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<article article-type="review-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">dic</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>ABC Imagem Cardiovascular</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq Bras Cardiol: Imagem cardiovasc.</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">2675-312X</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">2675-312X/20223501eabc285</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.47593/2675-312X/20223501eabc285</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Myocardial Involvement in Chagas Disease: From the Perspective of Cardiovascular Magnetic Ressonance Assessment</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Moreira</surname>
						<given-names>Henrique Turin</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Volpe</surname>
						<given-names>Gustavo Jardim</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Schmidt</surname>
						<given-names>André</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff1">
					<label>1</label>
					<institution content-type="orgname">University of São Paulo</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv1">School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto</institution>
					<institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Clínicas</institution>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Ribeirão Preto</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Clínicas, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Henrique Turin Moreira •</bold> Avenida Bandeirantes, 3.900, Vila Monte Alegre. CEP <postal-code>14.048-900</postal-code> – Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil. E-mail: <email>hturin@fmrp.usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Authors’ contribution</bold></p>
					<p>Manuscript concept and writing: Moreira HT; Critical review for important intellectual content: Volpe GJ, Schmidt A</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Conflict of interest</bold></p>
					<p>The authors have declared that they have no conflict of interest.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>30</day>
				<month>03</month>
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<year>2022</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>35</volume>
			<issue>1</issue>
			<elocation-id>eabc285</elocation-id>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>24</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>25</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>27</day>
					<month>01</month>
					<year>2022</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>
				<p>Chagas disease represents an important public health problem, especially in endemic countries in Latin America. Chronic cardiomyopathy is its most frequent clinical presentation. Myocardial involvement has a multifactorial pathogenesis and can lead to heart failure, thromboembolic events, arrhythmias, and sudden death. In this context, cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) is an excellent noninvasive method for investigating myocardial damage and understanding the mechanisms and consequences of these injuries. CMR has high spatial resolution and tissue characterization capacity, enabling a highly reliable morphofunctional analysis and the identification of risk markers for adverse events in patients with Chagas disease. This exam is very useful for the diagnosis and follow-up of these patients in the routine clinical setting.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<title>Keywords</title>
				<kwd>Chagas disease</kwd>
				<kwd>Ventricular dysfunction</kwd>
				<kwd>Magnetic resonance imaging</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="12"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="54"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Despite efforts to reduce new cases of Chagas disease, especially by interrupting its transmission by domiciled triatomines and serological screening in blood banks, its prevalence remains high worldwide. A recent estimate by the World Health Organization points to 6–7 million people infected by the protozoa <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic> worldwide, most of them residing in one of the 21 Latin American countries where Chagas disease is considered endemic, in addition to approximately 70 million people at risk of contracting it in this region.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> An estimated 30–40% of infected individuals will develop clinical presentations in the chronic phase of the disease, with cardiomyopathy being the most frequent and severe presentation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Cardiac impairment have a multifactorial pathogenesis and include silent myocarditis related to parasite persistence and autoimmune reactions after the infection, in addition to microvascular disorders and autonomic denervation, which lead to heterogeneous cases of dilated heart disease and changes in the cardiac electrical-conduction system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> After almost 30 years since the first clinical studies on chronic Chagas disease cardiomyopathy (CCDC) by cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (CMR), this method has helped increase our understanding of the pathology and improved staging and risk stratification in routine clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> – <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
			<p>This study aimed to revisit myocardial involvement in patients with Chagas disease from the perspective of CMR findings. It focused on morphofunctional changes in the left and right ventricles, including the characterization of myocardial fibrosis and its relationship with functional changes and cardiac arrhythmias, also addressing the prognostic value of CMR findings in cardiovascular risk stratification in CCDC patients.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Regional changes, aneurysms, and thrombi in the left ventricle</title>
			<p>CMR is a reference method for cardiac morphofunctional assessment. Its high spatial resolution provides high-quality heart images, enabling very reliable and reproducible measurements. Furthermore, the assessment of ventricular systolic performance by CMR, particularly the calculation of ejection fraction, is based on the measurement of cavity volumes without the need for geometric assumptions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> These properties improve the assessment of patients with Chagas disease, especially considering the peculiarities of this clinical condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Regional left ventricular (LV) systolic function changes are relatively common in patients with Chagas disease, thus limiting volumetric estimates either from linear measurements or by endocardial measurements based on only two two-dimensional cardiac image projections. Clinical studies using CMR to assess LV wall motion show that the inferolateral and apical regions are the most frequently affected in patients with Chagas disease, corroborating the knowledge obtained over time using other diagnostic methods.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Although the reason for this segmentally distributed myocardial damage is not fully understood, evidences suggest that mechanisms related to microvascular ischemia caused by Chagas disease are involved in its pathogenesis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Another particularity of CCDC is the onset of ventricular aneurysms, more frequently in the apical region.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> These changes can range from small aneurysms with a narrow neck, to large aneurysmal dilatations with a wide neck and dyskinetic walls. The noninvasive assessment of these abnormalities can be challenging using other imaging methods such as echocardiography. On the one hand, small lesions may not be easily perceived, especially in conventional echocardiographic imaging planes, which often shorten the visualized apical region ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref> ).</p>
			<fig id="f1">
				<label>Figure 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Narrow neck aneurysm at the apex of the left ventricle. Two-chamber tomographic sections obtained by cine-magnetic resonance imaging in ventricular diastole (A) and systole (B) showing a small apical aneurysm region. Myocardial scar evidenced by hypersignal intensity in the region of the aneurysm in a delayed gadolinium enhancement sequence (C).</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf01.tif"/>
			</fig>
			<p>On the other hand, in cases of large lesions, it may not be possible to analyze the entire aneurysmal region in the same image plane due to the smaller extension of the echocardiographic near field. Such obstacles can be overcome by CMR, which routinely includes the acquisition of planes transverse to the long LV axis encompassing the entire apical region and the complete visualization of apical aneurysms ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref> ).</p>
