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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">2675-312X/20223501ecom19</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.47593/2675-312X/20223501ecom19</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>My Approach To</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>My Approach to the Echocardiographic Assessment of Mitral Annular Calcification: Challenges and Particularities</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Barros</surname>
						<given-names>Antonio Carlos Leite de</given-names>
						<suffix>Filho</suffix>
					</name>
					<bio>
						<p>
							<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-ingf01.tif"/>
						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Romano</surname>
						<given-names>Minna Moreira Dias</given-names>
					</name>
					<bio>
						<p>
							<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-ingf02.tif"/>
						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">University of São Paulo</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Cardiology Center</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">São Paulo</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Cardiology Center of the School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo-USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Minna Moreira Dias Romano</bold> • Department of Clinical Medicine, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo- FMRP-USP, SP, Brazil. E-mail: <email>minna@fmrp.usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Authors’ contributions</bold></p>
					<p>Manuscript writing: Barros Filho ACL; Literature review: Barros Filho ACL; Image release agreement and figure preparation: Barros Filho ACL, Romano MMD; Manuscript review: Romano MMD; Critical analysis: Romano MMD</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Conflict of interest</bold></p>
					<p>The authors have declared that they have no conflict of interest.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>30</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>35</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>ecom19</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>10</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2021</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>13</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>04</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Mitral Valve</kwd>
				<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
				<kwd>Calcinosis</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="8"/>
				<table-count count="0"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="22"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Mitral annular calcification (MAC) is a chronic degenerative process that affects the fibrous structure supporting the mitral valve. It is present in 8–15% of the general population; however, its prevalence can reach 40% in older people and 50% in patients with chronic kidney disease. Although it was previously classified as a degenerative pathophysiology associated with age or calcium metabolism, other etiological factors have been suggested, such as atherosclerotic disease and its risk factors (hypertension, obesity, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, smoking), exposure to radiation therapy, and conditions that increase mitral valve stress, such as aortic valve stenosis, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and mitral valve prolapse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			<p>MAC is related to an increased risk of a number of adverse cardiac events, such as acute myocardial infarction, stroke, arrhythmias (conduction disorders and atrial fibrillation), and mitral valve disease (mitral stenosis, mitral regurgitation, and infective endocarditis).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> It is also associated with a higher risk of complications and mortality in patients undergoing mitral valve surgery. Although most cases are not associated with mitral valve dysfunction, some may progress with an increased mitral transvalvular gradient.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Normal mitral annulus anatomy and function</title>
			<p>The mitral valve apparatus is a complex three-dimensional unit formed by different structures dynamically interacting throughout the cardiac cycle, including the left ventricle (LV), papillary muscles, chordae tendineae, leaflets, and mitral valve annulus. It is not histologically uniform. Its anteromedial portion, called the mitral-aortic curtain, is more rigid and formed by a curved band of connective tissue that connects the aortic annulus at the level of the left and non-coronary leaflet and the junction of the left atrium wall with the anterior leaflet. On the other hand, the posterior portion of the annulus is formed by a semicircle of fibrous tissue connected with the muscular walls (atrial and left ventricular), the mitral leaflets at the level of the hinges, and the epicardial adipose tissue. The mitral annulus is shaped like a bean or a “D”; however, its three-dimensional evaluation appears as a horse saddle, the ideal configuration to minimize leaflet stress and ensure adequate coaptation. In this saddle, the “highest” points correspond to the most anterior portion, visualized on the two-dimensional echocardiogram in the parasternal longitudinal window. Its nadir corresponds to the portion visualized in the apical four-chamber view. The posterior portion of the annulus, which is less fibrotic, shifts during left ventricular systole, increasing the saddle height and decreasing the circumferential area.