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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">2675-312X/20223501ecom18</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.47593/2675-312X/20223501ecom18</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>My Approach To</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>My Approach To Echocardiographic Assessment In Pulmonary Hypertension</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Masson-Silva</surname>
						<given-names>João Batista</given-names>
					</name>
					<bio>
						<p>
							<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf01.tif"/>
						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Cloves Geraldino da</given-names>
						<suffix>Júnior</suffix>
					</name>
					<bio>
						<p>
							<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf02.tif"/>
						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goiás</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital das Clínicas</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Goiânia</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil.</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: João Batista Masson Silva</bold> • Primeira Avenida, quadra 68 lt-AR 1, Setor Leste Universitário.CEP <postal-code>74605-020</postal-code> – Goiânia, GO, Brazil. E-mail: <email>jbmasson@ufg.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Authors’ contributions</bold></p>
					<p>manuscript writing: Masson Silva JB; critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Júnior CGS</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Conflict of interest</bold></p>
					<p>The authors have declared that they have no conflict of interest.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>30</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>35</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>ecom18</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>10</day>
					<month>12</month>
					<year>2021</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>16</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>06</day>
					<month>02</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
				<kwd>Pulmonary</kwd>
				<kwd>Diagnosis</kwd>
				<kwd>Echocardiography</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="4"/>
				<table-count count="10"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="11"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<p>Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a syndrome with a high worldwide prevalence characterized by increased pulmonary circulation pressure that progressively leads to vascular bed and right ventricle component remodeling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
		<p>The PH diagnosis is suspected based on clinical signs/symptoms and echocardiographic findings, but it is confirmed only by direct and invasive measurements during right heart catheterization showing a mean pulmonary artery pressure (mPAP) &gt; 20 mmHg. Treatment aims to alleviate symptoms and delay progression to the final disease stage, which presents irreversible micro- and macrovascular changes and right ventricular dysfunction. A delayed diagnosis changes the natural course of the disease, increasing morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
		<p>From clinical and hemodynamic points of view, PH can be classified into five groups ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> ):<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
		<fig id="f1">
			<label>Figure 1</label>
			<caption>
				<title>Haemodynamic classification of PH Classificação hemodinâmica da Hipertensão pulmonar.</title>
			</caption>
			<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-gf01.tif"/>
			<attrib>COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; HF, heart failure; PH, pulmonary hypertension; PTE, pulmonary thromboendarterectomy.</attrib>
		</fig>
		<table-wrap id="t1">
			<label>Table 1</label>
			<caption>
				<title>Clinical and hemodynamic classification of pulmonary hypertension groups.</title>
			</caption>
			<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
				<colgroup width="20%">
					<col/>
					<col/>
					<col/>
					<col/>
					<col/>
				</colgroup>
				<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
					<tr>
						<th align="center" valign="middle">Grup</th>
						<th align="center" valign="middle"/>
						<th align="center" valign="middle">Sub-group</th>
						<th align="center" valign="middle">Clinical presentation</th>
						<th align="center" valign="middle">Hemodynamics</th>
					</tr>
				</thead>
				<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
					<tr>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">I</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">PAH</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Idiopathic PAH <break/> Hereditary PAH <break/> PAH associated with connective tissue disease, HIV, portal hypertension, congenital heart disease, schistosomiasis <break/> PAH CCB responders <break/> Pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis, pulmonary veno-occlusive disease <break/> Persistent PH of the newborn</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Dyspnea, syncope, jugular stasis, peripheral edema <break/> Specific signs of connective tissue, liver, and HIV disease <break/> Echocardiographic signals limited to the right chambers</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Precapillary PH: <break/> mPAP &gt; 20 mmHg <break/> PAOP ≤ 15 mmHg <break/> PVR ≥ 3 Wood units</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">II</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">PH secondary to left heart disease</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">PH due to HFpEF <break/> PH due to HFrEF <break/> Valvar disease <break/> Congenital disease or cardiovascular condition leading to postcapillary PH</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Left heart and/or valve disease signs and symptoms <break/> ECHO: right chamber + left chamber and/or valvular changes</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Isolated postcapillary PH: <break/> mPAP &gt; 20 mmHg <break/> PAOP ≥ 15 mmHg <break/> PVR ≤ 3 Wood units <break/> Combined pre- and postcapillary PH: <break/> mPAP &gt; 20 mmHg <break/> PAOP ≥ 15 mmHg <break/> PVR ≥ 3 Wood units</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">III</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">PH secondary to lung disease and/or hypoxia</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">COPD <break/> Restrictive lung disease <break/> Hypoxia without pulmonary disease</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Chronic hypoxia at rest and/or on exertion <break/> Specific lung function and/or lung imaging test changes <break/> Changed polysomnography</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Precapillary PH: <break/> mPAP &gt; 20 mmHg <break/> PAOP ≤ 15 mmHg <break/> PVR ≥ 3 Wood units</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">IV</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">PH secondary to pulmonary artery obstruction</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Chronic PTE</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Dyspnea, edema <break/> Ventilation/perfusion scintigraphy and/or chest CT angiography changes <break/> Association with neoplasia</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Precapillary PH: <break/> mPAP &gt; 20 mmHg <break/> PAOP ≤ 15 mmHg <break/> PVR ≥ 3 Wood units</td>
					</tr>
					<tr>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">V</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Multifactorial and/or uncertain mechanisms</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Hematologic disease <break/> Metabolic and systemic disorder (pulmonary histiocytosis, Gaucher disease, sarcoidosis, neurofibromatosis, glycogen storage disease) <break/> Others (chronic kidney disease with or without hemodialysis, fibrosing mediastinitis) <break/> Complex congenital heart disease</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Signs and symptoms of underlying disease (anemia, metabolic disease)</td>
