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	<front>
		<journal-meta>
			<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
			<journal-title-group>
				<journal-title>Phenomenology, Humanities and Sciences - Fenomenologia, Humanidades e Ciências</journal-title>
				<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title>
			</journal-title-group>
			<issn pub-type="epub">0000-0000</issn>
			<publisher>
				<publisher-name>Instituto de Treinamento e Pesquisa em Gestalt-terapia de Goiânia (ITGT); Associação Brasileira de Psicologia Fenomenológica (Abrapfe)</publisher-name>
			</publisher>
		</journal-meta>
		<article-meta>
			<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20210035</article-id>
			<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20210035</article-id>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Review Article</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Ventricular Arrythmias in Cardiac Amyloidosis: It is Possible to Prevent Sudden Death?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5433-0601</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Dumont</surname>
						<given-names>Carlos A.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9862-748X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Liprandi</surname>
						<given-names>María Inés Sosa</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1">
				<label>1</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Heart Failure Unit</institution>
				<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Privado de Rosario</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Rosario</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
				<institution content-type="original"> Heart Failure Unit , Hospital Privado de Rosario , Rosario - Argentina </institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2">
				<label>2</label>
				<institution content-type="orgname">Cardiovascular Research and Heart Failure Unit</institution>
				<addr-line>
					<named-content content-type="city">Sanatorio Güemes</named-content>
					<named-content content-type="state">Buenos Aires</named-content>
				</addr-line>
				<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
				<institution content-type="original"> Cardiovascular Research and Heart Failure Unit , Sanatorio Güemes , Buenos Aires - Argentina </institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01">Mailing Address: Carlos A. Dumont • Hospital Privado de Rosario. Pte. Roca 2440.CP 2000, Rosario, Santa Fé – Argentina. Email: <email>carlosdumont8@gmail.com</email>
				</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>On behalf of the Council of Myocardiopathies of the Inter-American Society of Cardiology</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p>Author contributions</p>
					<p>Conception and design of the research; Acquisition of data; Analysis and interpretation of the data; Writing of the manuscript; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Dumont CA, Sosa Liprandi MI.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potential Conflict of Interest</p>
					<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
				<day>10</day>
				<month>12</month>
				<year>2021</year>
			</pub-date>
			<pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
				<season>Oct-Dec</season>
				<year>2021</year>
			</pub-date>
			<volume>1</volume>
			<issue>2</issue>
			<fpage>103</fpage>
			<lpage>111</lpage>
			<history>
				<date date-type="received">
					<day>12</day>
					<month>10</month>
					<year>2021</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="rev-recd">
					<day>01</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2021</year>
				</date>
				<date date-type="accepted">
					<day>01</day>
					<month>11</month>
					<year>2021</year>
				</date>
			</history>
			<permissions>
				<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
					<license-p>This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.</license-p>
				</license>
			</permissions>
			<abstract>
				<title>Abstract</title>				
<p>Cardiac amyloidosis (CA) is an infiltrative cardiomyopathy that occurs secondary to deposition of misfolded protein in the myocardium. The two most common subtypes are amyloid light chain amyloidosis and amyloid transthyretin amyloidosis. CA frequently results in congestive cardiac failure and arrhythmias, due to a disruption in cardiac substrate with subsequent electromechanical remodeling. Disease progression is usually demonstrated by development of progressive pump failure, which may be seen with a high arrhythmic burden, usually portending a poor prognosis. Arrhythmias are common, and many commonly used pharmacological therapies may be poorly tolerated and lead to clinical decompensation in this population, adding complexity to the co-management of these conditions. Studies are required to assess the risks and benefits of catheter ablation for ventricular tachycardia, with no current data showing a mortality benefit. The role of implantable cardioverter-defibrillator therapy is controversial, with benefits seen predominantly in early phases of the disease process. High-quality evidence and guideline recommendations are limited with regard to the management of arrhythmias. Providers are often left to clinical experience and expert consensus to aid in decision-making. This review summarizes both historical and contemporary data and describes evidence-based strategies for managing ventricular arrhythmias and their sequelae in patients with CA.</p>
			</abstract>			
			<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
				<kwd>Amyloidosis</kwd>
				<kwd>Tachycardia, Ventricular</kwd>
				<kwd>Death, Sudden, Cardiac</kwd>
				<kwd>Defibrillators, Implantable</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
			<counts>
				<fig-count count="2"/>
				<table-count count="2"/>
				<equation-count count="0"/>
				<ref-count count="62"/>
				<page-count count="9"/>
			</counts>
		</article-meta>
	</front>
	<body>
		<sec sec-type="intro">
			<title>Introduction</title>