			<fig id="f2">
				<label>Figure 2</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Wide neck aneurysm at the apex of the left ventricle. Two-chamber tomographic sections obtained in cine-magnetic resonance imaging in diastole showing parietal thinning and cavity enlargement in the apical region (A). Delayed gadolinium enhancement sequence showing an extensive hypersignal region compatible with transmural fibrosis in the aneurysmal area (C).</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf02.tif"/>
			</fig>
			<p>In CCDC patients, the prevalence of LV apical aneurysms on CMR is 20–28%, with no sex-based difference.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> – <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Ventricular aneurysms are risk factors for intracavitary thrombosis, especially when located in the apical region in patients with a reduced LV ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Myocardial lesions associated with blood stasis resulting from reduced ventricular systolic function predispose an individual to thrombus formation, which can provoke thromboembolic phenomena in CCDC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> The presence of prominent apical myocardial trabeculae commonly causes differential diagnostic difficulties. The avascularity of the thrombi is easily noticeable on CMR images obtained by myocardial perfusion sequences with infusion of a paramagnetic gadolinium-based contrast agent. The images acquired by this technique show thrombi as low-intensity signal structures surrounded by areas of increased signal generated by intracavitary blood content and adjacent viable myocardium. Non-viable myocardium and sessile thrombi can be differentiated by delayed enhancement present in scar regions but absent in thrombotic structures. Despite these attributes, the use of CMR to investigate ventricular aneurysms and thrombi has not been the focus of clinical studies of patients with Chagas disease. In this context, the use of CMR is noteworthy for risk stratification of thromboembolic events, but its use in CCDC patients has not been well established.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Right ventricle in Chagas disease</title>
			<p>The cardiac form of Chagas disease can affect both ventricles. Experimental <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection models demonstrated prominent right ventricular (RV) lesions with inflammatory infiltrate, edema, parasitism, and myocardial fiber degeneration in the acute phase in addition to RV dilatation progressively developing over the chronic phase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> – <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> RV dilatation and parietal thinning are common findings in necropsy studies of CCDC patients. On the other hand, histological analysis shows the replacement of RV muscle fibers by fibro-adipose tissue, more frequently in the apical region, that may show aneurysmal conformation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The first detailed descriptions of clinical presentations of CCDC were highlighted by a remarkable and predominant right heart failure with signs and symptoms of intense systemic congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Seminal studies using radionuclide ventriculography supported the hypothesis of early and predominant RV involvement in CCDC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> More recent studies associated RV systolic dysfunction with a worse prognosis in patients with heart failure due to Chagas disease, who are at a higher risk of death and require urgent heart transplantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Thus, it is essential to examine the RV of patients with Chagas disease during clinical follow-up. However, the peculiar characteristics of this chamber, particularly its thin walls and complex geometry, may be obstacles to its analysis. Nevertheless, CMR presents a spatial resolution of the RV endocardial borders that is relatively superior to other imaging methods used in clinical routine, providing reliable and reproducible volumetric estimates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> In addition, RV ejection fraction calculation requires no geometric assumptions similarly to the analysis of this parameter in the LV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
			<p>A clinical study using CMR to calculate RV ejection fraction in the chronic phase of Chagas disease reported RV systolic dysfunction in 37% of the 158 evaluated patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Most patients with right ventricular dysfunction in the investigation had a concomitantly reduced LV ejection fraction. However, RV systolic dysfunction was observed alone in approximately 4% of the studied population, including patients with the indeterminate form of the disease ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref> ). Although the RV presents histopathological changes early after <italic>T. cruzi</italic> infection, the signs of its systolic dysfunction usually appear late in the disease course, when the LV ejection fraction is reduced with a subsequent pulmonary arterial pressure increase. In this condition, RV structural lesions prevent it from adapting to the increased afterload, ultimately leading to right heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
			<fig id="f3">
				<label>Figure 3</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Right ventricular assessment in patients with Chagas disease. RV scan limits shown in a four-chamber cine-magnetic resonance section (A). Short-axis sections from the basal to the apical region for RV endocardial border delineation (yellow lines), thus allowing the calculation of end-diastolic and systolic volumes and ejection fraction (B). A cohort of 158 patients with Chagas disease evaluated by magnetic resonance imaging showed global RV systolic dysfunction commonly associated with concomitant depressed LV systolic function, although isolated RV dysfunction has also been identified, even in cases of the indeterminate form of the disease.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf03.tif"/>
			</fig>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Myocardial fibrosis and LV systolic dysfunction</title>
			<p>Chagas disease myocardial fibrosis results from a multifactorial pathogenic mechanism that includes myocarditis related to parasite persistence, an autoimmune reaction triggered by the parasitic infection, and microvascular ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Delayed gadolinium enhancement shows areas of myocardial necrosis and fibrosis usually at 10 min after the intravenous infusion. This technique has high sensitivity and specificity for myocardial scar investigation and is the current method of choice for this purpose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In the chronic phase of Chagas disease, delayed enhancement can identify scar areas early in the indeterminate form of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> However, the prevalence of fibrosis identified by CMR at this disease stage is not well established since most populations studied to date are relatively small. The combined analysis of studies reporting delayed enhancement in patients with the indeterminate form shows the occurrence of myocardial scar in 19% of the pooled population ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> – <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Myocardial fibrosis progressively increases with disease progression, being considered a marker of CCDC severity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> The higher the proportion of delayed enhancement in relation to the LV mass, the lower the ejection fraction of this chamber and the worse the estimated functional class.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> However, the correlation between fibrosis extent and LV systolic function appears nonlinear. Small scar areas are seen in ventricles with normal systolic function, even when ventricular function is examined by more sensitive methods ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Patients with Chagas disease and a fibrotic mass on CMR greater than 10% present significantly lower LV systolic function than those with less extensive fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
			<table-wrap id="t1">
				<label>Table 1</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Prevalence of delayed myocardial enhancement by CMR in patients with the indeterminate form of Chagas disease.</title>
				</caption>
				<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
					<colgroup width="33%">
						<col/>
						<col/>
						<col/>
					</colgroup>
					<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Authors</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Patients with the indeterminate form evaluated by CMR</th>
							<th align="center" valign="middle">Presence of delayed myocardial enhancement</th>