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The quantitative analysis of the mitral annulus through linear measurements obtained using tomographic techniques such as two-dimensional echocardiography may not adequately represent its complex non-planar structure, underestimating these measurements; moreover, it is examiner-dependent due to the need for adequate plane alignment for image acquisition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> In contrast, measurements obtained with the three-dimensional method are not dependent on geometric assumptions and can be obtained even using transthoracic echocardiography; however, this method is less available, expensive, and dependent on a software-dedicated analysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Important measurements for understanding the mitral annulus, such as its anteroposterior and inter-commissural diameters ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref> ) or even its circumference and height, are easily quantified by three-dimensional echocardiography and should ideally be acquired transesophageally.</p>
			<fig id="f1">
				<label>Figure 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Three-dimensional rendering of the mitral valve annulus (yellow outline), which enables measurements such as the inter-commissural (thick arrow) and anteroposterior diameter (thin arrow).</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-gf01.tif"/>
			</fig>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Echocardiographic evaluation of MAC</title>
			<p>MAC can be identified on echocardiography as an irregular hyperechoic structure involving the mitral valve annulus with the formation of a posterior acoustic shadow that most commonly affects its posterior portion ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<fig id="f2">
				<label>Figure 2</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Two-dimensional evaluation of mitral annular calcification, which can be identified on the parasternal longitudinal projection as increased brightness intensity in the two-dimensional image (Panel A, yellow arrow). It can be quantified by its extension or its thickness on the parasternal short-axis projection (Panel B, yellow arrow and measurement line).</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-gf02.tif"/>
			</fig>
			<p>Calcifications identified on two-dimensional echocardiography are usually already extended beyond the thin portion corresponding to the mitral valve annulus itself; their location must be described in detail as it has prognostic and therapeutic implications. Calcifications involving the base of the valve leaflets can result in calcium mitral stenosis. Unlike rheumatic stenosis, mitral stenosis does not progress with commissural fusion, as it is unresponsive to percutaneous intervention with a balloon catheter. Furthermore, in MAC stenosis, the valve apparatus usually appears more tubular, with the area at the tip of the leaflets closer to the basal portion area; in rheumatic stenosis, the valve apparatus has a funnel-shaped appearance, with the area at the tip of the leaflets smaller than the basal area.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> On the other hand, involvement of the atrial surface of the leaflets can result in valve failure due to reduced mobility and consequent difficult leaflet coaptation. Some patients with LV basal wall involvement ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref> ) may have mobile deposits that must be described due to the risk of embolization. Finally, patients with calcifications extending to the right fibrous trigone are at increased risk of atrioventricular conduction disorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
			<fig id="f3">
				<label>Figure 3</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Patient with mitral valve prolapse and calcification of part of the posterior portion of the valve annulus. A. The parasternal longitudinal plane showing mitral valve prolapse (thin arrow) and calcification of the valve annulus with formation of posterior acoustic shadow (thick arrows). B. The apical three-chamber plane showing calcification of the valve annulus (thin arrow).</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-gf03.tif"/>
			</fig>
			<p>MAC is subjectively graded according to the extent of mitral annulus surface calcification. It is considered severe when more than 4 mm thick (measured on the short axis in the anteroposterior direction) ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref> ), when involving more than 50% of the mitral annulus, or if it reaches the LV inlet. Calcium deposition in less than ⅓ of the annulus is considered mild MAC, while that affecting ⅓ to ½ of the annulus is considered moderate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Three-dimensional echocardiography may be useful in the study of annulus dynamics in MAC patients. The annulus is more extended during diastole; however, it is flatter (i.e. loses its height) with an increased anteroposterior dimension. During systole, there is a reduction in saddle conformation and annular contraction (annulus area variation), mainly due to a reduced anteroposterior diameter variation and increased leaflet tenting