			<p>Amyloidosis is a systemic disease characterized by the extracellular deposition of pathological insoluble fibrillar protein, known as amyloid, within various organs (mainly the heart and kidneys). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> The leading cause of morbidity and mortality in these patients is from development of restrictive cardiomyopathy with progressive congestive cardiac failure (CCF). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Approximately 95% of cases of cardiac amyloidosis (CA) are misfolded transthyretin (ATTR) or immunoglobulin light-chain (AL) types. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> The ATTR group is characterized by misfolding of transthyretin, a protein made mainly in the liver. Both wild-type ATTR cardiomyopathy (wtATTR-CM) and hereditary ATTR cardiomyopathy (hATTR-CM) have been described. The prevalence of wtATTR-CM is estimated to be between 5.5% and 16.0% of people &gt; 80 years of age. Recent trends have revealed a significant increase in the number of new diagnoses of ATTR-CM over the past 10 years, suggesting that estimates of disease burden underestimate the true prevalence amyloid cardiomyopathy. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> AL amyloidosis is a clonal plasma cell proliferative disorder characterized by production of abnormal protein fibrils in the bone marrow. The estimated prevalence of AL amyloidosis in the United States ranges from 15.5 to 40.5 cases per million. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
			<p>CA should be suspected particularly in patients with heart failure with preserved left ventricular ejection fraction presenting “red flag” signs such as (1) either symmetrical or asymmetrical unexplained left and right ventricular hypertrophy with concomitant diastolic dysfunction and reduced left ventricular global longitudinal strain (LV GLS) with an “apical sparing” pattern in echocardiography, (2) discrepancy between the left ventricular (LV) wall thickness and QRS voltage and the presence of pseudo-infarct pattern in electrocardiography, especially if associated with increased levels of N-terminal pro B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
			<p>Although novel treatment vastly improved survival in AL and ATTR CA, cardiovascular events account for more than two thirds of fatal casualties in both groups. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Moreover, sudden cardiac death (SCD) accounts for up to 50% of all cardiac deaths. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Electromechanical dissociation is thought to be the most common cause of SCD in patients with CA; however, ventricular arrhythmias (VA) and conduction abnormalities are also common. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> To date, little is known about risk factors for ventricular tachyarrhythmias as a cause of SCD in patients with amyloidosis and cardiac involvement. Therefore, identification of patients with CA who may be eligible for implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) is challenging.</p>
			<p>While both forms of amyloid subtypes have a predilection to the development of amyloid cardiomyopathy, the underlying electrical burden and arrhythmogenic substrate vary between them, with distinct clinical implications. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> The resultant disruption of the cardiac conduction system in patients with CA predisposes to arrhythmias, with the most frequent identified as atrial fibrillation (45% to 65%) and, less frequently, atrioventricular conduction delays (3.5%) and ventricular tachyarrhythmias (ventricular tachycardia 9.9% and ventricular fibrillation 0.7%, respectively). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> wATTR appears to carry the highest risk of atrial fibrillation, and commonly used cardiovascular therapeutics such as beta-blockers, calcium-channel blockers, and digoxin may be poorly tolerated and lead to clinical decompensation in CA, adding further complexity to the co-management of these conditions. The literature currently states that patients with AL CA have a higher propensity to develop VA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> The historically reported survival of &lt; 12 months in patients with cardiac AL has represented a contraindication to ICD. However, recently, the evolution of treatment options has improved overall survival, opening new perspectives in terms of cardiac protection and calling for further understanding of the arrhythmic profile and SCD prevention in patients with AL.</p>
			<sec>
				<title>Epidemiology of Ventricular Arrhythmias</title>
				<p>The prevalence of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia (NSVT) in AL amyloidosis ranges from 5% to 27% with routine monitoring, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> and 100% during the stem cell transplant period. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> The prevalence of ventricular tachycardia (VT) in the ATTR population is less frequently reported, but small studies suggest a prevalence of approximately 17%. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Additionally, as AL amyloidosis is more likely to cause end-stage CCF when compared to ATTR, there is a higher preponderance to development of VA. The clinical significance of VA is varied, with some studies suggesting a prognostic role <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> and other studies reporting no such correlation. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Pathophysiology of Ventricular Arrhythmias</title>
				<p>There are a variety of mechanisms that form the fundamental pathogenesis for VA in CA. Firstly, amyloid fibril deposition with a resultant inflammatory response and oxidative stress leads to a separation of myocytes resulting in remodeling and LV fibrosis, which progressively develops arrhythmogenic potential. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Secondly, amyloid fibril deposition in the conduction system can potentiate arrhythmias. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Thirdly, micro- and macrovascular myocardial ischemia from amyloid deposition can be demonstrated by regional myocardial dysfunction, as assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> The cause and mechanisms of VA in CA, however, are poorly understood and are likely to be multifactorial.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Prognosis</title>