						</tr>
					</thead>
					<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Rochitte et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">15</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">3 (20)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Regueiro et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">27</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">2 (7)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Noya-Rabelo et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">17</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">6 (35)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Tassi et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">26</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">5 (19)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Torreão et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">16</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">2 (13)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Lee-Felker et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">50</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">4 (8)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Uellendahl et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">11</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">3 (27)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Melendez-Ramirez et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">8</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">4 (50)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Pinheiro et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">16</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">7 (44)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Romano et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">19</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">2 (11)</td>
						</tr>
						<tr>
							<td align="left" valign="middle">Total</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">205</td>
							<td align="center" valign="middle">38 (19)</td>
						</tr>
					</tbody>
				</table>
				<table-wrap-foot>
					<fn id="TFN1">
						<p>CMR, cardiac magnetic resonance.</p>
					</fn>
				</table-wrap-foot>
			</table-wrap>
			<fig id="f4">
				<label>Figure 4</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Correlation between extent of myocardial fibrosis assessed by delayed enhancement on magnetic resonance imaging and LV systolic function assessed by speckle tracking echocardiography is nonlinear in Chagas disease. Patients with small fibrotic areas (generally smaller than 10% of the myocardial mass) may have normal global LV systolic function (to the left of the dashed line, which represents the normal limit of global longitudinal myocardial deformation). A systolic global longitudinal strain lower than 15% (specific value for the software used for analysis) is usually associated with the presence of myocardial fibrosis. Additionally, the presence of myocardial scars is shown in two patients with the indeterminate form of the disease.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf04.tif"/>
			</fig>
			<p>The most frequent areas of delayed myocardial enhancement in Chagas disease are the inferolateral and apical regions of the LV. Although there is an association between fibrosis and myocardial wall motion abnormalities, small areas of delayed enhancement may be seen in myocardial segments with normal mobility. However, more extensive scars, particularly those affecting at least 50% of the myocardial wall, are usually related to areas of LV hypokinesia and akinesia. The distribution of LV fibrosis in Chagas disease varies. Subendocardial and transmural patterns are the most common, being indistinguishable from sequelae of infarction caused by coronary artery disease. Mesocardial and subepicardial patterns are also common.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> While myocardial scars present a homogeneously and localized pattern in some individuals, diffuse fibrosis of varied patterns are seen in others. In both cases, the presence of speckled pattern scars can be an obstacle to their quantification ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 5</xref> ).</p>
			<fig id="f5">
				<label>Figure 5</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Myocardial LV scars evidenced in short-axis tomographic sections using the delayed gadolinium enhancement technique. Subendocardial fibrosis in the inferolateral region of the LV (A) and transmural fibrosis involving the anterolateral, inferolateral, and inferior LV regions (B). Diffuse and mixed myocardial fibrosis pattern with an area of transmural scar (yellow arrows) in the inferolateral region and the foci of diffuse mesocardial scars (green arrows) involving other LV regions (C).</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf05.tif"/>
			</fig>
			<p>Recently, a serial cardiac assessment of CCDC patients by CMR associated myocardial fibrosis with a decreased LV ejection fraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> The percentage of LV mass with signs of delayed enhancement significantly increased from 13±8% to 18±14% in subjects evaluated over a mean 5-year follow-up. However, the prognostic value of this finding remains uncertain. Issues related to the reproducibility of delayed myocardial enhancement measurements represent a limitation in the interpretation of serial assessment results. In this context, investigating factors related to the onset of myocardial scars in patients not previously presenting this finding can improve our understanding of the progression of myocardial damage in Chagas disease.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Myocardial fibrosis and ventricular arrhythmias</title>
			<p>CCDC is considered an arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy due to frequent cardiac electrical conduction system abnormalities and arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Sudden cardiac death can occur at any stage of the disease, especially as a result of malignant ventricular arrhythmias such as sustained ventricular tachycardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Myocardial fibrosis foci are the main arrhythmogenic substrates in the chronic form of Chagas disease, although other mechanisms such as microvascular disorders and sympathetic denervation also play a role in the pathogenesis of ventricular arrhythmias in this clinical condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
			<p>The high spatial resolution of CMR to detect, characterize, and quantify myocardial fibrosis is a major advantage for the noninvasive risk stratification of adverse events in patients with Chagas disease, including malignant ventricular arrhythmias. Cross-sectional and case-control studies showed that areas of delayed myocardial enhancement on CMR are highly prevalent findings in patients with Chagas disease and a clinical history of concomitant sustained ventricular tachycardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Notably, fibrosis identified by CMR may be the only myocardial abnormality found in Chagas patients presenting electrical instability, defined by frequent ventricular premature beats or episodes of sustained or non-sustained ventricular tachycardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> In addition, myocardial scars identified by CMR are anatomically correlated with regions showing signs of autonomic denervation and ischemia assessed by myocardial perfusion scintigraphy, suggesting an inextricable participation of these factors in the pathogenesis of ventricular arrhythmias in CCDC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
			<p>A transmural myocardial fibrosis pattern is more frequently noted on CMR in Chagas patients with sustained ventricular tachycardia than in those without this clinical sign. The presence of two or more continuous myocardial segments with transmural delayed enhancement is associated with a history of sustained ventricular tachycardia regardless of age, sex, LV ejection fraction, and the percentage of delayed enhancement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
			<p>In addition, myocardial scar characterization by CMR can be an auxiliary tool in ventricular tachycardia ablation in patients with CCDC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Scar patterns that are transmural or have subepicardial involvement, usually present in the inferolateral segments of the LV, often lead to predominantly epicardial reentrant circuits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Under these conditions, combined endocardial and epicardial ablation is more effective at stopping malignant ventricular arrhythmias in CCDC patients in the short and long term.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
			<p>New CMR techniques seem promising for assessing interstitial fibrosis in patients with Chagas disease. A cross-sectional study of 47 Chagas patients demonstrated that higher interstitial fibrosis by its CMR-derived extracellular volume is associated with non-sustained ventricular tachycardia regardless of ejection fraction and delayed LV myocardial enhancement quantification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Prognostic value of myocardial fibrosis in chronic Chagas heart disease</title>