length and volume without significant inter-commissural diameter variations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Estimating the mitral valve area in such patients can be challenging. The continuity equation can be used as long as mild mitral or aortic regurgitation is not greater than mild. Even so, the estimate may be less accurate due to difficulties in measuring the diameter of the LV outflow tract (due to associated aortic or mitral-aortic curtain calcification). In addition, the LV outflow tract and mitral valve flows are not obtained simultaneously and temporally in the cardiac cycle, which can be even more challenging in patients with an irregular heart rhythm. On the other hand, Doppler estimation using pressure half-time may overestimate the valve area (underestimating stenosis severity) due to decreased LV compliance and increased LV diastolic pressure, which are common in older patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Planimetry by two- and three-dimensional echocardiography may be inaccurate due to acoustic shadow formation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The dimensionless index of the mitral valve can be useful for grading stenosis. It can be obtained by dividing the time-velocity integral value obtained by pulsed-wave Doppler in the LV outflow tract by the time-velocity integral value obtained by continuous-wave Doppler of the mitral inflow. Values lower than 0.35 are correlated with very severe stenosis (mitral valve area &lt; 1 cm²), while those 0.35–0.50 suggest severe stenosis (&lt;1.5 cm²) ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
			<fig id="f4">
				<label>Figure 4</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Patient with mitral annular calcification (MAC) and a double valve lesion. A. The parasternal short-axis plane at the level of the mitral valve showing calcification of the posterior valve annulus (thick arrow) with formation of a posterior acoustic shadow (thin arrow). B. The apical four-chamber plane with color Doppler showing mitral insufficiency (thick arrow) and the formation of posterior acoustic shadow (thin arrow). C. The time-velocity integral obtained with continuous-wave Doppler of the mitral inflow. D. The time-velocity integral obtained with pulsed-wave Doppler of the LV outflow tract. E. Three-dimensional (3D) transesophageal echocardiogram from the left atrium perspective showing asymmetric MAC distribution (thick arrow). F. The 3D transesophageal echocardiogram from the LV perspective showing a slightly reduced valve opening without commissural involvement (thin arrows).</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-gf04.tif"/>
			</fig>
			<p>The mitral transvalvular gradient should also be cautiously interpreted. In rheumatic mitral stenosis, the relationship between the mean gradient (MG) and the mitral valve area (MVA) is predictable, i.e., when the MG is &gt; 10 mmHg, the MVA is &lt; 1.0 cm². In MAC, this relationship is unpredictable due to a series of confounders. The high flow often present in renal failure and mitral regurgitation may overestimate the MG. On the other hand, the increased LV diastolic pressure caused by advanced age, significant aortic valve disease, or LV systolic dysfunction may underestimate the MG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
			<p>These are the predictors of a worse one-year prognosis: MG &gt; 8 mmHg, MVA &lt; 1.5 cm², RV systolic pressure &gt; 50 mmHg, and the presence of atrial fibrillation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			<p>It is important to remember that the transthoracic echocardiogram may underestimate the degree of mitral regurgitation due to the formation of an acoustic shadow posterior to the valve annulus. The regurgitant jet should be analyzed by color Doppler in multiple views, and the power of the subcostal window for this purpose should not be underestimated since it is complemented by transesophageal echocardiography.</p>
			<p>In symptomatic patients, interventional procedures may be indicated when symptom control fails after optimized drug treatment; however, the results are dubious and the perioperative risk is often high. Mitral valve replacement surgery with calcium removal is technically challenging due to difficulty obtaining adequate cleavage planes, especially in patients with calcification extending to the LV wall.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> On the other hand, mitral valve replacement with calcium maintenance can result in paravalvular leak and prosthesis–patient mismatch, common complications in this scenario. In recent years, percutaneous intervention with aortic prosthesis implantation in the mitral position (valve in MAC) has become an alternative in selected cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> The major complications of this procedure involve LV outflow obstruction, atrial embolization of the prosthesis, and paravalvular leak.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>MAC is a progressive process with several risk factors and related to a series of adverse cardiovascular events such as arrhythmias, valvular heart disease, heart rhythm disorders, and stroke. In the presence of calcium valve stenosis, stenosis degree grading has some particularities related to rheumatic mitral valve stenosis. The complex anatomy of the mitral valve apparatus can be assessed by two- and three-dimensional echocardiography, and its detailed characterization can add prognostic information that aids the cardiologist with clinical decision-making.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Como Eu Faço</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Como eu Faço Avaliação Ecocardiográfica da Calcificação do Anel Mitral: Desafios e Particularidades</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Barros</surname>