				<p>Cardiac involvement is the determinant of prognosis in amyloidosis. Risk of death in patients with AL amyloidosis can be stratified using the revised Mayo staging models, including cardiac biomarkers: cardiac troponin T (cTnT ≥ 0.025 ng/mL), NT-proBNP (≥ 1,800 pg/mL) and serum immunoglobulin free light chain difference ≥ 18 mg/dL. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Similar to AL amyloidosis, a staging system including markers of increased myocardial stress, such as NT-proBNP and high sensitivity cTnT, has been proposed for ATTR amyloidosis. Patients with both cTnT &gt; 0.05 ng/mL and NT-proBNP &gt; 3,000 pg/mL had the worst prognosis, with median survival of only 20 months. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Additional to elevated cardiac biomarkers, renal dysfunction was also identified as a significant risk factor of worse prognosis. In the recently proposed prognostic system for staging ATTR amyloidosis, patients with decreased estimated glomerular filtation rate &lt; 45 mL/min/1.73 m <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> and NT- proBNP &gt; 3,000 pg/mL had significantly worse survival compared to those not meeting these cut-off values. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> However, the mentioned staging models only predict overall mortality. There is no significant correlation between cardiac biomarkers levels and the risk of VA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
				<p>It is crucial to understand the pathophysiology of VA in CA in order to predict the risk of death. Amyloid in the extracellular spaces distorts the myocardial cells, and it can also infiltrate cardiac conduction system and coronary arteries. Besides infiltration, amyloidogenic light chains in AL amyloidosis may directly impair cardiomyocyte function through an increase in cellular oxidant stress. It appears that myocardial scarring and fibrosis that are typical of chronic ischemic or non-ischemic cardiomyopathies are less common in CA. It is well known that patients with structural heart disease have a lower threshold in developing arrhythmias, and this may be the case for patients with CA, specifically the AL subtype. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Several echocardiographic correlates of structural heart disease are known to result in VT, for example evidence of elevated LV systolic diameter, impaired left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF &lt; 30%), widened QRS (&gt; 125 msec), age &gt; 65 years, prior history of CCF, and active diuretic therapy, when compared to patients without VT. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> These specific clinical and echocardiographic findings are frequently seen in patients with CA, and, therefore, these high-risk populations should undergo frequent monitoring. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Similarly, a study by Falk et al. has shown that, in patients with CA who present with high-grade VA, there is more likely to be a history of CCF and an abnormal echocardiogram, when compared to patients without arrhythmias. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> These findings highlight the relationship between structural heart disease, heart failure, and VT. Therefore, structural assessment in these patients may provide prognostic value and allow for more appropriate medical therapy. In some patients, the qualification for primary ICD implantation is based on the standard LV systolic dysfunction with LVEF ≤ 35%. However, in the majority of patients with CA, the decline of LV systolic function is a late manifestation; therefore, other echocardiographic parameters are needed to assess LV function (even in those with preserved LVEF). Harmon et al. showed that VA was more common in patients with reduced two-dimensional LV GLS (≥ −15%) assessed by speckle-tracking echocardiography. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
				<p>CMR not only plays an important role in the diagnosis of CA; it also provides important prognostic information. In amyloidosis, CMR enables myocardial tissue characterization by means of T1- and T2-weighted imaging sequences, T1 mapping (pre- and post-contrast), late gadolinium enhancement (LGE), and extracellular volume (ECV) imaging. Global subendocardial or transmural pattern of LGE and, to a lesser degree, focal patchy LGE are all features of CA. The extent of LGE may also serve as a surrogate of arrhythmogenic substrate for the occurrence of VA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Two-year survival in patients with CA without LGE was 92%, whereas it was significantly lower in those who showed subendocardial or transmural LGE (81% and 45%, respectively). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Both in AL and ATTR CA, the presence of transmural LGE has been shown to be an independent predictor of worse survival. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> However, the limitation of LGE is that it is difficult to quantify, making it difficult to track changes in CA, for example, due to treatment. Post-contrast T1 mapping following gadolinium administration enables estimation of ECV. ECV values are significantly elevated in CA, and ECV is a robust prognostic marker in CA. Moreover, the assessment of ECV as well as native T1 values makes it possible to track the disease and response to therapy over time. Additionally, T2 mapping provides data on T2 relaxation times which represent myocardial edema and active inflammation and are potentially linked with arrhythmogenic potential. In a recent study, <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> the presence of myocardial edema was shown in CA, as indicated by increased T2 relaxation times in patients with amyloidosis compared to control subjects, as well as in untreated AL amyloidosis compared with treated AL and ATTR amyloidosis. In this study, T2 was a prognostic predictor in AL amyloidosis, which may suggest mechanisms additional to amyloid infiltration contributing to mortality in this disease. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
				<p>There have also been studies assessing the relationship between cardiac monitoring findings and VT in CA. In a recent study of 239 patients with AL CA, while the presence of NSVT conferred worse survival prior to stem cell transplant, cardiac monitoring only detected its presence in approximately 25% of patients. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> In a prospective series of 20 patients with syncope in the context of severe CA by Sayed et al., only 1 episode of VT was documented, with a total of 13 deaths. The remaining arrhythmias detected were either atrial arrhythmias or atrioventricular conduction block. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> NSVT is a common finding among patients with CA, and its role in predicting SCD in this population is debated, as it appears to have little discriminative value to identify those who die from VA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> In the meta-analysis by Halawa et al., despite high prevalence of NSVT (in 51% of patients with CA), only 18% received appropriate ICD therapy. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Nevertheless, NSVT in the early stage of AL amyloidosis can be considered an indication for ICD implantation in primary prevention (class IIb). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
