% CI 1.69 to 7.61, r<sup>2</sup> = 0.24), with the ASA hyporesponders having an average of 1.85 &#177; 0.89 diseased coronary arteries per patient compared to 0.43 &#177; 0.79 in the ASA sensitive group (p = 0.04) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop11912tab04-body2">Table 4</xref>). When patients were stratified by the number of coronary arteries with &gt;50% stenosis, the incidence of ASA resistance increased with number of diseased arteries (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop11912fig04-body2">Figure 4</xref>). There was no difference among aspirin responders and hyporesponders in the location of coronary stenoses (left main, left anterior descending, left circumflex, right coronary arteries).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_aop11912tab04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_aop11912fig04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-100-01-0029-00002-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There is increasing scientific evidence supports the premise that there is significant interindividual variability in the degree of platelet inhibition achieved with common antiplatelet therapies. Antiplatelet response variability is an important clinical problem because CAD patients that have HPR in the setting of ASA or platelet P2Y12-ADP receptor antagonist therapy have increased risk of CV events<sup>9</sup>. The greatest risk of antiplatelet therapy hyporesponsiveness occurs following PCI and stenting where HPR in the setting of ASA and ADP-receptor antagonist dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) is associated with a 2-fold increase in the risk of stent thrombosis<sup>3,10</sup>. Stent thrombosis is an infrequent but serious complication, which results in myocardial infarction rates exceeding 60%, case fatality rates ranging from 10 to 45%<sup>11-14</sup>, and increased long term MACE<sup>15</sup>. Several clinical factors including ACS presentation, body mass index (BMI) &gt; 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, diabetes, and congestive heart failure (CHF) are associated with hyporesponsiveness to antiplatelet therapies<sup>16</sup>. The prevalence of hyporesponsiveness to antiplatelet therapy varies greatly (0.4 to 83.3%) depending on the drug under examination, and the clinical and ethnic population assessed<sup>17</sup>. The prevalence of aspirin or ADP-receptor antagonist hyporesponsiveness also varies significantly depending on the method used to assess platelet activation and on the cut-point chosen to determine responsiveness<sup>5</sup>. More than five methods for assessing platelet function are available, and the specific tests differ in their ability to predict CV MACE<sup>4,18</sup>. LTA was used in this investigation because it is a well-validated method that accurately identifies HPR patients who are at increased risk of CV events and stent thrombosis<sup>10,18</sup>.</p>
      <p>It is increasingly evident that PCI patients who are hyporesponders to both aspirin and the ADP receptor antagonist clopidogrel are at markedly increased risk for CV events<sup>3</sup>. Recently, the mechanisms of clopidogrel hyporesponsiveness have been the focus of several clinical studies which have demonstrated that clopidogrel hyporesponsiveness results in part from reduced-function genetic polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450 enzyme pathways that convert clopidogrel, which is a prodrug, to its active form<sup>10</sup>. Additional mechanisms of clopidogrel hyporesponsiveness have been reviewed previously<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>Aspirin inhibits platelet activation by acetylating the platelet cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme resulting in irreversible inactivation and suppression of COX-mediated production of thromboxane (TX), which is a potent platelet activating agent. Compared to clopidogrel, the mechanisms of ASA hyporesponsiveness are less clear. Noncompliance is a very important factor that contributes to reduced medication efficacy and elevated platelet reactivity. A meta-analysis demonstrated that aspirin non-adherence or withdrawal is common, and is associated with three-fold higher risk of major adverse cardiac events in CAD patients<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>The mechanisms of ASA hyporesponsiveness are possibly related to pharmacodynamic and pharmacogenetic variability in several physiological processes. ASA bioavailability can be affected by alterations in intestinal absorption; ASA can be hydrolyzed and inactivated by intestinal mucosal esterase and there is potential for interindividual variability in the expression and activity of these enzymes. In addition, aspirin dosing can potentially affect the degree of platelet inhibition and several clinical studies have examined the optimal dose of ASA with the goal of maximizing CV benefit while minimizing bleeding risk. Although some studies have shown that ASA doses as low as 30 mg per day will fully inhibit COX-1 activity in platelets<sup>20</sup>, recommended dosing for CV therapy varies between 75 mg and 325 mg<sup>21</sup>. Early reports raised the possibility that ASA doses lower than 100 mg per day could result in increased rates of high platelet activity and increased CV MACE in patients with stable coronary artery disease<sup>22</sup>. However, despite this initial concern, large-scale clinical outcome studies have demonstrated equivalent CV efficacy for doses over 100 mg/day<sup>1,23,24</sup>.</p>
      <p>Drug-drug interactions also have the potential to alter ASA efficacy. In particular, several NSAID have been shown to compete with ASA for binding to the active site of COX-1. Because these NSAIDS are non-covalent inhibitors with short half-lives (6-12h), concomitant use with ASA results in allosteric blockade of the COX active site. This NSAID-mediated blockade of the COX active site prevents ASA-mediated irreversible inactivation of COX and results in rapid recovery of COX function and increased TX formation. NSAID use in the setting of ASA therapy for CAD has been shown to increase the risk of M.I. in clinical studies<sup>7</sup>. Proton pump inhibitors (PPI) could also potentially alter ASA bioavailability by potentiating gastric hydrolysis of ASA<sup>20</sup>. PPIs are frequently prescribed in combination with antiplatelet therapy in order to prevent gastrointestinal bleeding. Despite concern for reduced efficacy of ASA and clopidogrel in the setting of use with concomitant PPI's, clinical data have failed to demonstrate that PPI use increases MACE in DAPT-treated patients following PCI<sup>25</sup>.</p>