						<td align="left" valign="middle">Precapillary PH: <break/> mPAP &gt; 20 mmHg <break/> PAOP ≤ 15 mmHg <break/> PVR ≥ 3 Wood units <break/> Or <break/> Postcapillary PH: <break/> mPAP &gt; 20 mmHg <break/> PAOP ≥ 15 mmHg <break/> PVR ≤ 3 Wood units</td>
					</tr>
				</tbody>
			</table>
			<table-wrap-foot>
				<fn id="TFN1">
					<p>CCB, calcium channel blockers; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CT, computed tomography; ECHO, echocardiography; HFpEF, heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; HFrEF, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; mPAP, mean pulmonary artery pressure; PAH, pulmonary arterial hypertension; PAOP, pulmonary artery occluded pressure; PH, pulmonary hypertension; PVR, pulmonary vascular resistance; PTE, pulmonary thromboembolism.</p>
				</fn>
			</table-wrap-foot>
		</table-wrap>
		<p>Echocardiography plays a fundamental role in the diagnostic screening of PH and in the assessment of right ventricular systolic function.</p>
		<p>Clinically suspected patients (symptoms and signs on physical examination suggestive of PH) should be referred for echocardiography to assess the echocardiographic probability of PH, right ventricular function, and the presence of severity criteria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
		<sec>
			<title>Echocardiographic assessment of PH probability</title>
			<p>Echocardiographic PH probability can be classified as low, intermediate, or high. This categorization is based on the assessment of peak tricuspid regurgitation (TR) velocity and the presence of indirect signs suggestive of increased pulmonary vascular bed pressure ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			<table-wrap id="t2">
				<label>Table 2</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Tricuspid regurgitation analysis.</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
					<colgroup width="50%">
						<col/>
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf03.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">
								<list list-type="order">
									<list-item>
										<p>Use several windows (apical four-chamber, short-axis, subcostal, or other modified positions) to obtain the best regurgitant jet envelope.</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Avoid eccentric jets as they may underestimate measurements.</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Use high scan velocities (100 mm/s) to better differentiate true velocity from artifacts.</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Report that the velocities may be underestimated in severe regurgitation, especially when associated with annulus dilation and valve leaflet coaptation failure (there is no gradient between the right atrium and the right ventricle; similar to a single chamber)</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Average five beats in atrial fibrillation.</p>
									</list-item>
									<list-item>
										<p>Right ventricular systolic pressure estimation is not recommended due to the high right atrial pressure variability subjectively caused by inferior vena cava variations.</p>
									</list-item>
								</list>
							</td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
			</table-wrap>
			<p>Peak TR velocity is the key criterion and should be measured by continuous-wave Doppler during smooth respiration according to the following recommendations:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref> ).</p>
			<p>Indirect echocardiographic signs suggestive of PH may be related to the ventricles (group A), pulmonary artery (group B), inferior vena cava, and RA (group C) and should be evaluated according to the following recommendations ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 3</xref> ):<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			<table-wrap id="t3">
				<label>Table 3</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Indirect echocardiographic signs.</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="all">
					<colgroup width="50%">
						<col/>
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle"><bold>Group A – Ventricles</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Ratio of right (RV) and left ventricle (LV) basal diameter measurements <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf04.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Apical four-chamber plane (avoid shortening) <break/> Measure LV and RV basal diameters at end-diastole <break/> Consider the ratio of basal RV/LV diameter as an indirect criterion for PH, with a value of &gt;1 indicating RV dilation</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">LV eccentricity Index (LVEI) <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf05.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000" valign="middle">Parasternal short-axis plane – mid-region between papillary muscles and top of mitral valve leaflets <break/> End-systole – moment of visualization of the smallest cavity <break/> End-diastole – R wave peak <break/> Measurement location – D1 is the LV diameter perpendicular to the interventricular septum (IVS), D2 is the LV diameter parallel to the IVS <break/> LVEI = D2/D1 <break/> Volume overload: changes LVEI only in diastole <break/> Pressure overload: changes LVEI in systole and/or diastole <break/> Consider as an indirect PH criterion: LVEI &gt; 1.1 in systole or both systole and diastole</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle"><bold>Group B - Pulmonary artery</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Pulmonary artery acceleration time <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf06.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Parasternal short-axis plane <break/> Place pulsed Doppler sample volume sample in the RV outflow tract (RVOT) - ventricular face (below the pulmonary valve cusps) <break/> Measure time from the beginning to peak pulmonary artery velocity <break/> Measure at the end of expiration <break/> Use a five-beat average in atrial fibrillation <break/> Heart rate (HR) &lt; 70 bpm or &gt; 100 bpm may reduce accuracy – correct with the formula: acceleration time × 75/HR <break/> HR does not interfere with acceleration time in patients with an invasive mPAP &gt; 25 mmHg <break/> Systolic notching suggests a pattern of high pulmonary circulation resistance <break/> Consider as an indirect PH criterion: AT &lt; 105 ms</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Initial diastolic pulmonary regurgitant velocity (iPRV) <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf07.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Parasternal short-axis or RVOT plane <break/> Align continuous-wave Doppler with the pulmonary reflux jet <break/> Measure initial peak velocity <break/> Consider as an indirect PH criterion: iPRV &gt; 2.2 m/s</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Pulmonary artery diameter (PAD) <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf08.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Parasternal short-axis plane <break/> Place frame at end-diastole <break/> Measure the lung diameter at the midpoint between the pulmonary valve and the bifurcation point (right and left branch emergence) <break/> Consider as an indirect PH criterion: PAD &gt; 25 mm</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle"><bold>Group C – Inferior vena cava and RA</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Inferior vena cava diameter and respiratory variation <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf09.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Subcostal plane <break/> Measure the diameter 1–2 cm from the junction with the RA <break/> Measure at the end of expiration <break/> Consider as an indirect PH criterion: diameter &gt; 21 mm with reduced respiratory variability (&lt;50% with deep inspiration or &lt;20% with shallow respiration)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Right atrial area (RAA) <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf10.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Apical four-chamber plane <break/> Measure at the end of ventricular systole (frame before tricuspid valve opening) <break/> Consider as an indirect PH criterion: RAA &gt; 18 cm<sup>2</sup></td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