				<p>To better understand the underlying pathophysiology, Orini et al. combined the assessment of the electrophysiological and structural ventricular substrate from 21 patients with CA (11 AL and 10 ATTR). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> The authors used a special electrocardiographic system with 256 electrodes for non-invasive epicardial mapping of ventricular potentials and CMR imaging. When compared with healthy volunteers, patients with CA had significantly lower epicardial signal amplitude, slower heterogeneous intraventricular conduction, and prolonged and more spatially dispersed repolarization. Moreover, epicardial signal fractionation and average repolarization time increased with ECV calculated in CMR. A strong inverse correlation was found between epicardial signal amplitude and native T1 in CMR. Both epicardial conduction and repolarization abnormalities were more notable in patients with AL amyloidosis compared with ATTR. Spatial conduction-repolarization heterogeneity is thought to be a marker of increased propensity to VA and sudden arrhythmic death in patients with heart failure and may contribute to higher mortality in AL amyloidosis. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> This study also suggests a link between conduction-repolarization delay and increased extracellular deposition.</p>
				<p>Invasive electrophysiological study is infrequently performed in patients with CA. Reisinger at al. demonstrated a prolongation of the His-ventricular (HV) interval &gt; 55 ms in the majority of the examined population (23 of 25 patients with biopsy-confirmed AL amyloidosis), which indicated disease of the distal His-Purkinje system. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Markedly prolonged HV interval (≥ 80 ms) was the only independent predictor for SCD in the multivariate analysis. The authors concluded that prolongation of the HV interval not only indicates a risk of complete atrioventricular block due to conduction system infiltration with amyloid fibrils and bradyarrhythmia as a potential cause of death; it may also indicate severe myocardial infiltration and serve as a marker of the propensity for lethal VA or acute electromechanical dissociation. Interestingly, in this study, monomorphic VT was induced in only 4 patients during programmed ventricular stimulation, and, similarly to other non-ischemic cardiomyopathies, VT non-inducibility showed little prognostic value.</p>
				<p>Amyloid infiltration is more severe in ATTR when compared to AL amyloidosis, which ultimately results in greater LV mass and higher rates of CCF. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> In spite of these phenotypic differences, AL amyloidosis confers worse prognosis with high rates of SCD (approximately 33% of patients) in the first 3 months of diagnosis. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> This may be secondary to higher spatial heterogenous conduction and repolarization, which is a marker of arrhythmogenesis and overall worse prognosis, as shown by Orini et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Management</title>
				<p>The management of VA in CA requires a different approach to standard VA guidelines in the context of heart failure or conventional cardiomyopathies. The treatment of VT can be subdivided into cardiac antiarrhythmic medications, procedural-based therapy, and surgical modalities. Patients presenting with VT frequently undergo extensive investigation, including CMR imaging to evaluate myocardial LGE or scarring, as it provides prognostic information and may identify a site of origin of VT that can then be effectively targeted by catheter ablation. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> This work-up may be beneficial in patients with CA presenting with VA. Conventional pharmacotherapies that are used in treatment of VT include oral antiarrhythmic agents and beta-blockade. Beta-blockers, while used widely in the suppression of VT with beta-adrenergic antagonist activity, may be detrimental with a resultant loss in cardiac output, in patients with CA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Amiodarone, another commonly used and effective therapy for VT, may result in complications when treating patients with CA, namely complete heart block when compared to patients without CA, as shown in a study (43.8% versus 30.0%, <italic>P</italic> &lt; 0.0001). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> These findings indicate poorer overall outcomes with conventional pharmacological therapy for VT, when used in patients with CA.</p>
				<p>Chemotherapy for AL amyloidosis is mainly based on regimens used for the treatment of myeloma and not specifically approved for AL cardiac involvement. Most of these drugs have established cardiotoxic potential, with increased risk of heart failure and arrhythmic events. A study by Le Bras et al. demonstrated that dexamethasone as an induction agent for treatment of patients with AL CA may potentiate fluid retention and promote arrhythmias, hence resulting in an arrhythmogenic ventricular substrate. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Similarly, high dose chemotherapy, specifically cyclophosphamide and bortezomib, in AL amyloidosis can be cardiotoxic in nature and result in VT due to myocardial dysfunction. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
				<p>While the role of catheter ablation for treatment of atrial arrhythmias is evolving, with the current literature showing potential benefits in terms of recurrence rate and overall survival, there is a lack of data on its use in VA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Other than case reports of successful radiofrequency VT ablation, there have been no large-scale studies assessing the role of VT or ventricular fibrillation ablation in CA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Catheter ablation of VT has been shown to have some utility in patients with other infiltrative cardiomyopathies, such as cardiac sarcoidosis, and it may, therefore, be a viable option for patients with CA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> Further large-scale studies are required to assess the risk and benefits of catheter ablation for VT in CA, with no current data showing a mortality benefit.</p>