						<given-names>Antonio Carlos Leite de</given-names>
						<suffix>Filho</suffix>
					</name>
					<bio>
						<p>
							<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-ingf01-pt.tif"/>
						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Romano</surname>
						<given-names>Minna Moreira Dias</given-names>
					</name>
					<bio>
						<p>
							<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-ingf02-pt.tif"/>
						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Ribeirão Preto</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Centro de Cardiologia, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil.</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Minna Moreira Dias Romano</bold> • Departamento de Clínica Médica, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo. E-mail: <email>minna@fmrp.usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Contribuições dos autores</bold></p>
					<p>Elaboração do texto: Barros Filho ACL; Revisão bibliográfica: Barros Filho ACL; Cessão de imagens e preparo de figuras: Barros Filho ACL e Romano MMD; Revisão do texto: Romano MMD; Análise crítica: Romano MMD.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Conflito de interesses</bold></p>
					<p>Os autores declaram não terem conflitos de interesse.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Valva mitral</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
				<kwd>Calcinose</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A calcificação do anel mitral (CAM) é um processo degenerativo crônico que acomete a estrutura fibrosa de sustentação da valva mitral. Está presente em 8% a 15% da população em geral; porém, a prevalência pode chegar a 40% em idosos e a 50% em pacientes com insuficiência renal crônica. Embora tenha sido considerada, no passado, de fisiopatologia degenerativa relacionada à idade ou ao metabolismo de cálcio, outros fatores etiológicos são sugeridos, como a própria doença aterosclerótica e seus fatores de risco (hipertensão, obesidade, dislipidemia, diabetes melito e tabagismo), assim como exposições a radioterapia e condições que aumentam o estresse valvar mitral, como a estenose valvar aórtica, a cardiomiopatia hipertrófica e o prolapso valvar mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O diagnóstico de CAM está relacionado com o aumento do risco de uma série de eventos cardíacos adversos, como infarto agudo do miocárdio, acidente vascular encefálico, arritmias (distúrbios de condução e fibrilação atrial) e doença valvar mitral (estenose mitral, insuficiência mitral e endocardite infecciosa).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Além disso, está relacionado com maior risco de complicações e mortalidade em pacientes submetidos à cirurgia valvar mitral. Embora a maioria dos casos não seja acompanhada de disfunção valvar mitral, pode haver, em alguns casos, repercussões com aumento de gradiente transvalvar mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Anatomia e função do anel mitral normal</title>
				<p>O aparato valvar mitral é uma estrutura tridimensional complexa formada por diferentes estruturas que interagem de maneira dinâmica ao longo do ciclo cardíaco: o ventrículo esquerdo (VE), os músculos papilares, as cordoalhas tendíneas, as cúspides e o anel valvar mitral. Este não é formado por uma estrutura histologicamente uniforme. A porção anteromedial, a cortina mitroaórtica, é mais rígida, formada por uma faixa curva de tecido conjuntivo, que interliga o anel da aorta ao nível das cúspides esquerda e não coronariana e a junção da parede do átrio esquerdo com o folheto anterior da valva mitral. Por outro lado, a porção posterior do anel é formada por um semicírculo de tecido fibroso, que se conecta com as paredes musculares (atrial e ventricular esquerda), os folhetos mitrais ao nível das dobradiças e o tecido adiposo epicárdico. O anel mitral apresenta a forma de um feijão, ou forma em “D”; porém, em sua avaliação tridimensional, assume o formato de sela de cavalo, que é a configuração ideal para minimizar o estresse dos folhetos e garantir a adequada coaptação deles. Nessa sela, os pontos mais “altos” correspondem à porção mais anterior, visualizada ao ecocardiograma bidimensional na janela paraesternal longitudinal. Seu nadir corresponde à porção visualizada no apical de 4 câmaras. A porção posterior do anel, menos fibrótica, desloca-se durante a sístole ventricular esquerda, aumentando a altura da sela e reduzindo a área circunferencial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A análise quantitativa do anel mitral, por meio de medidas lineares, obtidas de técnicas tomográficas, como a ecocardiografia bidimensional, pode não representar de maneira adequada a complexa estrutura não planar do mesmo, subestimando as medidas, além de ser examinador-dependente, pela necessidade de alinhamento adequado dos planos na aquisição das imagens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Por outro lado, as medidas obtidas por meio do método tridimensional não são dependentes de presunções geométricas e podem ser realizadas mesmo pela ecocardiografia transtorácica; porém, tal método é menos disponível, de custo elevado e dependente de <italic>softwares</italic> dedicados de análise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Pela ecocardiografia tridimensional, medidas importantes para o entendimento do anel mitral, como seu diâmetro anteroposterior, intercomissural ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref> ), ou ainda medida de sua circunferência e altura, são facilmente quantificadas e, idealmente, devem ser adquiridas, por via transesofágica.</p>