				<table-wrap-foot>
					<fn id="TFN2">
						<p>LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; LVEI - LV: eccentricity Index; IVS: interventricular septum; RVOT: right ventricle outflow tract; HR: Heart rate; AT: acceleration time; mPAP: mean pulmonary artery pressure; iPRV: Initial diastolic pulmonary regurgitant velocity; PAD: Pulmonary artery diameter; r - IVC: Inferior vena cava; RA: Right atrial; RAA: Right atrial area.</p>
					</fn>
				</table-wrap-foot>
			</table-wrap>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Assessment of RV systolic function</title>
			<p>Due to its anatomical complexity, the RV is the most difficult cardiac chamber to analyze. The architecture of its thin walls (triangular morphology on the long axis, crescent on the short axis) consists of many trabeculations, intertwined longitudinal muscle fibers in the sub-endocardium, and superficial circumferential subepicardial fibers. Its contraction movement resembles a bellows, has a complex mechanism, and occurs predominantly longitudinally from the base to the apex, where the shortening of minor and major axes pulls the tricuspid valve toward the apex. Its thickness does not exceed 5 mm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Due to this complexity, the functional analysis of the RV has been neglected or evaluated subjectively for years. Studies from the last decade consolidated the importance of the RV in maintaining hemodynamic stability, showing significantly increased morbidity and mortality regardless of the underlying disease in the progression to an advanced stage of RV dysfunction. The clinical need for an accurate RV assessment and the technological advancement of software favored the study of numerous parameters in the search for an earlier diagnosis to delay the disease’s natural course.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Cardiac resonance, the gold standard for functional analysis of the RV, is not influenced by technical image acquisition limitations, but its lower availability, impossible portability, time-consuming performance, and high cost hinder its use as a first-choice method for such purposes. On the other hand, echocardiography, which features low cost and no radiation exposure, has become the most attractive method for the initial assessment of global RV function, being the gold standard method for selected cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2"/>
			</p>
			<fig id="f2">
				<label>Figure 2</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Estimated echocardiographic PH probability based on peak TR velocity and indirect signs of PH.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-gf02.tif"/>
				<attrib>PH, pulmonary hypertension; TR, tricuspid regurgitation.</attrib>
			</fig>
			<p>Echocardiography analyzes RV segments by acquiring multiple echocardiographic windows using all the features offered by ultrasound (M-mode, Doppler, 2D, 3D, strain). The first quantitative parameters are derived from basic echocardiography and called classic, conventional, or traditional ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref> ). These quantitative parameters aim to detect changes in RV function at an earlier stage but have been criticized for being extremely dependent on pre- and post-load states and inferring that the assessment of a small RV segment may reflect the global function of a highly complex anatomical structure. Despite criticisms and technical difficulties, these parameters are used in clinical practice, being established by both general consensus on chamber quantification and the specific quantification of the right chambers. Technology has brought advanced parameters derived from myocardial deformation and 3D imaging with the advantages of evaluating more than one RV segment and of not being so influenced by hemodynamic conditions. The low availability of software in devices and the few studies of its standardization among manufacturers are real limitations in daily practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
			<table-wrap id="t4">
				<label>Table 4</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Echocardiographic parameters for analysis of right ventricular function.</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="all">
					<colgroup width="50%">
						<col/>
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle"><bold>Classical echocardiographic parameters</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE) <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf11.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Technique: <break/> - Position the unidimensional mode cursor (M) in the basal region of the lateral tricuspid annulus in the apical four-chamber plane. <break/> - Measure from the systolic displacement of the tricuspid annulus <break/> Advantages: <break/> - Easy to perform <break/> - Good correlation with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging data <break/> Disadvantages and limitations: <break/> - Regional segmental changes <break/> - Hemodynamic conditions <break/> - Angle of insonation <break/> - Cardiac translational movement <break/> Consider that the measurement of a basal segment represents the global function of a cavity with complex anatomy. <break/> It may be normal in patients with cardiac dysfunction (PH) <break/> It may be reduced in patients with preserved right ventricular function (post-cardiac surgery) <break/> Consider as dysfunction: TAPSE &lt; 17 mm</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">S’ – TDI – Tissue Doppler tricuspid annular systolic velocity <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf12.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Technique: <break/> - Position the tissue Doppler sample volume in the basal region of the lateral tricuspid annulus in the apical four-chamber plane <break/> - Measure the peak systolic velocity of lateral tricuspid annular motion <break/> Advantages: Easy to perform <break/> Disadvantages and limitations: <break/> - Dependent on insonation angle <break/> - Varies greatly with global cardiac motion <break/> - Dependent on correct alignment (as parallel as possible) of the Doppler with the tricuspid annular motion <break/> Assesses only the basal segment of the RV free wall <break/> Consider as dysfunction: S’ - TDI &lt; 9.5 cm/s</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">MAF/FAC - Fractional area change <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf13.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Technique: <break/> - Four-chamber apical plane - two-dimensional mode <break/> - Trace the endocardial borders of the RV by estimating the area in systole and diastole <break/> - Calculate variation using the formula: MAF/FAC = 100 × (RV area in diastole - RV area in systole)/RV area in diastole <break/> Advantage: Enables evaluation of a greater number of RV segments <break/> Disadvantages and limitations: <break/> - Definition of endocardial borders <break/> - Does not consider RV outflow in functional analysis <break/> Consider as dysfunction: MAF/FAC &lt; 35%</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">MPI/TEI – myocardial performance index or TEI index <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf14.