				<p>The development of refractory heart failure is usually seen with incessant VT and portends a poor prognosis. Epicardial mapping and catheter ablation are also options for management of incessant VT. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> The definitive surgical therapy for treatment of end-stage heart failure, which may be seen with recurrent VA, is orthotopic cardiac transplantation, an option in the setting of failed medical management. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Heart transplantation is an effective therapy for end-stage CA with good follow-up survival rates. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The advent of disease modifying therapies for ATTR has revolutionized management protocols. Tafamidis, a transthyretin stabiliser, prevents overall tetramer dissociation and amyloidogenesis; therefore, it has been shown to reduce all-cause mortality and cardiovascular hospitalizations. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Similarly, diflusinal is a non-steroidal drug that also stabilizes the transthyretin tetramer and has been shown to stabilize LV mass, indicating a halt in progression of cardiac amyloidogenesis. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> By effectively preventing amyloidogenesis, these therapies may result in reduced incidence of SCD with the potential to mitigate VA in the population with ATTR.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Device Therapy</title>
				<p>Whether there is a selected population of patients with CA at risk of arrhythmic SCD (versus SCD due to electromechanical dissociation) who would benefit from ICD placement is still a matter of debate. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Currently, there is no consensus on the absolute benefit that ICDs can confer patients with CA. While its potential to eliminate fatal VA is supported by select and anecdotal cases, the overall effectiveness of ICDs and their safety remains unclear. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Most decisions made regarding ICD insertions are largely patient-centered and based upon local expertise.</p>
				<p>Studies have shown that up to one half of patients with CA die suddenly; however, ICD placement for both primary and secondary prevention in CA has not been strongly supported by expert guidelines. Reasons for this include the following: 1) the most common cause of sudden death has been historically thought to be secondary to electromechanical dissociation resulting in pulseless electrical activity rather than a lethal VA; 2) suggestion by some that CA carries a higher defibrillation threshold that may be refractory to ICD therapy; and 3) a historically poor prognosis and life expectancy in this population. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>The 2015 European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Guidelines for management of VA and prevention of SCD state that “there are insufficient data to provide recommendations” for the use of ICDs for primary prevention of SCD in patients with CA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> The ESC gives class IIa, level of evidence C, for ICD implantation in secondary prevention, recommending consideration for those with either AL or hATTR CA and “ventricular arrhythmia causing hemodynamic instability who are expected to survive &gt; 1 year with good functional status.” The 2017 American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology/Heart Rhythm Society guideline for management of patients with VA and prevention of SCD recommends individualized decision-making for both primary and secondary prevention ICD placement in CA, as data remain too limited to allow formal recommendations. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> According to the Heart Rhythm Society consensus statement from 2019, a prophylactic ICD may be considered in patients with NSVT in the course of AL and expected survival more than 1 year. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> However, it is only a class IIb recommendation. Both the ESC and American Heart Association guidelines are consistent in recommending against placement of ICD for primary or secondary prevention in patients with heart failure and expected meaningful survival of &lt; 1 year, including in those with medication-refractory New York Heart Association functional class IV heart failure who are not also candidates for cardiac resynchronization therapy, cardiac transplantation, or LV assist devices.</p>
				<p>Retrospective analyses ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> ) of outcomes in patients with CA implanted with ICD for primary and secondary prevention have shown that almost one quarter of patients received appropriate ICD therapy, and the incidence of inappropriate ICD interventions was low (7%). However, only one quarter of patients who received appropriate ICD therapy survived the follow-up, and in almost two thirds of patients the ICD probably had no effect on their survival. Kristen et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> found that only 11% of 19 patients with AL CA implanted with ICD for primary prevention received appropriate ICD therapies for sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Lin et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> from the Mayo Clinic found that 28% of 53 patients received appropriate ICD shocks at 1 year. Patients with AL CA comprised most of those who received appropriate shocks (12 of 15 patients), and those who were shocked more often had received an ICD for secondary prevention. ICD therapy was not associated with improved mortality in follow-up. Varr et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> from Stanford University found that 26% of 19 patients received appropriate shocks in follow-up. In this study, not a single patient who received an ICD for primary prevention received appropriate successful ICD therapy. There are multiple limitations to these studies. First, all of the studies included in this review were retrospective with various sample sizes. Second, the reports included patients with a variety of CA etiologies, including AL and ATTR, while each has a different clinical presentation, natural history, prognosis, and treatment. Regarding prognosis, Harmon et al. indicated in multivariate analysis that AL amyloidosis was an independent predictor of high mortality in patients with CA. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Third, the majority of ICDs were implanted in primary prevention for patients who had LVEF &lt; 35%. Qualification was mostly based on arbitrarily adopted criteria, which included the presence of different types of VA (such as NSVT or frequent premature ventricular beats) and/or non-postural syncope. Although the detection of NSVTs and reports of syncope should prompt immediate clinical concerns, the predictive value for primary SCD prevention is controversial. Unexplained syncope is a common and non-specific symptom in CA population, and it can result from other causes than conduction disturbances or VA, such as orthostatic hypotension, autonomic dysfunction, or the use of diuretics or vasodilating drugs. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<table-wrap id="t1">