				<fig id="f5">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Renderização tridimensional do anel valvar mitral (contorno amarelo). Dessa forma, é possível a realização de medidas, como o diâmetro intercomissural (seta grossa) e o diâmetro anteroposterior (seta fina).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-gf01-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Avaliação ecocardiográfica da calcificação anular mitral</title>
				<p>A CAM pode ser identificada pelo ecocardiograma como uma estrutura irregular hiperecogênica envolvendo o anel valvar mitral, com a formação de sombra acústica posterior, acometendo mais comumente a porção posterior do anel valvar<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref> ).</p>
				<fig id="f6">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Avaliação bidimensional da calcificação do anel mitral. A calcificação de anel mitral pode ser vista em projeção paraesternal longitudinal, pelo aumento da intensidade de brilho na imagem bidimensional (A, seta amarela) e pode ser quantificada tanto pela extensão, quanto pela medida de espessura em projeção paraesternal de eixo curto (B, seta amarela e linha de medida).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-gf02-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>Habitualmente, quando a calcificação é notada ao ecocardiograma bidimensional, ela já se estendeu além da fina porção correspondente ao anel valvar mitral propriamente dito, e tal localização deve ser detalhadamente descrita, pois apresenta implicações prognósticas e terapêuticas. Quando a calcificação envolve a base dos folhetos valvares, ela pode resultar em estenose mitral cálcica. Diferentemente da estenose reumática, esta não cursa com fusão comissural, não respondendo à intervenção percutânea com cateter balão. Além disso, na estenose mitral da CAM, o aparato valvar usualmente apresenta um aspecto mais tubular, sendo a área na ponta dos folhetos mais próxima da área na porção basal; enquanto, na estenose reumática, o aparato valvar apresenta um aspecto funilar, com a área na ponta dos folhetos menor do que a área na porção basal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Por outro lado, o acometimento da superfície atrial dos folhetos pode resultar em insuficiência valvar, pela redução de mobilidade e pela consequente dificuldade de coaptação dos folhetos. Alguns pacientes com acometimento das paredes basais do VE ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref> ) podem apresentar depósitos móveis, que devem ser descritos pelo risco de embolização. Finalmente, pacientes com extensão da calcificação para o trígono fibroso direito apresentam maior risco maior de distúrbios de condução átrio ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<fig id="f7">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Paciente com prolapso valvar mitral apresentando calcificação de parte da porção posterior do anel valvar. (A) No plano paraesternal longitudinal, nota-se o prolapso valvar mitral (seta fina) e a calcificação do anel valvar com formação de sombra acústica posterior (setas grossas). (B) No plano apical 3 câmaras, evidencia-se a calcificação do anel valvar (seta fina).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-gf03-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>A calcificação do anel mitral é graduada, de maneira subjetiva, de acordo com a extensão da calcificação na superfície do anel mitral. É considerada acentuada quando apresenta mais de 4mm de espessura (medida no eixo curto no sentido anteroposterior; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref> ), quando envolve mais de 50% do anel mitral, ou caso alcance a via de entrada do VE. A deposição de cálcio em menos de um terço da extensão do anel é considerada calcificação do anel mitral leve; entre um terço e metade do anel é considerada moderada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A ecocardiografia tridimensional pode ser útil no estudo da dinâmica do anel em pacientes com calcificação do anel mitral. Durante a diástole, observa-se um anel maior em extensão; porém, mais plano (perdendo sua dimensão na altura), com aumento da dimensão anteroposterior. Durante a sístole, ocorre redução da conformação em sela e redução da contração anular (variação da área do anel), principalmente pela redução da variação do diâmetro anteroposterior e pelo aumento do comprimento e do volume de <italic>tenting</italic> dos folhetos, sem variação significativa do diâmetro intercomissural.