      <p>Elevated Body Mass Index (BMI) and diabetes mellitus (DM) are associated with HPR<sup>4,26</sup> and patients with ACS consistently have elevated baseline platelet activity in the setting of DAPT<sup>26</sup>. Although obesity, DM, and ACS are associated with ASA hyporesponsiveness, the exact molecular mechanism involved in ASA resistance in these patients has not been clearly established<sup>6,27</sup>. Increased inflammation in obesity, diabetes, and ACS likely promotes platelet activation and contributes to reduced antiplatelet efficacy by increasing activation of inflammatory pathways that increase platelet COX activity<sup>28</sup>. Although ASA doses &gt;100 mg/day can effectively block COX-1 function, COX-2 has been identified as potential additional source of TX that might contribute to elevated residual platelet responsiveness<sup>29,30</sup>. Until recently, COX-1 was thought to be the only isoform expressed in platelets, but it is now recognized that the platelets of patients with active inflammation (surgery, infection, and disorders with increased platelet turnover) express COX-2<sup>31</sup>. The degree to which COX-2 contributes to TX production <italic>in vivo</italic> is unclear<sup>22</sup>. However, the presence of elevated inflammatory mediators in ACS and diabetes may increase COX activity resulting in chronic baseline platelet activation. Recent data also support the premise that inflammation increases platelet activation pathways, demonstrating that platelets of patients with ACS have increased megakaryocyte-derived proinflammatory mRNA transcripts<sup>32</sup>.</p>
      <p>Genetic polymorphisms of the proteins involved in platelet activation pathways could also contribute to mechanisms of ASA hyporesponsiveness. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in COX-1 have the potential to impact enzyme activity and/or efficacy of inhibitors such as ASA, thereby contributing to ASA hyporesonsiveness<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>The prevalence of ASA hyporesponsiveness in our investigation (6.5%) agrees with reported values. In our study, we chose LTA to assess platelet function because LTA is a well-validated method which has proven ability to identify patients with HPR who are at risk for MACE<sup>10,33</sup>. In order to assess compliance, we used a standard assay for measurement of plasma salicylate<sup>27</sup>. In previous studies, blood plasma salicylate levels were 19&#181;g/mL +/- 3&#181;g/mL after ingestion of 320 mg of aspirin<sup>34</sup>. In our study, aspirin users with high residual platelet activity had similar plasma salicylate levels (18.4 &#177; 6.1 &#181;g/mL) which confirms medication compliance. Urinary TX measurement is another method which can be utilized to asses ASA compliance<sup>35</sup>, although this method is less direct and has the potential to be influenced by non-platelet COX-2 activity as discussed above<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>For our study, we specifically chose a stringent cutoff of &gt;70% ADP- and collagen-stimulated platelet aggregation to identify ASA hyporesponders, as this methodology is consistent with other investigations examining ASA compliance<sup>36-38</sup>. Although a cut-point of 50% aggregation has been used by some groups to assess ASA and/or clopidogrel hyporesponsiveness in the setting of activation with either 5&#181;M/mL or 20&#181;M/mL ADP<sup>10,18</sup>, striving to obtain stringent specificity, we elected to use 10&#181;g/mL collagen and 20&#181;M/mL ADP doses. The aggregation results obtained with ADP and collagen showed strong correlation in the extent of platelet activation (Pearson's coefficient, r = 0.68). This correlation between ADP- and collagen-activated platelet aggregation demonstrates similar state of platelet inhibition following stimulation through two distinct molecular activation pathways. Although we did not directly interrogate COX-dependent platelet activation pathways with the platelet agonist arachidonic acid, the current study does provide meaningful readout of ASA inhibition of ADP- and collagen-mediated platelet responses (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop11912fig03-body2">Figure 3</xref>). In addition, these investigations demonstrate a clear correlation between the extent of coronary artery disease and ASA hyporesponsiveness (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_aop11912tab04-body2">Table 4</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_aop11912fig04-body2">Figure 4</xref>). This correlation between ASA hyporesponsiveness and CAD severity is consistent with previous reports demonstrating persistent formation of TX in ASA-treated patients with CAD requiring surgical revascularization<sup>39</sup> and in patients with known severe CAD<sup>40</sup>. Mechanistically, a higher inflammatory milieu in patients with extensive CAD might promote platelet activation and thus contribute to ASA hyporesponsiveness.</p>
      <p>In the current study, it was not possible to ascertain differences in ASA response as a function of salicylate levels because the study was constrained to testing salicylate levels only in patients with HPR. In addition, the small sample size limits conclusions on the role of clinical factors such as tobacco use and DM on ASA response. Despite the small sample size, smoking and DM trended toward significance for association with ASA hyporesponsiveness as has been shown in previous studies. All the physicians were informed about the results of the residual platelet activity. However, so far there is no data suggesting that changing the antiplatelet therapy on patients with high residual platelet activity would decrease the cardiovascular risk.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In a cohort of stable coronary artery disease patients referred for angiography, 6.5% of patients had HPR despite ASA therapy. Future research should focus on understanding the mechanisms of ASA resistance, and on determining if alternative ASA dosing strategies or adjunctive pharmacotherapy can reduce the risk of CV events in ASA hyporesponsive patients.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