						<label>Table 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– Studies reporting on treatment with implantable cardioverter-defibrillator and survival in patients with cardiac amyloidosis</title>
						</caption>
						<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
							<colgroup width="14%">
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
								<col/>
							</colgroup>
							<thead>
								<tr>
									<th align="left">Study/Year Published</th>
									<th>CA Patients with ICD (n)</th>
									<th>AL Amyloidosis</th>
									<th>ICD in Primary Prevention (n/%)</th>
									<th>Criteria for ICD Implantation in Primary Prevention</th>
									<th>Appropriate ICD Therapy (n/%)</th>
									<th>Overall Survival (n/%)</th>
								</tr>
							</thead>
							<tbody>
								<tr>
									<td>Kristen et al. (2008) [55]</td>
									<td align="center">19</td>
									<td align="center">19/19 (100%)</td>
									<td align="center">19 (100%)</td>
									<td align="center">Syncope and/or frequent PVBs</td>
									<td align="center">2 (11%)</td>
									<td align="center">1/2(50%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Lin et al. (2013) [32]</td>
									<td align="center">53</td>
									<td align="center">33/53 (62%)</td>
									<td align="center">41 (77%)</td>
									<td align="center">LVEF ≤35% or syncope or NSVT</td>
									<td align="center">15 (28%)</td>
									<td align="center">21/53(40%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Varr et al. (2014) [22]</td>
									<td align="center">19</td>
									<td align="center">15/19 (79%)</td>
									<td align="center">15 (79%)</td>
									<td align="center">Not specified</td>
									<td align="center">5 (26%)</td>
									<td align="center">UN</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Harmon et al. (2016) [26]</td>
									<td align="center">45</td>
									<td align="center">12/45 (27%)</td>
									<td align="center">38 (84%)</td>
									<td align="center">LVEF ≤35% or pacing indication and LV GLS ≥–15% and/or NSVT/frequent PVBs with syncope or planned HTX</td>
									<td align="center">12 (27%)</td>
									<td align="center">27/45 (60%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Chuzi et al. (2018)</td>
									<td align="center">31</td>
									<td align="center">14/31 (45%)</td>
									<td align="center">25 (80%)</td>
									<td align="center">Not specified</td>
									<td align="center">2 (6%)</td>
									<td align="center">19/31 (61%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Rezc et al. (2018)</td>
									<td align="center">15</td>
									<td align="center">15/15 (100%)</td>
									<td align="center">14 (93%)</td>
									<td align="center">NSVT and syncope/presyncope</td>
									<td align="center">4 (27%)</td>
									<td align="center">13/15 (87%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Kim et al. (2019) [62]</td>
									<td align="center">23</td>
									<td align="center">7/23 (30%)</td>
									<td align="center">23 (100%)</td>
									<td align="center">LVEF ≤35% or NSVT and/or syncope</td>
									<td align="center">6 (26%)</td>
									<td align="center">14/23 (61%)</td>
								</tr>
								<tr>
									<td>Donellan et al. (2019) [60]</td>
									<td align="center">38</td>
									<td align="center">0/38 (0%)</td>
									<td align="center">35 (92%)</td>
									<td align="center">Not specified</td>
									<td align="center">8 (21%)</td>
									<td align="center">UN</td>
								</tr>
							</tbody>
						</table>
						<table-wrap-foot>
							<fn id="TFN1">
								<p><italic>AL: Immunoglobulin light chain; CA: cardiac amyloidosis; HTX: heart transplantation; ICD: implantable cardioverter-defibrillator; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LV GLS: left ventricular global longitudinal strain; NSVT: nonsustained ventricular tachycardia; PVBs: premature ventricular beats; UN: unknown.</italic></p>
							</fn>
						</table-wrap-foot>
					</table-wrap>
				</p>
				<p>There is an increasing awareness that the primary driver of mortality in these patients is electromechanical dissociation, as opposed to VT. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Electromechanical dissociation is likely a manifestation of progressive deterioration in heart failure not amenable to ICD therapy. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> CA is often diagnosed late in various stages of amyloidosis, and overall mortality is higher in advanced stages of the disease. It is noteworthy that patients with greater cardiac involvement, manifested as higher NT-proBNP concentration and lower LVEF, may be at higher risk of death from electromechanical dissociation. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Therefore, ICD implantation can be more beneficial in patients with cardiac involvement but with lower NT-proBNP level and preserved LVEF. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