			<p>In Chagas disease patients, prognostic assessments can identify individuals at greater risk of cardiovascular events throughout the disease course, thus helping decision-making regarding the need for specialized follow-up and therapeutic planning. LV systolic dysfunction is the most consistent predictor of death in patients with Chagas disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> However, other factors, such as male sex, New York Heart Association functional class III/IV, low-voltage QRS complexes on an electrocardiogram, cardiomegaly on chest radiography, and non-sustained ventricular tachycardia identified on 24-hour electrocardiographic monitoring also indicate higher risk of adverse events and high mortality in this clinical setting. These predictors are gathered in the score proposed by Rassi et al. that was originally developed and validated for the risk stratification of death in patients with CCDC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> In a cross-sectional study, the greater extent of myocardial fibrosis assessed by CMR was positively correlated with Rassi score.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Two recent longitudinal studies demonstrated the role of myocardial fibrosis identification and quantification by CMR in the risk stratification of this clinical condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> In a prospective cohort of 140 CCDC patients, myocardial scar was related with the occurrence of combined sustained ventricular tachycardia and cardiovascular death at a median 3-year follow-up period. A significant association was also reported between myocardial fibrosis and the combined outcome including hospital admission for heart failure. Also, the greater the extent of myocardial scar, the greater the risk of these combined events regardless of age and LV ejection fraction ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figure 6</xref> ). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> In another retrospective cohort of 130 CCDC patients, the presence and greater extent of delayed myocardial enhancement were related to a high incidence of the combined outcome of overall mortality, heart transplantation, appropriate implantable cardioverter-defibrillator therapy, and aborted sudden death in a median 5-year follow-up period. In that study, the presence of a fibrotic mass equal to or greater than 12.3 g was significantly and independently associated with the combined outcome studied. Additionally, a bivariate analysis including fibrotic mass and the Rassi risk score as predictive variables showed the association of both with the composite outcome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Remarkably, the absence of fibrosis in these studies was an excellent marker of the non-occurrence of adverse events in patients with CCDC. However, the question remains about the role of myocardial fibrosis in prognostic reclassification after use of the Rassi score, especially in individuals initially stratified by this classification system as being at low or intermediate risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Nevertheless, these recent studies demonstrated the potential benefits of myocardial scar assessment by CMR in the stratification of cardiovascular risk in Chagas patients, while the role of this evaluation in clinical decision-making may be demonstrated in future clinical trials.</p>
			<fig id="f6">
				<label>Figure 6</label>
				<caption>
					<title>Association between myocardial fibrosis and the occurrence of the combined outcome of cardiovascular death, sustained ventricular tachycardia, or hospitalization for heart failure in patients with chronic Chagas heart disease. The presence of delayed myocardial enhancement by CMR is a risk predictor of the combined outcome compared with the absence of myocardial scar.</title>
				</caption>
				<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf06.tif"/>
			</fig>
		</sec>
		<sec>
			<title>Myocarditis assessment of Chagas patients</title>
			<p>Myocarditis due to parasitic persistence is considered one of the main pathogenic mechanisms of myocardial injury by Chagas disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> In the acute phase, severe myocarditis can lead to death, although this has been noted in only a small number of symptomatic patients. However, the prevalence of myocardial inflammation in the acute phase of the disease is probably underestimated due to diagnostic difficulty. In the chronic phase, low-intensity myocarditis is recognized as a key pathological mechanism in the genesis of myocardial lesions in Chagas disease. Exacerbations can occur in immunosuppressed patients, reactivating parasite replication and causing severe myocarditis, acute heart failure, and death.</p>
			<p>Despite the outstanding role of CMR in the noninvasive assessment of myocarditis, its use in patients with Chagas disease has been scarcely reported in the scientific literature. A cross-sectional study of 54 patients with Chagas disease using conventional CMR techniques showed that myocardial hyperemia and edema, considered criteria for the noninvasive diagnosis of myocarditis, can occur in all phases of CCDC, even early in patients with preserved LV systolic function or with the indeterminate form.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> As highlighted by the authors, these subclinical abnormalities show the risk of more severe conditions and can increase our understanding of the natural history of the disease.</p>
			<p>In addition to traditional strategies for investigating suspected myocarditis, the CMR myocardial mapping technique provides a quantitative and more objective analysis of areas of myocardial edema. A case of Chagas myocarditis in an adult patient reported that this technique helped diagnose myocarditis in the acute phase and over the follow-up period, showing progressive regression of the edematous myocardial areas in serial CMR tests.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> The use of myocardial mapping in the chronic phase of Chagas disease is promising, as it may reveal subclinical changes and identify individuals at high risk of progressing to more advanced CCDC stages.</p>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusions</title>
			<p>CMR assesses myocardial involvement in Chagas disease with highly reliable and reproducible cardiac morphofunctional characterization, especially in the presence of regional LV systolic function changes and RV dysfunction. CMR has high sensitivity for detecting myocardial scars, proving a valuable tool for cardiovascular risk stratification in CCDC patients. The presence and greater extent of myocardial fibrosis areas on CMR are associated with LV systolic dysfunction and the occurrence of ventricular arrhythmias in these patients. In addition, clinical cohorts have recently demonstrated the prognostic value of delayed myocardial gadolinium enhancement areas with adverse cardiovascular events such as hospital admissions for heart failure, sustained ventricular tachycardia, and sudden cardiac death. More advanced CMR techniques, such as myocardial mapping for the assessment of myocardial edema and diffuse fibrosis, were recently used in the clinical evaluation of patients with Chagas disease with very promising preliminary results.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
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			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Acometimento Miocárdico na Doença de Chagas: Uma Perspectiva a partir da Avaliação pela Ressonância Magnética Cardiovascular</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Moreira</surname>
						<given-names>Henrique Turin</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
					<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Volpe</surname>
						<given-names>Gustavo Jardim</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<name>
						<surname>Schmidt</surname>
						<given-names>André</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<aff id="aff2">
					<label>1</label>
					<addr-line>
						<named-content content-type="city">Ribeirão Preto</named-content>
						<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
					</addr-line>
					<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
					<institution content-type="original">Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil.</institution>
				</aff>
			</contrib-group>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspondência: Henrique Turin Moreirax •</bold> Avenida Bandeirantes, 3.900, Vila Monte Alegre. CEP <postal-code>14.048-900</postal-code> – Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brasil. E-mail: <email>hturin@fmrp.usp.br</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p><bold>Contribuição dos autores</bold></p>