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Technique: <break/> • Pulsed Doppler: <break/> - In 4C apical plane, position the sample volume atop the tricuspid valve leaflets and measure the time between two tricuspid flows (IVRT + ET + IVCT) – Time A <break/> - In the short-axis plane, position the sample volume in the RVOT (close to the pulmonary valve leaflets) and measure the pulmonary ejection time – Time B <break/> • Tissue Doppler: <break/> - In 4C apical plane, position the sample volume in the basal region of the lateral tricuspid annulus <break/> - Measure the time between two tricuspid flows (IVRT + ET + IVCT) – Time A <break/> - Measure the pulmonary ejection time – Time B <break/> Calculated by dividing the sum of isovolumetric contraction and relaxation times by the RV ejection time (MPI = A - B/B). <break/> Advantage: Tissue Doppler technique acquires A and B times in a single beat of the cardiac cycle <break/> • Disadvantages and limitations: <break/> - Pulsed Doppler technique requires beats at different times to acquire A and B times - it can change the results, especially with heart rate variability <break/> It is a global index that assesses RV systolic and diastolic function (not possible to distinguish between them) <break/> Consider as dysfunction: MPI/TEI &gt; 0.43 on pulsed Doppler and &gt; 0.55 on tissue Doppler</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle"><bold>Advanced echocardiographic parameters:</bold></td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">RV free wall strain (RVFWS) <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf15.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Strain is defined as the change in the length (deformation) of the myocardium under the action of a force (fractional change of a myocardial segment in relation to the initial length after the action of a contraction force) <break/> The most common method is speckle tracking using the block matching (region of interest or kernel tracking; Philips and GE) or optical flow techniques (derived from vector velocity; Esaote and Siemens) <break/> It can be evaluated globally by left ventricular global strain or only on the RV free wall (RVFWS) – the latter being more specific by excluding interventricular septum analysis (LV fiber interference) <break/> Technique: <break/> Apical four-chamber plane with optimized image and focused on the RV <break/> Frame rate &gt; 50–60 Hz <break/> Visualize RV apex throughout the cardiac cycle (request apnea if necessary) <break/> Calculate deformation using each manufacturer’s own algorithm <break/> Automatic methods using artificial intelligence have gained more space due to their agility and good correlation with the gold standard method. <break/> Advantages: Reproducible and independent of the angle of insonation and translational movement <break/> Disadvantages: Does not consider RVOT, variability between manufacturers, image quality <break/> Consider as dysfunction: RVFWS &lt; -20% correlates with a reduced RV ejection fraction</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">3D RVEF-RV ejection fraction by the 3D method <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf16.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Apical four-chamber plane focused on the RV <break/> Use a 3D transducer and acquire the RV full volume encompassing the tricuspid and pulmonary valves <break/> Acquire it at the highest possible frame rate – preferably &gt; 20 Hz <break/> Reconstruct with specific software (according to the manufacturer) to calculate volumes and ejection fraction <break/> Advantages: <break/> - Enables better anatomical assessment (includes all RV segments) <break/> - Assesses RV longitudinal and radial contraction <break/> - Assesses anteroposterior shortening <break/> Limitations: <break/> - Dependent on pre- and post-load states <break/> - Image must be of good quality to enable endocardial border identification <break/> - Artifacts produced by arrhythmias <break/> - Acquisition and processing time <break/> - Availability (of the 3D transducer and quantification software) <break/> - Consider as dysfunction: 3D RVEF &lt; 45%</td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
				<table-wrap-foot>
					<fn id="TFN3">
						<p>TAPSE = Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion; TDI - Tissue Doppler; RV = Right ventricle; FAC = Fractional area change; RIMP or Tei index = Right ventricular index of myocardial performance; IVRT = Isovolumic relaxation time; ET = Ejection time; IVCT = Isovolumic contraction time; RVFWS – RV free wall strain; RVGS – RV global strain; 3D RVEF - 3D Right ventricule Ejection fraction; RVOT = Right ventricular outflow tract.</p>
					</fn>
				</table-wrap-foot>
			</table-wrap>
			<p>The presence of pericardial effusion and measurements of right ventricular diameters and thickness are additional parameters useful in analyzing the severity of pulmonary hypertension and its hemodynamic repercussion on the right chambers ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Table 5</xref> ).</p>
			<table-wrap id="t5">
				<label>Table 5</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Additional echocardiographic parameters for RV assessment.</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="all">
					<colgroup width="50%">
						<col/>
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Pericardial effusion <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf17.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Related to the natural disease course and its prognosis <break/> Absence of stroke indicates better prognosis <break/> Presence of stroke associated with advanced disease and worse prognosis</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">RV dimensions <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf18.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">PH increases pre- and post-load with progressive RV dilation <break/> RV inflow tract plane: <break/> Modified apical four-chamber window for RV <break/> Visualize RV apex <break/> Avoid RV shortening (can be technically difficult due to crescent shape) <break/> Measure the RV at end-diastole <break/> Basal diameter of the RV (BRV) <break/> - Maximum transverse diameter at the base of the RV <break/> - Consider as increased: BRV &gt; 41 mm <break/> Mean RV diameter (MRV) <break/> - Transverse diameter measured at LV papillary muscle level <break/> - Consider increased: MRV &gt; 35 mm <break/> Longitudinal RV diameter (LRV) <break/> - Longitudinal length from the tricuspid annular plane to the RV apex <break/> - Consider increased: LRV &gt; 83 mm <break/> RVOT plane: <break/> RVOT proximal diameter (RVOTPD): <break/> -- Linear measurement taken at end-diastole from the RV anterior wall to the septum-aortic interventricular junction in long-axis parasternal window. Consider as increased: RVOTPD long axis &gt; 30 mm <break/> -- Linear measurement taken at end-diastole from the anterior wall of the RV to the aortic valve in sternal short-axis window. Consider increased: RVOTPD short axis &gt; 35 mm <break/> RVOT distal diameter (RVOTDD): <break/> Linear measurement taken at the close proximal end pulmonary valve diastole in sternal short-axis window. Consider increased: RVOTDD &gt; 27 mm</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">RV thickness: <break/>
								<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf19.tif"/>
							</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">PH causes RV hypertrophy <break/> Method: <break/> Subcostal or apical four-chamber plane <break/> Measure RV thickness using 2D or M-mode at end-diastole <break/> Measurement location: RV free wall below the tricuspid annulus (distance from valve plane equivalent to the point at the top of the fully open anterior leaflet and parallel to the free wall) <break/> Limitations: <break/> Single point measurement <break/> Harmonic imaging and angled M-mode may overestimate thickness <break/> Technical difficulty in cases of pericardial thickening <break/> Consider hypertrophy: thickness &gt; 5 mm</td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
				<table-wrap-foot>
					<fn id="TFN4">
						<p>PH: Pulmonary hypertension; RV: right ventricle; BRV: basal diameter of the RV; MRV: mean RV diameter; LV: left ventricle; LRV: longitudinal RV diameter; RVOTPD: right ventricle outflow tract proximal diameter; RVOTDD: right ventricle outflow tract distal diameter.</p>
					</fn>
				</table-wrap-foot>
			</table-wrap>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Final considerations</title>
			<p>PH is invasively diagnosed only by right heart catheterization (mPAP &gt; 20 mmHg).</p>
			<p>Echocardiography is the main test used to screen patients with suspected PH. It aims to estimate echocardiographic PH probability and assess the morph functionality of the right chambers.</p>