				<p>It is known that the risk of ventricular tachyarrhythmias and SCD varies with the type of CA and is significantly greater in patients with AL amyloidosis. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Based on the current state of knowledge, there are no robust guidelines for the decision to implant an ICD for primary prevention in CA. When NSVT and syncope are captured and documented, ICD implantation for prevention of SCD in CA is most likely a reasonable approach. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Specifically, this would be most appropriate for patients with AL amyloidosis, where ICD implantation is associated with a high rate of appropriate discharges for VA. An algorithm for ICD implantation could be proposed in patients with AL amyloidosis and LVEF &gt; 35% ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figure 1</xref> ). ICD should be considered in patients with registered NSVT and in early stages of the disease with less impairment in cardiac function, as indicated by minimally to moderately elevated cardiac biomarkers. As NSVT has been documented to be a poor predictor of SCD in AL amyloidosis, the incidence of syncope, decreased LV GLS in echocardiography, and the presence of transmural LGE in CMR can further improve stratification. Finally, specifically for AL amyloidosis, ICD implantation for primary prevention may also be reasonable for patients awaiting heart transplantation or a mechanical LV assist device, either as destination therapy or bridge-to-transplantation. This is reasonable only if perceived survival is meaningful (greater than 1 year), NT-pro BNP is less than 8,500 ng/L and NYHA functional class is less than IV. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
				<p>
					<fig id="f01">
						<label>Figure 1</label>
						<caption>
							<title>– <italic>Proposed algorithm for qualifying patients with cardiac amyloidosis for ICD implantation. AL: immunoglobulin light chain; ICD: implantable cardioverter-defibrillator; LGE: late gadolinium enhancement in cardiac magnetic resonance imaging; LV: left ventricular; LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction; LV GLS: left ventricular global longitudinal strain assessed by speckle-tracking echocardiography; NT-proBNP: N-terminal B-type natriuretic peptide; NYHA: New York Heart Association; NSVT: nonsustained ventricular tachycardia; VA: ventricular arrhythmia.</italic></title>
						</caption>
						<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-02-0103-gf01.tif"/>
					</fig>
				</p>
				<p>Conduction disease is highly prevalent in CA, and atrioventricular conduction delay involving the His-Purkinje system appears to be more common than pure sinus node disease. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> HV interval prolongation with relatively narrow QRS duration may suggest frequent widespread involvement of both right and left bundle branches in patients with CA. Permanent pacemakers are commonly indicated for patients with CA and significant conduction disease, most often in wtATTR. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Donnellan et al. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> from the Cleveland Clinic found that routine use of cardiac resynchronization therapy was associated with improvements in mitral regurgitation severity (67% of patients), New York Heart Association functional class (67% of patients), and LVEF (78% of patients) in patients with ATTR CA and an indication for permanent pacemaker.</p>
			</sec>
			<sec>
				<title>Future Directions</title>
				<p>Novel medical therapies for both AL and ATTR CA are leading to increased survival. These management paradigms are aimed at reducing overall arrhythmogenic burden in this population group. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> As patients with CA are living longer, future studies on arrhythmia management in this population are needed. Questions that need answering include the following: 1)What clinical factors predict lethal VA in this population? 2) What is the appropriate patient selection and, importantly, is there a mortality benefit for ICD placement?</p>
			</sec>
		</sec>
		<sec sec-type="conclusions">
			<title>Conclusion</title>
			<p>CA carries a high risk of SCD. However, ICD implantation for primary prevention of SCD remains controversial, and it is not clear whether ICDs improve survival in CA. Few data are available on arrhythmic SCD risk stratification, and the usual approach in these patients is secondary prevention or extrapolation of risk factors due to other cardiomyopathies, for example, impaired LV systolic dysfunction or NSVT, with or without syncope. However, their overall mortality is still high, particularly in patients in advanced stages of the disease, and they are, thus, at increased risk of death due to electromechanical dissociation. Therefore, the challenge is to identify at-risk patients in the early stage of the disease when VA risk predominates and to identify who may benefit from ICD therapy, mainly in the AL subtype. Accurate identification of patients who are more likely to die of an arrhythmia and less likely to die of other causes is required to ensure improvement in outcomes and wise use of resources. Incorporating methods that identify patients at particularly high risks of death from competing causes, who are unlikely to benefit from ICD therapy, will form an important part of this process. Further prospective studies are needed to understand the pathophysiology of cardiac arrhythmias in patients with CA, including electrophysiological study with endocardial mapping and modern CMR imaging, to indicate predictors of arrhythmic SCD and, finally, define the role of ICD in this group of patients.</p>
		</sec>
	</body>
	<back>
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		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Study Association</p>
				<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
			</fn>
			<fn fn-type="other">
				<p>Ethics approval and consent to participate</p>
				<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
		<fn-group>
			<fn fn-type="supported-by">
				<p>Sources of Funding</p>
				<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
			</fn>
		</fn-group>
	</back>
	<sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRpt" xml:lang="pt">
		<front-stub>
			<article-categories>
				<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
					<subject>Artigo de Revisão</subject>
				</subj-group>
			</article-categories>
			<title-group>
				<article-title>Arritmias Ventriculares na Amiloidose Cardíaca: É Possível Prevenir a Morte Súbita?</article-title>
			</title-group>
			<contrib-group>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5433-0601</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Dumont</surname>
						<given-names>Carlos A.</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1002"><sup>1</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
				<contrib contrib-type="author">
					<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9862-748X</contrib-id>
					<name>
						<surname>Liprandi</surname>
						<given-names>María Inés Sosa</given-names>
					</name>
					<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2002"><sup>2</sup></xref>
				</contrib>