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A estimativa da área valvar mitral (AVMi) pode ser desafiadora nesses pacientes. A equação de continuidade pode ser utilizada, não havendo insuficiência mitral ou aórtica de grau maior do que leve. Ainda assim, sua medida pode ser menos acurada pela dificuldade de medida do diâmetro da via de saída do VE (pela calcificação aórtica associada ou pela calcificação da cortina mitro-aórtica). Além disso, os fluxos na via de saída do VE e na valva mitral não são obtidos de forma simultânea temporalmente no ciclo cardíaco, o que pode ser ainda mais desafiador em pacientes com ritmo cardíaco irregular. Por outro lado, a estimativa pelo Doppler utilizando o <italic>pressure half-time</italic> (PHT) pode superestimar o valor da área valvar (subestimando a gravidade da estenose) pela menor complacência do VE e pelo aumento da pressão diastólica do VE, comum em idosos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> A planimetria pelo ecocardiograma bi e tridimensional pode ser pouco acurada pela formação de sombra acústica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O índice adimensional da valva mitral pode ser útil na gradação da estenose. Pode ser obtida dividindo-se o valor da integral tempo-velocidade obtido pelo Doppler pulsado na via de saída do VE pelo valor da integral tempo-velocidade pelo Doppler contínuo do influxo mitral. Valores inferiores a 0,35 se correlacionam com estenose muito acentuada (AVMi &lt;1cm²) e valores entre 0,35 e 0,50 sugerem estenose acentuada (&lt;1,5cm²)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 4</xref> ).</p>
				<fig id="f8">
					<label>Figura 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Paciente com calcificação do anel mitral com dupla lesão valvar. (A) No plano paraesternal eixo curto, no nível da valva mitral, observa-se a calcificação do anel valvar posterior (seta grossa) e a formação de sombra acústica posterior (seta fina). (B) No plano apical 4 câmaras, com a utilização do color Doppler, observam-se insuficiência mitral (seta grossa) e formação de sombra acústica posterior (seta fina). (C) Integral tempo-velocidade obtida com o Doppler contínuo do influxo mitral. (D) Integral tempo-velocidade obtida com o Doppler pulsado na via de saída do ventrículo esquerdo. (E) Ecocardiograma transesofágico tridimensional assumindo a perspectiva do átrio esquerdo. Observa-se a distribuição assimétrica da calcificação do anel mitral (seta grossa). (F) Ecocardiograma transesofágico tridimensional com perspectiva do ventrículo esquerdo, evidenciando pequena redução da abertura valvar, sem acometimento comissural (setas finas).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom19-gf04-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>A interpretação do gradiente transvalvar mitral também deve ser feita com reservas. Na estenose mitral reumática, a relação entre o gradiente médio (GM) e a AVMi é previsível, isto é, quando o GM é &gt;10mmHg, a AVMi é &lt;1,0cm². Na CAM, tal relação não pode ser prenunciada por uma série de confundidores. O alto fluxo frequentemente presente na insuficiência renal e a insuficiência mitral podem superestimar o GM. Por outro lado, o aumento da pressão diastólica do VE, ocasionada por idade avançada, doença valvar aórtica significativa ou disfunção sistólica do VE podem subestimar o GM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
				<p>São preditores de pior prognóstico em 1 ano: GM &gt;8mmHg; AVMi &lt;1,5cm²; pressão sistólica no ventrículo direito &gt;50mmHg e a presença de fibrilação atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>É importante lembrar que o ecocardiograma transtorácico pode subestimar o grau de regurgitação mitral pela formação de sombra acústica posterior ao anel valvar. A avaliação do jato regurgitante pelo color Doppler deve ser realizada por múltiplas incidências, não devendo ser subestimado o poder da janela subcostal para tal fim ou mesmo complementada pela realização da ecocardiografia transesofágica.</p>
				<p>Em pacientes sintomáticos, quando houver falha no controle dos sintomas após tratamento medicamentoso otimizado, pode haver a indicação de procedimentos intervencionistas; porém, os resultados são duvidosos, e o risco perioperatório é frequentemente elevado. A cirurgia de troca valvar mitral com remoção do cálcio é tecnicamente desafiadora pela dificuldade de obtenção de adequados planos de clivagem, especialmente em pacientes com extensão do cálcio para a parede do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Por outro lado, a troca valvar mitral com manutenção do cálcio pode resultar em <italic>leak</italic> paravalvar e em <italic>mismatch</italic> prótese-paciente, complicações comuns nessa situação. Nos últimos anos, a intervenção percutânea com o implante de prótese aórtica em posição mitral ( <italic>valve in MAC</italic> ) tornou-se uma alternativa em casos selecionados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> As maiores complicações, nessa situação, envolvem a obstrução do fluxo na via de saída do VE, embolização atrial da prótese e <italic>leak</italic> paravalvar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A calcificação do anel mitral é um processo evolutivo, que apresenta diversos fatores de risco e está relacionado com uma série de eventos cardiovasculares adversos, como arritmias, valvopatias, distúrbios do ritmo cardíaco e acidente vascular encefálico. Na presença de estenose valvar cálcica, a gradação do grau de estenose apresenta algumas particularidades em relação à estenose valvar mitral reumática. A complexa anatomia do aparelho valvar mitral pode ser avaliada pela ecocardiografia bidimensional e tridimensional, e sua caracterização detalhada pode acrescentar informações prognósticas, auxiliando o cardiologista clínico na tomada de decisão.</p>
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