			<p>It should not be used to grade PH severity.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Como Eu Faço</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Como eu Faço a Avaliação Ecocardiográfica na Hipertensão Pulmonar</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Masson-Silva</surname>
						<given-names>João Batista</given-names>
					</name>
					<bio>
						<p>
							<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf01-pt.tif"/>
						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Silva</surname>
						<given-names>Cloves Geraldino da</given-names>
						<suffix>Júnior</suffix>
					</name>
					<bio>
						<p>
							<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf02-pt.tif"/>
						</p>
					</bio>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Goiânia</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brasil.</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: João Batista Masson Silva</bold> • Primeira Avenida, quadra 68 lt-AR 1, Setor Leste Universitário. CEP <postal-code>74605-020</postal-code> – Goiânia, GO, Brasil E-mail: <email>jbmasson@ufg.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Contribuição dos autores</bold></p>
					<p>redação do manuscrito: Masson-Silva JB; revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante: Silva-Júnior CG.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Conflito de interesses</bold></p>
					<p>Os autores declaram não terem conflitos de interesse.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Hipertensão arterial pulmonar</kwd>
				<kwd>Diagnóstico</kwd>
				<kwd>Ecocardiografia</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<p>A hipertensão pulmonar (HP) é uma síndrome de alta prevalência mundial, caracterizada pelo aumento das pressões na circulação pulmonar, que evolutivamente leva ao remodelamento dos componentes do leito vascular e do ventrículo direito (VD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
			<p>O diagnóstico da HP é suspeitado pelos sinais/sintomas clínicos e pelos achados ecocardiográficos, porém sua confirmação é feita somente pela medida direta e invasiva, realizada durante o cateterismo cardíaco direito (pressão média da artéria pulmonar – PmAP – &gt; 20 mmHg). A instituição do tratamento tem como objetivo aliviar os sintomas postergando a evolução para o estágio final, em que há irreversibilidade das alterações micro e macrovasculares e da disfunção ventricular direita. O retardo no diagnóstico tem importância crucial na evolução natural da doença com aumento da morbimortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Do ponto de vista clínico e hemodinâmico, a HP pode ser classificada em cinco grupos ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
			<fig id="f3">
				<label>Figura 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Classificação hemodinâmica da Hipertensão pulmonar.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-gf01-pt.tif"/>
				<attrib>HP: hipertensão pulmonar; HAP: hipertensão arterial pulmonar; IC: insuficiência cardíaca; DPOC: doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar.</attrib>
			</fig>
			<table-wrap id="t6">
				<label>Tabela 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Classificação clinica e hemodinâmicas dos grupos de hipertensão pulmonar.</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
					<colgroup width="20%">
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Grupo</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle"/>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Subgrupo</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Clínica</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Hemodinâmica</th>
						</tr>
					</thead>
					<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">I</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HAP</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HAP idiopática <break/> HAP hereditária <break/> HAP associada à doença do tecido conjuntivo, HIV, hipertensão portal, doença cardíaca congênita, esquistossomose <break/> HAP respondedores BCC <break/> Hemangiomatose capilar pulmonar, doença veno-oclusiva pulmonar <break/> HP persistente do RN</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia, síncope, estase jugular, edema periférico <break/> Sinais específicos de doença do tecido conjuntivo, hepática e HIV <break/> Sinais ecocardiográficos limitados às câmaras direitas</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HP pré-capilar: <break/> - mPAP &gt;20mmHg <break/> - POAP ≤15mmHg <break/> - RVP ≥3 wood</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">II</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HP secundária à doença cardíaca esquerda</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HP por ICFEP <break/> HP por ICFER <break/> Doença valvar <break/> Doença congênita ou condição cardiovascular que levam à HP pós-capilar</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Sinais e sintomas da doença cardíaca esquerda e/ou valvar <break/> ECO: alterações câmaras direitas + alterações câmaras esquerdas e/ou valvar</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HP pós-capilar isolada: <break/> - mPAP &gt;20mmHg <break/> - POAP ≥15mmHg <break/> - RVP ≤3 wood <break/> HP pré e pós-capilar combinada: <break/> - mPAP &gt;20mmHg <break/> - POAP ≥15mmHg <break/> - RVP ≥3 wood</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">III</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HP secundária à doença pulmonar e/ou hipóxia</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">DPOC <break/> Doença pulmonar restritiva <break/> Hipóxia sem doença pulmonar</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Hipóxia crônica repouso e/ou esforço <break/> Alterações específicas no teste de função pulmonar e/ou exames de imagem pulmonar <break/> Polissonografia alterada</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HP pré-capilar: <break/> - mPAP &gt;20mmHg <break/> - POAP ≤15mmHg <break/> - nRVP ≥3 wood</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">IV</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HP secundária à obstrução arterial pulmonar</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">TEP crônico</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia, edema <break/> Alterações cintilografia ventilação-perfusão e/ou angio-TC de tórax <break/> Associação com neoplasia</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HP pré-capilar: <break/> - mPAP &gt;20mmHg <break/> - POAP ≤15mmHg <break/> - RVP ≥3 wood</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">V</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Mecanismos multifatoriais e/ou incertos</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Doença hematológica <break/> Doença metabólica e sistêmica (histiocitose pulmonar, doença de Gaucher, sarcoidose, neurofibromatose, doença de armazenamento do glicogênio) <break/> Outras (IRC com ou sem hemodiálise, mediatinite fibrosante) <break/> Doença cardíaca congênita complexa</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Sinais e sintomas da dç de base (anemia, doença metabólica)</td>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">HP pré capilar: <break/> - mPAP &gt;20mmHg <break/> - POAP ≤15mmHg <break/> - RVP ≥3 wood <break/> Ou HP pós-capilar: <break/> - mPAP &gt;20mmHg <break/> - POAP ≥15mmHg <break/> - RVP ≤3 wood</td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
				<table-wrap-foot>
					<fn id="TFN5">
						<p>HAP: hipertensão arterial pulmonar; BCC: Bloqueadorsr de canal de cálcio; HP: hipertensão pulmonar; RN: recém-nascido; mPAP:; POAP: pressão de oclusão da artéria pulmonar; RVP: resistência vascular pulmonar; ICFEP: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção preservada; ICFER: insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção reduzida; ECO: ecocardiograma; DPOC: doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar; angio-TC: angiotomografia computadorizada; DRC: doença renal crônica.</p>
					</fn>
				</table-wrap-foot>
			</table-wrap>
			<p>O ecocardiograma tem papel fundamental no rastreio diagnóstico da HP e na avaliação da função sistólica do VD.</p>