					<p>Concepção e redação do manuscrito: Moreira HT; revisão crítica quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante: Volpe GJ e Schmidt A.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p><bold>Conflito de interesses</bold></p>
					<p>Os autores declaram não terem conflitos de interesse.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
				<p>A doença de Chagas representa um importante problema de saúde pública, sobretudo nos países endêmicos da América Latina. Dentre suas apresentações clínicas, a cardiomiopatia crônica é a mais frequente. De patogênese multifatorial, o acometimento miocárdico pode levar à insuficiência cardíaca, a eventos tromboembólicos, a arritmias e à morte súbita. Nesse contexto, a ressonância magnética cardiovascular é um excelente método não invasivo para a investigação do dano miocárdico e a compreensão dos mecanismos e consequências relacionados às essas lesões. Com elevada resolução espacial e capacidade de caracterização tecidual, a ressonância magnética cardiovascular proporciona análise morfofuncional altamente confiável e possibilita a identificação de marcadores de risco de eventos adversos em pacientes com doença de Chagas, sendo de grande utilidade para o diagnóstico e o acompanhamento desses indivíduos na rotina clínica.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<title>Palavras-chave</title>
				<kwd>Doença de Chagas</kwd>
				<kwd>Disfunção ventricular</kwd>
				<kwd>Imageamento por ressonância magnética</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>Apesar dos esforços empreendidos para a redução de novos casos de doença de Chagas, especialmente pela interrupção de sua transmissão por triatomíneos domiciliados e pela triagem sorológica em bancos de sangue, a prevalência da doença permanece elevada mundialmente. Estimativa recente da Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS) aponta para 6 a 7 milhões de pessoas infectadas pelo protozoário <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic> ao redor do mundo, a maioria delas residentes em um dos 21 países da América Latina onde a doença de Chagas é considerada endêmica, além de cerca de 70 milhões de indivíduos sob risco de contraí-la nessa região.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Cerca de 30% a 40% daqueles infectados desenvolverão manifestações clínicas na fase crônica da doença, das quais a cardiomiopatia é a apresentação mais frequente e grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A patogênese das manifestações cardíacas é multifatorial e inclui miocardite silente relacionada à persistência parasitária e reações autoimunes após a infecção pelo parasita, além de distúrbios microvasculares e denervação autonômica, levando a quadros heterogêneos de cardiopatia dilatada e alterações do sistema excito-condutor cardíaco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Após quase 30 anos desde os primeiros relatos de estudos clínicos da cardiomiopatia crônica da doença de Chagas (CCDC) pela ressonância magnética cardiovascular (RMC), o emprego deste método tem ajudado para a melhor compreensão dessa patologia e auxiliado no estadiamento e na estratificação de risco durante a rotina clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> – <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Este artigo pretende revisitar o acometimento miocárdico em pacientes com doença de Chagas sob a perspectiva dos achados da RMC. Está focado nas alterações morfofuncionais dos ventrículos esquerdo e direito, incluindo a caracterização da fibrose miocárdica e sua relação com alterações funcionais e arritmias cardíacas, além de abordar o valor prognóstico dos achados da RMC na estratificação de risco cardiovascular em pacientes com CCDC.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Alterações regionais, aneurismas e trombos no ventrículo esquerdo</title>
				<p>A RMC é considerada método de referência para a avaliação morfofuncional cardíaca. Sua elevada resolução espacial proporciona imagens altamente fidedignas do coração, possibilitando medidas bastante confiáveis e reprodutíveis. Além disso, a avaliação do desempenho sistólico ventricular pela RMC, particularmente o cálculo da fração de ejeção, é baseado na mensuração de volumes cavitários, sem a necessidade de pressuposições geométricas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Tais propriedades são especialmente vantajosas na avaliação dos pacientes com doença de Chagas, sobretudo diante das peculiaridades dessa condição clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
				<p>As alterações regionais da função sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo (VE) são relativamente comuns em pacientes com doença de Chagas, limitando estimativas volumétricas, tanto a partir de medidas lineares quanto mediante delineamento endocárdico baseado em apenas duas projeções bidimensionais do coração. Estudos clínicos utilizando a RMC para a avaliação da mobilidade segmentar do VE mostram que as regiões inferolateral e apical são as mais frequentemente acometidas nos indivíduos com essa patologia, em concordância com o conhecimento obtido ao longo dos anos pelo uso de outros métodos diagnósticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Embora a razão para esse dano miocárdico distribuído de forma segmentar não seja totalmente compreendida, evidências sugerem que mecanismos relacionados à isquemia microvascular determinada pela doença de Chagas estejam envolvidos em sua patogênese.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Outra particularidade da CCDC é a ocorrência de aneurismas ventriculares, mais frequentemente na região apical.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Essas alterações podem variar desde pequenos aneurismas de colo estreito, usualmente denominados como “em dedo de luva”, até grandes dilatações aneurismáticas de colo largo e paredes discinéticas. A avaliação não invasiva dessas anormalidades pode ser desafiadora com o uso de outros métodos de imagem, como a ecocardiografia. Por um lado, as lesões de pequena extensão podem não ser facilmente perceptíveis, especialmente em planos convencionais de imagens ecocardiográficas, que levam, muitas vezes, ao encurtamento da região apical visibilizada ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 1</xref> ). Por outro lado, nas lesões de grandes proporções, a análise de toda a região aneurismática em um mesmo plano de imagem pode não ser exequível devido à menor extensão do campo proximal ecocardiográfico. Tais obstáculos podem ser suplantados pela RMC, que inclui de rotina a aquisição de planos transversais ao eixo longo do VE, englobando toda a região apical e, dessa forma, permitindo a visualização dos aneurismas apicais em toda sua extensão ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 2</xref> ).</p>
				<fig id="f7">
					<label>Figura 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Aneurisma de colo estreito no ápice do ventrículo esquerdo. Cortes tomográficos de duas câmaras obtidos em cinerressonância magnética durante a diástole (A) e a sístole (B) ventriculares mostrando pequena região com aneurisma apical comumente denominado “em dedo de luva”. Cicatriz miocárdica é evidenciada por hipersinal localizado na região do aneurisma, em sequência de realce tardio pelo gadolínio (C).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf01-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<fig id="f8">
					<label>Figura 2</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Aneurisma de colo largo no ápice do ventrículo esquerdo. Cortes tomográficos de duas câmaras obtidos em cinerressonância magnética durante a diástole mostrando afilamento parietal e alargamento cavitário na região apical (A). Sequência de realce tardio pelo gadolínio evidencia extensa região de hipersinal compatível com fibrose transmural na região aneurismática (C).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf02-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>Em pacientes com CCDC, a prevalência de aneurismas apicais do VE avaliados pela RMC varia de 20% a 28% dos casos e parece não diferir entre os sexos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> – <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Os aneurismas ventriculares, em especial aqueles localizados na região apical de pacientes com redução da fração de ejeção do VE, são fatores de risco para a trombose intracavitária.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> As lesões miocárdicas associadas à estase sanguínea decorrente do desempenho ventricular sistólico reduzido predispõem à formação de trombos, que podem provocar fenômenos tromboembólicos na CCDC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> A presença de proeminente trabeculado miocárdico apical comumente suscita dificuldade diagnóstica diferencial. A característica avascular dos trombos é facilmente perceptível em imagens de RMC obtidas por sequências de perfusão miocárdica mediante infusão de meio de contraste à base de substância paramagnética, como o gadolínio. Nas imagens adquiridas por essa técnica, trombos aparecem como estruturas de sinal de baixa intensidade, circundadas por áreas de sinal aumentado geradas pelo conteúdo sanguíneo intracavitário e miocárdio viável adjacente. A diferenciação entre áreas de miocárdio não viável e trombos sésseis pode ser realizada pela presença de realce tardio, presente nas regiões cicatriciais, mas ausentes nas estruturas trombóticas. A despeito desses atributos, o uso da RMC para a investigação de aneurismas e trombos ventriculares não tem sido o foco dos estudos clínicos envolvendo pacientes com doença de Chagas. A utilização da RMC nesse contexto é de particular interesse para a estratificação de risco de eventos tromboembólicos, cuja aplicação em indivíduos com CCDC ainda não está bem estabelecida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>O ventrículo direito na doença de Chagas</title>