			<p>Os pacientes que apresentam suspeita clínica (sintomas e sinais ao exame físico sugestivos de HP) devem ser encaminhados ao laboratório de ecocardiografia para realização de um ecocardiograma, com o objetivo de avaliar a probabilidade ecocardiográfica da presença de HP, a função ventricular direita e a presença dos critérios de gravidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			<sec>
				<title>Avaliação da probabilidade ecocardiográfica do paciente apresentar hipertensão pulmonar</title>
				<p>a probabilidade ecocardiográfica de o paciente apresentar HP pode ser classificada como baixa, intermediária e alta. Essa categorização é baseada na avaliação da velocidade de pico da insuficiência tricúspide (IT) e na presença dos sinais indiretos sugestivos de elevação da pressão no leito vascular pulmonar ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 2</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<fig id="f4">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Estimativa da probabilidade ecocardiográfica de hipertensão pulmonar baseada na velocidade de pico da insuficiência tricúspide e nos sinais indiretos de hipertensão pulmonar.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-gf02-pt.tif"/>
					<attrib>IT: insuficiência tricúspide; HP: hipertensão pulmonar.</attrib>
				</fig>
				<p>A velocidade de pico da IT é o critério chave e deve ser medido pelo Doppler contínuo durante respiração suave, seguindo as recomendações descritas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 2</xref> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<table-wrap id="t7">
					<label>Tabela 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Análise da regurgitação tricúspide.</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="50%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf03-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">
									<list list-type="order">
										<list-item>
											<p>Utilizar várias janelas (apical de 4 câmaras, eixo curto, subcostal ou outras posições modificadas), com a finalidade de obter o melhor envelope do jato regurgitante</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Evitar jatos excêntricos, pois podem subestimar as medidas</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Utilizar velocidades altas de varredura (100mm/s), para melhor diferenciar a velocidade verdadeira dos artefatos</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Relatar no laudo que, nas regurgitações de grau importante, as velocidades podem estar subestimadas, principalmente quando há dilatação do anel e falha de coaptação dos folhetos valvares (não há gradiente entre átrio direito e ventrículo direito – comporta com uma câmara única)</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>Na fibrilação atrial, fazer a média de 5 batimentos</p>
										</list-item>
										<list-item>
											<p>A estimativa da pressão sistólica do ventrículo direito não é recomendada pela alta variabilidade das pressões do átrio direito, feita subjetivamente pela variação da veia cava inferior</p>
										</list-item>
									</list>
								</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
				</table-wrap>
				<p>Os sinais ecocardiográficos indiretos e sugestivos de HP podem estar relacionados com os ventrículos (grupo A), à artéria pulmonar (grupo B), à veia cava inferior e ao átrio direito (grupo C) e devem ser avaliados seguindo as recomendações da <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 3</xref> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<table-wrap id="t8">
					<label>Tabela 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Sinais indiretos de hipertensão pulmonar.</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="all">
						<colgroup width="50%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle"><bold>Grupo A – ventrículos</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Razão entre as medidas dos diâmetros basal dos ventrículos direito e esquerdo <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf04-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Apical de 4 câmaras (evitar encurtamento) <break/> Medir os diâmetros basais do VE e VD no final da diástole <break/> Considerar como critério indireto de HP - relação diâmetro basal VD/ diâmetro basal VE &gt; 1 sugere dilatação do VD</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">IEVE <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf05-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Paraesternal de eixo curto – região média entre músculos papilares e topo dos folhetos da valva mitral <break/> Final da sístole – momento de visualização da menor cavidade <break/> Final da diástole – pico da onda R <break/> Local da medida – D1 é o diâmetro do VE perpendicular ao SIV, D2 é o diâmetro do VE paralelo ao SIV <break/> IEVE = D2/D1 <break/> Sobrecarga de volume: altera IEVE somente na diástole <break/> Sobrecarga de pressão: altera IEVE na sístole e/ou diástole <break/> Considerar como critério indireto de HP: IEVE &gt;1.1 durante a sístoles ou em ambos (sístole e diástole)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle"><bold>Grupo B – artéria pulmonar</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Tempo de aceleração do fluxo pulmonar <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf06-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Paraesternal de eixo curto <break/> Colocar amostra do volume do Doppler pulsado na VSVD – face ventricular (abaixo das cúspides da valva pulmonar) <break/> Medir o tempo do início ao pico da velocidade do fluxo pulmonar <break/> Medir no final da expiração <break/> Usar média de 5 batimentos na fibrilação atrial <break/> FC &lt;70 bpm ou &gt;100 bpm pode reduzir a acurácia – corrigir com a fórmula TA x 75/FC <break/> Nos pacientes com PmAP invasiva &gt;25mmHg, a FC não interfere no tempo de aceleração <break/> Entalhe sistólico sugere padrão de alta resistência na circulação pulmonar <break/> Considerar como critério indireto de HP: TA &lt;105 ms</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">ViRP <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf07-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Paraesternal de deixo curto ou via de saída do VD <break/> Alinhar Doppler contínuo com o jato do refluxo pulmonar <break/> Medir a velocidade de pico inicial <break/> Considerar como critério indireto de HP: ViRP &gt;2,2m/s</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">DAP <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf08-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Paraesternal de eixo curto <break/> Colocar frame no final da diástole <break/> Medir o diâmetro pulmonar no ponto médio entre a valva pulmonar e o ponto de bifurcação (emergência dos ramos direito e esquerdo) <break/> Considerar como critério indireto de HP: DAP &gt;25mm</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle"><bold>Grupo C – veia cava inferior e átrio direito</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Diâmetro e variação respiratória da VCI <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf09-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Subcostal <break/> Medir o diâmetro 1-2 cm distante da junção com o AD <break/> Medir no final da expiração <break/> Considerar como critério indireto de HP: diâmetro &gt;21mm com reduzida variabilidade respiratória (&lt;50% com inspiração profunda ou &lt;20% respiração superficial)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">AAD <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf10-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Apical de 4 câmaras <break/> Medir no final da sístole ventricular (frame anterior à abertura da valva tricúspide) <break/> Considerar como critério indireto de HP: AAD &gt;18cm²</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN6">
							<p>VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VD: ventrículo direito; HP: hipertensão pulmonar; IEVE: índice de excentricidade do ventrículo esquerdo; SIV: septo interventricular; VSVD: via de saída do ventrçiulo direito; FC: frequência cardíaca; TA: tempo de aceleração; PmAP: pressão média da artéria pulmonar: ViRP: velocidade diastólica inicial da regurgitação pulmonar; DAP: diâmetro da artéria pulmonar; VCI: veia cava inferior: AD: átrio direito; AAD: área do átrio direito.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Avaliação da função sistólica do ventrículo direito</title>
				<p>O VD é a câmara cardíaca que apresenta maior dificuldade de análise funcional, por sua complexidade anatômica. A arquitetura de suas paredes finas (morfologia triangular no eixo longo e em crescente no eixo curto) é formada por uma grande quantidade de trabeculações e pelo entrelaçamento de fibras musculares longitudinais no subendocárdio e circunferenciais superficiais subepicárdicas. Sua contração, semelhante ao movimento de um fole, tem um mecanismo complexo e ocorre predominantemente de forma longitudinal, da base para o ápice, onde o encurtamento dos eixos menor e maior puxa a valva tricúspide em direção ao ápice. Sua espessura não ultrapassa 5mm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Devido a essa complexidade, a análise funcional do VD foi, por anos, negligenciada ou avaliada de forma subjetiva. Estudos da última década consolidaram a importância do VD na manutenção da estabilidade hemodinâmica, demonstrando que há significativo aumento da morbimortalidade, independentemente da doença de base, ao evoluir para um estágio avançado de disfunção ventricular direita. A necessidade clínica de uma real avaliação do VD e a evolução tecnológica dos <italic>softwares</italic> favoreceram o estudo de inúmeros parâmetros na busca de um diagnóstico mais precoce, na tentativa de retardar a evolução natural da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A ressonância cardíaca, padrão-ouro para análise funcional do VD, não é influenciada pelas limitações técnicas na aquisição da imagem, porém sua menor disponibilidade, a incapacidade de portabilidade, o grande tempo para realização e os custos inviabilizam sua disposição como método de primeira escolha para tal finalidade. Por outro lado, a ecocardiografia, por seu baixo custo, pela ausência de radiação e pelo baixo custo, tornou-se o método mais atrativo para avaliação inicial da função global do VD, deixando o padrão-ouro para casos selecionados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A ecocardiografia analisa os segmentos do VD com aquisição de múltiplas janelas ecocardiográficas, utilizando todos os recursos oferecidos pelo ultrassom (modo M, Doppler, bidimensional, tridimensional e <italic>strain</italic> ). Os primeiros parâmetros quantitativos são derivados da ecocardiografia básica e chamados de clássicos, convencionais ou tradicionais ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Tabela 4</xref> ). Esses parâmetros quantitativos tentam diagnosticar alterações na função do VD numa fase mais precoce, porém são criticados por sua alta dependência dos estados de pré e pós-carga e por inferir que a avaliação de um pequeno segmento do VD possa refletir a função global de uma estrutura anatômica tão complexa. Apesar das críticas e das dificuldades técnicas, eles são utilizados na prática clínica e foram consagrados tanto pelo consenso geral de quantificação de câmaras, quanto pelo específico de quantificação de câmaras direitas. A evolução tecnológica trouxe parâmetros avançados derivados da deformação miocárdica e do tridimensional com as vantagens de avaliar o VD em mais de um segmento e de não sofrerem tanta influência das condições hemodinâmicas. A baixa disponibilidade dos <italic>softwares</italic> nos aparelhos para sua realização e os poucos estudos necessários para sua padronização entre os fabricantes ainda são limitações reais na prática cotidiana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
				<table-wrap id="t9">
					<label>Tabela 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Parâmetros ecocardiográficos para análise da função ventricular direita.</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="all">
						<colgroup width="50%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle"><bold>Parâmetros ecocardiográficos clássicos</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">TAPSE <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf11-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Técnica: <break/> - Posicionar o cursor do modo unidimensional (M) na região basal do anel tricúspide lateral no plano apical de 4 câmras <break/> - Medir do deslocamento sistólico do anel tricúspide <break/> Vantagens: <break/> - Fácil realização <break/> - Boa correlação com dados da ressonância cardíaca <break/> Desvantagens e limitações: <break/> - Alterações segmentares regionais <break/> - Condições hemodinâmicas <break/> - Ângulo de insonação <break/> - Movimento de translação cardíaca <break/> Considerar que a medida de um segmento basal representa a função global de uma cavidade com anatomia complexa <break/> Pode estar normal em pacientes com disfunção cardíaca (hipertensão pulmonar) <break/> Pode estar reduzido em pacientes com função ventricular direita preservada (pós cirurgia cardíaca) <break/> Considerar disfunção: TAPSE &lt;17mm</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">S´ - TDI – velocidade sistólica do anel tricúspide de Doppler tecidual <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf12-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Técnica: <break/> - Posicionar a amostra volume Doppler tecidual na região basal do anel tricúspide lateral no plano apical de 4 câmaras <break/> - Medir o pico da velocidade sistólica da movimentação do anel tricúspide lateral <break/> Vantagens: fácil realização <break/> Desvantagens e limitações: <break/> - Dependente do ângulo de insonação <break/> - Varia muito com a movimentação global cardíaca <break/> - Depende muito do correto alinhamento (mais paralelo possível) do Doppler com a movimentação do anel tricúspide <break/> Avalia apenas o segmento basal da parede livre do VD <break/> Considerar disfunção: S´ - TDI &lt; 9,5 cm/s</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">MAF/FAC <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf13-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Técnica: <break/> - Plano apical de 4 câmaras – modo bidimensional <break/> - Tracejar as bordas endocárdicas do VD estimando a área na sístole e diástole <break/> - Calcular o quanto houve de variação utilizando a fórmula: MAF/FAC = 100 x (área VD na diástole – área VD na sístole) / área VD na diástole <break/> Vantagens: avalia uma maior quantidade de segmentos do VD <break/> Desvantagens e limitações: <break/> - Definição das bordas endocárdicas <break/> - Não levar em conta a via de saída do VD no contexto da análise da sua função <break/> Considerar disfunção: MAF/FAC &lt; 35 %</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">IPM/TEI <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf14-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Técnica: <break/> • Doppler pulsado: <break/> - No plano apical de 4 câmaras, posicionar a amostra de volume no topo dos folhetos da valva tricúspide e medir o tempo entre dois fluxos tricúspides (TRIV + TE + TCIV) – tempo A <break/> - No plano do eixo curto, posicionar a amostra de volume na via de saída do VD (próximo aos folhetos da valva pulmonar) e medir o tempo de ejeção pulmonar – tempo B <break/> • Doppler tecidual: <break/> - No plano apical de 4 câmaras, posicionar a amostra de volume na região basal do anel tricúspide lateral <break/> - Realizar a medida do tempo entre dois fluxos tricúspides (TRIV + TE + TCIV) – tempo A <break/> Realizar a medida do tempo de ejeção pulmonar – tempo B <break/> - Calculado pela divisão da soma dos tempos de contração e relaxamento isovolumétricos pelo tempo de ejeção do VD (IPM = A – B/B) <break/> Vantagens: a técnica do Doppler tecidual utiliza um único batimento do ciclo cardíaco para aquisição dos tempos A e B <break/> • Desvantagens e limitações: <break/> - A técnica do Doppler pulsado necessita de batimentos em momentos distintos para aquisição dos tempos A e B – pode alterar muito os resultados, principalmente se houver variabilidade da frequência cardíaca <break/> É um índice global que avalia