				<p>A forma cardíaca da doença de Chagas pode acometer ambos os ventrículos. Modelos experimentais de infecção por <italic>T. cruzi</italic> demonstram lesões proeminentes do ventrículo direito (VD), com infiltrado inflamatório, edema, parasitismo e degeneração de fibras miocárdicas na fase aguda, além de dilatação ventricular direita que se desenvolve progressivamente durante a fase crônica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> – <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> A dilatação e o afilamento parietal do VD são achados comuns em estudos de necrópsia de pacientes com CCDC. Já a análise histológica revela substituição das fibras musculares do VD por tecido fibroadiposo, com maior frequência em sua região apical, que pode mostrar conformação aneurismática.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup></p>
				<p>As primeiras descrições pormenorizadas das apresentações clínicas da CCDC já chamavam atenção para a notável e predominante insuficiência cardíaca direita, com sinais e sintomas relacionados à intensa congestão sistêmica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Estudos seminais utilizando ventriculografia radioisotópica corroboraram a hipótese de acometimento precoce e preponderante do VD na CCDC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, demonstrou-se que a disfunção sistólica ventricular direita está associada a pior prognóstico nos pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca por doença de Chagas, com maior risco de morte e necessidade de transplante cardíaco de urgência.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Dessa forma, o exame do VD nos pacientes com doença de Chagas merece especial atenção durante o acompanhamento clínico. Contudo, as características peculiares dessa câmara, particularmente suas paredes delgadas e sua geometria complexa, podem representar obstáculos à sua análise. Não obstante, em geral, a RMC apresenta resolução espacial das bordas endocárdicas do VD relativamente superior a outros métodos de imagens empregados na rotina clínica, proporcionando estimativas volumétricas confiáveis e reprodutíveis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Além disso, o cálculo da fração de ejeção do VD, de maneira similar à análise desse parâmetro no VE, não requer a utilização de pressuposições geométricas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Em estudo clínico sobre a utilização da RMC para o cálculo da fração de ejeção do VD na fase crônica da doença de Chagas, a disfunção sistólica do VD foi encontrada em 37% dos 158 pacientes avaliados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> A maioria dos indivíduos com disfunção ventricular direita nessa investigação apresentavam concomitantemente redução da fração de ejeção do VE. Contudo, a disfunção sistólica do VD foi observada isoladamente em cerca de 4% da amostra populacional estudada, inclusive naqueles sob a forma indeterminada da doença ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 3</xref> ). Embora o VD apresente alterações histopatológicas precocemente após a infecção pelo <italic>T. cruzi</italic> , os sinais de sua disfunção sistólica costumam aparecer tardiamente no curso da doença, em geral, quando a fração de ejeção do VE também se mostra reduzida, com subsequente aumento da pressão arterial pulmonar. Nessa condição, as lesões estruturais do VD o impedem de se adaptar à elevação da pós-carga, determinando por fim a insuficiência cardíaca direita.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
				<fig id="f9">
					<label>Figura 3</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Avaliação do ventrículo direito em pacientes com doença de Chagas. Os limites de varredura do ventrículo direito são mostrados em corte tomográfico de quatro câmaras por cinerressonância magnética (A). Cortes de eixo curto da região basal à região apical para o delineamento da borda endocárdica do ventrículo direito (linhas amarelas), permitindo o cálculo dos volumes diastólico e sistólico finais e de sua fração de ejeção (B). Coorte de 158 pacientes com doença de Chagas avaliados pela ressonância magnética mostra disfunção sistólica global do ventrículo direito mais comumente associada ao desempenho sistólico do VE concomitantemente deprimido, embora a disfunção isolada do ventrículo direito também tenha sido identificada, mesmo na forma indeterminada da doença.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf03-pt.tif"/>
					<attrib>Fonte: adaptado de Moreira et al.(30), sob permissão de Wolters Kluwer Health Inc., licença número 5235470656058. VD: ventrículo direito; RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca.</attrib>
				</fig>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Fibrose miocárdica e disfunção sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo</title>
				<p>A fibrose miocárdica na doença de Chagas resulta de mecanismo patogênico multifatorial, que inclui miocardite relacionada à persistência parasitária, reação autoimune desencadeada pela infeção parasitária e isquemia microvascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A técnica de realce tardio após a administração de meio de contraste à base de gadolínio, com imagens adquiridas geralmente 10 minutos após sua infusão endovenosa, proporciona a identificação de áreas de necrose e fibrose miocárdicas. Essa técnica de investigação de cicatrizes miocárdicas apresenta elevada sensibilidade e especificidade, sendo atualmente reconhecida como método de escolha para tal finalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Em pacientes na fase crônica da doença de Chagas, a presença de áreas cicatriciais identificadas pela técnica de realce tardio pode ser observada precocemente na forma indeterminada da doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Porém, a prevalência de fibrose identificada pela RMC nesse estágio da doença não é bem estabelecida, visto que a maioria das amostras populacionais estudadas é relativamente pequena. A análise combinada dos estudos que reportaram identificação de realce tardio em pacientes com a forma indeterminada mostra ocorrência de cicatrizes miocárdicas em 19% dos indivíduos avaliados ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> – <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> A extensão da fibrose miocárdica aumenta progressivamente com a evolução da doença, podendo ser considerada um marcador de gravidade da CCDC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Quanto maior a proporção do realce tardio em relação à massa do VE, menor a fração de ejeção dessa câmara e pior a classe funcional estimada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Contudo, a correlação entre a extensão da fibrose e a função sistólica do VE parece não ser linear. Pequenas áreas cicatriciais podem ser encontradas em ventrículos com desempenho sistólico normal, mesmo quando este é avaliado por métodos mais sensíveis ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 4</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Indivíduos com doença de Chagas e massa fibrótica pela RMC maior do que 10% mostram comprometimento significativamente maior da função sistólica global do VE do que aqueles com fibrose menos extensa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
				<table-wrap id="t2">
					<label>Tabela 1</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Prevalência de realce tardio miocárdico pela ressonância magnética cardíaca em indivíduos com a forma indeterminada da doença de Chagas.</title>
					</caption>
					<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
						<colgroup width="33%">
							<col/>
							<col/>
							<col/>
						</colgroup>
						<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Autor</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Pacientes na forma indeterminada avaliados pela RMC</th>
								<th align="center" valign="middle">Presença de realce tardio miocárdico</th>
							</tr>
						</thead>