função sistólica e diastólica do VD (não é possível distinguir entre ambas) <break/> Considerar disfunção: IPM/TEI &gt; 0,43 pela técnica do Doppler pulsado e &gt;0,55 pelo Doppler tecidual</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="center" colspan="2" valign="middle"><bold>Parâmetros ecocardiográficos avançados:</bold></td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">SPLVD <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf15-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Strain é definido como variação de comprimento (deformação) do miocárdio ao sofrer a ação de uma força (mudança fracional de um segmento miocárdico em relação ao comprimento inicial após a ação da força de contração ) <break/> O método mais utilizado é o de rastreamento dos pontos (speckle tracking) utilizando a técnica do block-matching (rastreio da região de interesse ou kernel utilizado pelo Philips e GE) ou Optical Flow (tecnologia derivada da velocidade vetorial utilizada pela Esaote e Siemens) <break/> Pode ser avaliado de forma global (SGVD) ou apenas da parede livre do VD (SPLVD) – este segundo é mais específico pela exclusão da análise do septo interventricular (interferência das fibras do VE) <break/> Técnica: <break/> Apical de 4 câmaras com imagem otimizar e focada no VD <break/> Frame rate &gt;50-60Hz <break/> Visualizar o ápice do VD em todo ciclo cardíaco (solicitar apneia se necessário) <break/> Calcular a deformação de acordo com algoritmo próprio de cada fabricante <break/> Os métodos automáticos e que utilizam inteligência artificial têm ganhado mais espaço pela sua agilidade e pela boa correlação com o método padrão-ouro <break/> Vantagens: reprodutível e independe do ângulo de insonação e do movimento de translação <break/> Desvantagens: não considera a VSVD, variabilidade entre fabricantes, qualidade da imagem <break/> Considerar disfunção: SPLVD &lt;-20% correlaciona com fração de ejeção do VD reduzida</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">FE3D-VD <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf16-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Plano apical de 4 câmaras focado no VD <break/> Utilizar transdutor tridimensional e adquirir um volume total do VD (full volume) englobando a valva tricúspide e pulmonar <break/> Adquirir na maior taxa de quadros (frame rate) possível – preferencialmente maior que 20Hz <break/> Realizar reconstrução com software específico (de acordo com fabricante) para calcular volumes e fração de ejeção <break/> Vantagens: <break/> - Possibilita melhor avaliação anatômica (engloba todos os segmentos do VD) <break/> - Avalia a contração longitudinal e radial do VD <break/> - Avalia o encurtamento anteroposterior <break/> Limitações: <break/> - Dependência dos estados de pré e pós-carga <break/> - A imagem deve ter uma boa qualidade para reconhecimento das bordas endocárdicas <break/> - Artefatos produzidos por arritmias <break/> - Tempo para aquisição e processamento <break/> - Disponibilidade (tanto do transdutor tridimensional quanto dos softwares de quantificação) <break/> Considerar disfunção: FEVD3D &lt;45%</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN7">
							<p>TAPSE: excursão sistólica do anel tricúspide; TDI: Doppler tecidual; VD: ventrículo direito; MAF: mudança de área fracional; FAC: fracional area change; IPT: índice de performance miocárdica; TRIV: tempo de relaxamento isovolumétrico; TE: tempo de ejeção; TCIV: tempo de contração isovolumétrico; SPLVD: strain da parede livre do ventrículo direito; SGVD: strain global do ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VSVD: via de saída do ventrículo direito; FE3D-VD: fração de ejeção do ventrículo direito pelo método tridimensional.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
				<p>A presença de derrame pericárdico e as medidas dos diâmetros e espessura do ventrículo direito são parâmetros adicionais úteis na análise da gravidade da hipertensão pulmonar e sua repercussão hemodinâmica sobre as câmaras direitas ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">Tabela 5</xref> ).</p>
				<table-wrap id="t10">
					<label>Tabela 5</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Parâmetros ecocardiográficos adicionais para avaliação do ventrículo direito.</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="all">
						<colgroup width="50%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Derrame pericárdico <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf17-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Relacionado com evolução natural da doença e seu prognóstico <break/> Ausência de derrame relaciona com melhor prognóstico <break/> A presença de derrame está associada à doença avançada e ao pior prognóstico</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Dimensões do VD <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf18-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">HP aumenta pré e pós-carga com dilatação progressiva do VD <break/> Plano de via de entrada do VD: janela apical 4 câmaras modificada para VD <break/> Visualizar ápice do VD e evitar encurtamento do VD (tecnicamente pode ser difícil pelo formato em crescente) <break/> Medir VD no final da diástole <break/> Diâmetro basal do VD VDB <break/> - Máximo diâmetro transverso na base do VD <break/> - Considerar aumentado: VDB &gt;41mm <break/> Diâmetro médio do VD (VDM) <break/> - Diâmetro transverso medido ao nível dos músculos papilares do VE <break/> - Considerar aumentado: VDM&gt;35mm <break/> Diâmetro longitudinal do BD (VDL) <break/> - Comprimento longitudinal do plano do anel tricúspide ao ápice do VD <break/> - Considerar aumentado: VDL &gt; 83mm <break/> Plano de via de saída do VD: <break/> Diâmetro proximal da VSVD (DPVSVD): <break/> -- Medida linear realizada no final da diástole da parede anterior do VD até a junção interventricular septo-aórtica na janela para esternal de eixo longo. -- Considerar aumentado DPVSVD eixo longo &gt;30mm <break/> -- Medida linear realizada no final da diástole da parede anterior do VD até a valva aórtica na janela para esternal de eixo curto. Considerar aumentado DPVSVD eixo curto &gt;35mm <break/> Diâmetro distal da VSVD (DDVSVD): medida linear realizada no final da diástole justa proximal da valva pulmonar na janela para esternal de eixo curto. Considerar aumentado DDVSVD &gt;27mm</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Espessura do ventrículo direito <break/>
									<inline-graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-ecom18-ingf19-pt.tif"/>
								</td>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">HP leva e hipertrofia do ventrículo direito <break/> Metodologia: <break/> - Plano subcostal ou apical de 4 de câmaras <break/> - Medir espessura do VD pelo bidimensional ou modo M no final da diástole <break/> Local da medida: parede livre do VD abaixo do anel tricúspide (distância do plano valvar equivalente ao ponto do topo do folheto anterior completamente aberto e paralelo à parede livre) <break/> Limitações: <break/> - Medida em único ponto <break/> - Imagem em harmônica e modo M angulado pode superestimar a espessura <break/> - Dificuldade técnica se espessamento pericárdico <break/> - Considerar hipertrofia espessura &gt; 5mm</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN8">
							<p>HP: hipertensão pulmonar; VD: ventrículo direito; VDB: diâmetro basal do ventrículo direito; VDM: diâmetro médio do ventrículo direito; VE: ventrículo esquerdo; VDL: diâmetro longitudinal do BD; DPVSVD: diâmetro proximal da via de saída do ventrículo direito; DDVSVD: diâmetro distal da via de saída do ventrículo direito.</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Considerações finais</title>
				<p>O diagnóstico de HP é feito apenas de forma invasiva pelo cateterismo cardíaco direito (PmAP &gt; 20mmHg). O ecocardiograma é o principal exame na triagem do paciente com suspeita de HP e tem como finalidade estimar a probabilidade ecocardiográfica de ele apresentar HP e avaliar morfofuncionalmente as câmaras direitas. Ele não deve ser utilizado para graduar a gravidade da HP.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
	</sub-article>
</article>