						<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Rochitte et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">15</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">3 (20)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Regueiro et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">27</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2 (7)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Noya-Rabelo et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">17</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">6 (35)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Tassi et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">26</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">5 (19)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Torreão et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">16</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2 (13)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Lee-Felker et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">50</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">4 (8)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Uellendahl et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">11</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">3 (27)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Melendez-Ramirez et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">8</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">4 (50)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Pinheiro et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">16</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">7 (44)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Romano et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">19</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">2 (11)</td>
							</tr>
							<tr>
								<td align="left" valign="middle">Total</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">205</td>
								<td align="center" valign="middle">38 (19)</td>
							</tr>
						</tbody>
					</table>
					<table-wrap-foot>
						<fn id="TFN2">
							<p>Resultados expressos por n ou n (%). RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca</p>
						</fn>
					</table-wrap-foot>
				</table-wrap>
				<fig id="f10">
					<label>Figura 4</label>
					<caption>
						<title>A correlação entre a extensão da fibrose miocárdica, avaliada por realce tardio em imagens de ressonância magnética, e a função sistólica do ventrículo esquerdo (VE), analisada pela ecocardiografia de varredura de pontos (speckle tracking echocardiography), mostra-se não linear na doença de Chagas. Indivíduos com pequenas áreas fibróticas, geralmente menores que 10% da massa miocárdica, podem apresentar função sistólica global do ventrículo esquerdo normal (à esquerda da linha tracejada, que representa o limite normal da deformação miocárdica longitudinal global). Deformação sistólica menor que 15% (valor específico para o programa utilizado para análise) está geralmente associada à presença de fibrose miocárdica. Adicionalmente, mostra-se a presença de cicatrizes miocárdicas em dois pacientes com a forma indeterminada da doença.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf04-pt.tif"/>
					<attrib>Fonte: adaptado de Romano et al.,39 sob permissão de Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0). RMC: ressonância magnética cardíaca.</attrib>
				</fig>
				<p>As localizações mais frequentes das áreas de realce tardio miocárdico na doença de Chagas são as regiões inferolateral e apical do VE. Embora também exista associação entre fibrose e alterações da mobilidade segmentar miocárdica, pequenas áreas de realce tardio podem ser encontradas em segmentos miocárdicos com mobilidade normal. Por outro lado, cicatrizes mais extensas, particularmente aquelas que acometem pelo menos 50% da parede miocárdica, estão habitualmente relacionadas a áreas de hipocinesia e acinesia do VE. Já a distribuição da fibrose ventricular esquerda na doença de Chagas é variável. O padrão subendocárdico e o transmural são os mais encontrados, indistinguíveis de sequelas de infarto causado por doença arterial coronariana. Os padrões mesocárdico e subepicárdico também são comuns.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Enquanto em alguns indivíduos a distribuição das cicatrizes miocárdicas mostram padrão homogêneo e localizado, em outros pode ocorrer fibrose difusa de padrões variados. Em ambos os casos, a presença de cicatrizes de padrão salpicado pode ser um obstáculo à sua quantificação ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 5</xref> ).</p>
				<fig id="f11">
					<label>Figura 5</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Cicatrizes miocárdicas de ventrículo esquerdo (VE) evidenciadas em cortes tomográficos de eixo curto pela técnica de realce tardio pelo gadolínio. Fibrose subendocárdica localizada em região inferolateral do ventrículo esquerdo (A) e de padrão transmural envolvendo as regiões anterolateral, inferolateral e inferior do ventrículo esquerdo (B). Padrão difuso e misto de fibrose miocárdica, com área de cicatriz transmural (setas amarelas) em região inferolateral e focos de cicatrizes mesocárdicas difusas (setas verdes) envolvendo outras regiões do ventrículo esquerdo (C).</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf05-pt.tif"/>
				</fig>
				<p>Recentemente, uma avaliação cardíaca seriada de pacientes com CCDC pela RMC mostrou que a presença de fibrose miocárdica está associada à queda da fração de ejeção do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> Durante acompanhamento médio de 5 anos, o percentual da massa ventricular esquerda com sinais de realce tardio nos indivíduos avaliados aumentou significativamente de 13±8% para 18±14%. Contudo, o valor prognóstico desse achado permanece incerto. Questões relacionadas à reprodutibilidade das medidas da extensão do realce tardio miocárdico representam uma limitação na interpretação de resultados de avaliações seriadas. Nesse contexto, a investigação dos fatores relacionados ao aparecimento de cicatrizes miocárdicas em indivíduos previamente sem esse achado pode aprimorar a compreensão da evolução do dano miocárdico na doença de Chagas.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Fibrose miocárdica e arritmias ventriculares</title>
				<p>A CCDC é considerada uma cardiomiopatia arritmogênica devido às frequentes alterações do sistema excito-condutor cardíaco e arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> A morte súbita cardíaca pode ocorrer em qualquer estágio da doença, sobretudo em decorrência de arritmias ventriculares malignas, como a taquicardia ventricular sustentada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Os focos de fibrose miocárdica são os principais substratos arritmogênicos na forma crônica da doença de Chagas, embora outros mecanismos, como distúrbios microvasculares e denervação simpática, também atuem na patogênese das arritmias ventriculares nessa condição clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A elevada resolução espacial da RMC para a detecção, caracterização e quantificação da fibrose miocárdica é uma grande vantagem para a estratificação não invasiva de risco de eventos adversos, incluindo arritmias ventriculares malignas, em pacientes com doença de Chagas. Estudos transversais e do tipo caso-controle mostram que áreas de realce tardio miocárdico pela RMC são achados altamente prevalentes em pacientes com doença de Chagas e história clínica de taquicardia ventricular sustentada concomitante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Notadamente, a identificação de fibrose pela RMC pode ser a única alteração miocárdica encontrada em indivíduos com doença de Chagas que apresentam instabilidade elétrica, definida por extrassístoles ventriculares frequentes ou episódios de taquicardia ventricular sustentada ou não sustentada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Além disso, as cicatrizes miocárdicas identificadas pela RMC estão anatomicamente correlacionadas a regiões com sinais de denervação autonômica e isquemia avaliadas pela cintilografia de perfusão miocárdica, sugerindo participação inextricável desses fatores na patogênese das arritmias ventriculares na CCDC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
				<p>O padrão de fibrose miocárdica transmural avaliada pela RMC em pacientes com doença de Chagas mostra-se mais frequente naqueles com taquicardia ventricular sustentada, em comparação com aqueles sem essa manifestação clínica. A presença de dois ou mais segmentos miocárdicos contínuos com realce tardio transmural está associada à história de taquicardia ventricular sustentada, independentemente da idade, do sexo, da fração de ejeção do VE e da porcentagem de realce tardio encontrada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Além disso, a caracterização das cicatrizes miocárdicas pela RMC pode ser utilizada como ferramenta auxiliar à técnica de ablação de taquicardia ventricular em pacientes com CCDC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> Padrões cicatriciais transmurais ou com envolvimento subepicárdico, geralmente nos segmentos ínfero-laterais do VE, frequentemente levam a circuitos de reentrada predominantemente epicárdicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Nessas condições, a ablação endocárdica e epicárdica combinadas está relacionada ao maior sucesso na interrupção de arritmias ventriculares malignas em pacientes com CCDC, tanto em curto quanto a longo prazo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A utilização de novas técnicas de RMC voltadas à avaliação de fibrose intersticial em pacientes com doença de Chagas parece promissora. Estudo transversal incluindo 47 pacientes com a doença mostrou que quantidades elevadas de fibrose intersticial avaliada por seu volume extracelular derivado da RMC estão associadas à taquicardia ventricular não sustentada, independentemente da fração de ejeção e da quantificação do realce tardio miocárdico do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Valor prognóstico da fibrose miocárdica na cardiopatia a crônica da doença de Chagas</title>
				<p>A avaliação prognóstica em pacientes com doença de Chagas pode identificar os indivíduos com maior risco de complicações cardiovasculares ao longo da evolução da doença, auxiliando na tomada de decisão quanto à necessidade de acompanhamento especializado e no planejamento terapêutico. A disfunção sistólica do VE é o preditor mais consistente de morte em pacientes com doença de Chagas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Não obstante, outros fatores, como sexo masculino, classe funcional III/IV pela classificação da <italic>New York Heart Association</italic> , baixa voltagem dos complexos QRS ao eletrocardiograma, cardiomegalia à radiografia torácica e taquicardia ventricular não sustentada identificada na monitorização eletrocardiográfica de 24 horas também indicam eventos adversos e mortalidade elevada nesse cenário clínico. Esses preditores estão reunidos no escore de Rassi et al., originalmente desenvolvido e validado para a estratificação de risco de morte em pacientes com CCDC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Em estudo transversal, a extensão progressivamente maior da fibrose miocárdica avaliada pela RMC mostrou-se positivamente correlacionada com o escore de risco de Rassi et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Recentemente, dois estudos longitudinais demonstraram o papel da identificação e da quantificação da fibrose miocárdica pela RMC na estratificação de risco nessa condição clínica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Em uma coorte prospectiva de 140 pacientes com CCDC, a presença de cicatrizes miocárdicas associou-se à ocorrência de evento combinado de taquicardia ventricular sustentada e morte cardiovascular em um período mediano de acompanhamento de 3 anos. Também houve associação significativa da presença de fibrose com o desfecho combinado incluindo, além desses já descritos, a internação hospitalar por insuficiência cardíaca. Além disso, quanto maior a extensão das cicatrizes miocárdicas, maior o risco de ocorrência desses eventos combinados, independentemente da idade e da fração de ejeção do VE ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 6</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Em outra coorte retrospectiva de 130 indivíduos também com CCDC, tanto a presença quanto a maior extensão do realce tardio miocárdico mostraram-se relacionados à incidência elevada do desfecho combinado de mortalidade geral, transplante cardíaco, terapias apropriadas por cardiodesfibrilador implantável e episódio de morte súbita abortada em um período mediano de seguimento de 5 anos. Nesse estudo, a presença de massa fibrótica igual ou superior a 12,3g associou-se de forma significativa e independente ao desfecho combinado do estudo. Adicionalmente, em uma análise bivariada, incluindo a massa fibrótica e o escore de risco de Rassi como variáveis preditoras, essa investigação demostrou a associação de ambas com o desfecho composto avaliado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Destacadamente, a ausência de fibrose nesses estudos foi um excelente marcador de não ocorrência de eventos adversos em pacientes com CDCC. Entretanto, permanece a questão sobre o papel da fibrose miocárdica na reclassificação prognóstica após a aplicação do escore de Rassi et al., especialmente em indivíduos inicialmente estratificados como de risco baixo ou intermediário por esse sistema de classificação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Não obstante, os recentes achados demonstram a potencialidade da investigação das cicatrizes miocárdicas pela RMC na estratificação de risco cardiovascular em pacientes com a doença Chagas, cujo papel na tomada de decisão clínica poderá ser demonstrado em ensaios clínicos futuros.</p>
				<fig id="f12">
					<label>Figura 6</label>
					<caption>
						<title>Associação entre presença de fibrose miocárdica e a ocorrência do desfecho combinado de morte cardiovascular, taquicardia ventricular sustentada ou hospitalização por insuficiência cardíaca em pacientes com cardiopatia crônica da doença de Chagas. A presença de realce tardio miocárdico pela ressonância magnética cardíaca é preditor de risco do desfecho combinado, em comparação com a ausência de cicatrizes miocárdicas.</title>
					</caption>
					<graphic xlink:href="0102-762X-dic-35-1-eabc285-gf06-pt.tif"/>
					<attrib>Fonte: adaptado de Volpe et al.(14) sob permissão de Elsevier, licença número 5235480481082.</attrib>
				</fig>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Avaliação de miocardite em pacientes com doença de Chagas</title>
				<p>A miocardite relacionada à persistência parasitária é considerada um dos principais mecanismos patogênicos relacionados à injúria miocárdica pela doença de Chagas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> Na fase aguda, casos graves de miocardite podem levar à morte, embora ocorram em uma minoria dos pacientes sintomáticos. Contudo, a prevalência de inflamação miocárdica na fase aguda da doença é provavelmente subestimada pela dificuldade diagnóstica. Já na fase crônica, a miocardite de baixa intensidade é reconhecidamente um mecanismo patológico precípuo na gênese das lesões miocárdicas na doença de Chagas. Exacerbações podem ocorrer em indivíduos imunodeprimidos, levando à reativação da replicação parasitária, miocardite grave e quadros de insuficiência cardíaca aguda e óbito.</p>
				<p>Apesar do destacado papel da RMC na avaliação não invasiva de miocardite, o emprego desse método em pacientes com doença de Chagas tem sido pouco relatado na literatura científica. Utilizando técnicas convencionais de RMC, um estudo transversal incluindo 54 pacientes com doença de Chagas mostrou que a presença de hiperemia e edema miocárdicos, considerados critérios para o diagnóstico não invasivo de miocardite, podem ser encontrados em todas as fases da CCDC, mesmo precocemente em indivíduos com desempenho sistólico ventricular esquerdo preservado ou na forma indeterminada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Como destacado pelos autores dessa investigação, a identificação dessas anormalidades subclínicas representa um alerta para o risco de desenvolvimento de quadros mais graves e pode ajudar a melhor compreender a história natural da doença.</p>
				<p>Além das estratégias tradicionais para a investigação de casos suspeitos de miocardite, a técnica de mapeamento miocárdico pela RMC pode ser utilizada, proporcionando análise quantitativa e mais objetiva de áreas de edema miocárdico. Em um relato de caso de miocardite chagásica em paciente adulto, a utilização dessa técnica permitiu o diagnóstico de miocardite na fase aguda, além do acompanhamento do caso, evidenciando regressão progressiva das áreas miocárdicas edemaciadas em exames de RMC realizados de forma seriada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> A aplicação do mapeamento miocárdico em pacientes na fase crônica da doença de Chagas é promissora, podendo revelar alterações subclínicas e identificar indivíduos sob alto risco de progressão para estágios mais avançados da CCDC.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A avaliação pela ressonância miocárdica cardíaca do acometimento miocárdico na doença de Chagas oferece caracterização morfofuncional cardíaca altamente confiável e reprodutível, especialmente na presença de alterações regionais da função sistólica do VE e na disfunção ventricular direita. Com elevada sensibilidade para a detecção de cicatrizes miocárdicas, a ressonância miocárdica cardíaca mostra-se uma valiosa ferramenta para a estratificação de risco cardiovascular em pacientes com CCDC. A presença e a maior extensão das áreas de fibrose miocárdica caracterizadas pela RMC estão associadas à disfunção sistólica do VE e à ocorrência de arritmias ventriculares nesses pacientes. Ademais, coortes clínicas recentemente demostraram o valor prognóstico das áreas de realce tardio miocárdico pelo gadolínio com eventos cardiovasculares adversos, como internações hospitalares por insuficiência cardíaca, taquicardia ventricular sustentada e morte súbita cardíaca. Técnicas mais avançadas de RMC, como o mapeamento miocárdico para a avaliação de edema miocárdico e de fibrose difusa, têm sido recentemente empregadas na avaliação clínica de pacientes com doença de Chagas, com resultados preliminares bastante promissores.</p>
			</sec>
		</body>
	</sub-article>
</article>