			</contrib-group>
			<aff id="aff1002">
				<label>1</label>
				<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Heart Failure Unit, Hospital Privado de Rosario, Rosario - Argentina</institution>
			</aff>
			<aff id="aff2002">
				<label>2</label>
				<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
				<institution content-type="original">Cardiovascular Research and Heart Failure Unit, Sanatorio Güemes, Buenos Aires - Argentina</institution>
			</aff>
			<author-notes>
				<corresp id="c01002">Correspondência: Carlos A. Dumont • Hospital Privado de Rosario. Pte. Roca 2440.CP 2000, Rosario, Santa Fé – Argentina. Email: carlosdumont8@gmail.com</corresp>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Em nome do Conselho de Miocardiopatias da Sociedade Interamericana de Cardiologia</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="con">
					<p>Contribuição dos autores</p>
					<p>Concepção e desenho da pesquisa; Obtenção de dados; Análise e interpretação dos dados; Análise estatística; Obtenção de financiamento; Redação do manuscrito; Revisão crítica do manuscrito quanto ao conteúdo intelectual importante: Dumont CA, Sosa Liprandi MI.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="conflict">
					<p>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</p>
					<p>Declaro não haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
				</fn>
			</author-notes>
			<abstract>
				<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A amiloidose cardíaca (AC) é uma cardiomiopatia infiltrativa que ocorre secundária à deposição de proteína mal dobrada no miocárdio. Os dois subtipos mais comuns são amiloidose de cadeia leve de imunoglobulina e amiloidose por transtirretina. A AC frequentemente resulta em insuficiência cardíaca congestiva e arritmias, a partir de uma ruptura no substrato cardíaco com subsequente remodelamento eletromecânico. A progressão da doença é geralmente demonstrada pelo desenvolvimento da progressiva falência da bomba cardíaca, que pode ser observada com uma alta carga arrítmica, geralmente pressagiando um mau prognóstico. Arritmias são comuns e muitas terapias farmacológicas comumente
utilizadas podem ser mal toleradas e levar à descompensação clínica nessa população, adicionando complexidade ao co-manejo dessas condições. São necessários estudos para avaliar os riscos e benefícios da ablação por cateter para taquicardia ventricular, sem dados atuais mostrando um
benefício em relação à mortalidade. O papel da terapia com cardioversor-desfibrilador implantável é controverso, com benefícios observados predominantemente nas fases iniciais do processo da doença. Evidências de alta qualidade e recomendações de diretrizes são limitadas no que diz respeito ao tratamento de arritmias. Os profissionais de saúde muitas vezes contam apenas com a experiência clínica e o consenso de especialistas para auxiliar na tomada de decisão. Esta revisão resume os dados históricos e contemporâneos e descreve estratégias baseadas em evidências para o manejo de arritmias ventriculares e suas sequelas em pacientes com AC.</p>
			</abstract>
			<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
				<kwd>Amiloidose</kwd>
				<kwd>Taquicardia Ventricular</kwd>
				<kwd>Morte Súbita Cardíaca</kwd>
				<kwd>Desfibriladores Implantáveis</kwd>
			</kwd-group>
		</front-stub>
		<body>
			<sec sec-type="intro">
				<title>Introdução</title>
				<p>A amiloidose é uma doença sistêmica caracterizada pelo depósito extracelular de proteína fibrilar insolúvel patológica, conhecida como amiloide, em vários órgãos (principalmente coração e rins).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A principal causa de morbimortalidade nesses pacientes é o desenvolvimento de cardiomiopatia restritiva com insuficiência cardíaca congestiva (ICC) progressiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Aproximadamente 95% dos casos de amiloidose cardíaca (AC) são por transtirretina anormalmente dobrada (ATTR) ou de cadeia leve de imunoglobulina (AL).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> O grupo ATTR é caracterizado pelo dobramento anormal da transtirretina, uma proteína produzida principalmente no fígado. Foram descritas cardiomiopatia ATTR de tipo selvagem (wtATTR-CM) e cardiomiopatia ATTR hereditária (hATTR-CM). A prevalência de wtATTR-CM é estimada entre 5,5% e 16,0% das pessoas com idade &gt; 80 anos. Tendências recentes revelaram um aumento significativo no número de novos diagnósticos de ATTR-CM nos últimos 10 anos, sugerindo que as estimativas da carga da doença subestimam a verdadeira prevalência da cardiomiopatia amilóide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> A amiloidose AL é uma doença proliferativa clonal de células plasmáticas caracterizada pela produção de fibrilas de proteína anormais na medula óssea. A prevalência estimada de amiloidose AL nos Estados Unidos varia de 15,5 a 40,5 casos por milhão.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
				<p>A AC deve ser suspeitada particularmente em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca com fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo preservada apresentando sinais de alerta ou “ <italic>red flags</italic> ”, como (1) hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e direita inexplicada simétrica ou assimétrica, com disfunção diastólica concomitante e redução do <italic>strain</italic> longitudinal global (SLG) do ventrículo esquerdo (VE) com padrão de “ <italic>apical sparing</italic> ” na ecocardiografia, (2) discrepância entre a espessura da parede do VE e a voltagem do QRS, com a presença de padrão de pseudo-infarto na eletrocardiografia, especialmente se associada a níveis elevados de N-terminal pró-peptídeo natriurético tipo B (NT-proBNP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
				<p>Embora o novo tratamento tenha melhorado amplamente a sobrevida na AC AL e ATTR, os eventos cardiovasculares são responsáveis por mais de dois terços dos casos fatais em ambos os grupos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Além disso, a morte súbita cardíaca (MSC) é responsável por até 50% de todas as mortes cardíacas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A dissociação eletromecânica é considerada a causa mais comum da MSC nos pacientes com AC; no entanto, as arritmias ventriculares (AV) e anormalidades de condução também são comuns.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Até o momento, pouco se sabe sobre os fatores de risco para taquiarritmias ventriculares como causa da MSC em pacientes com amiloidose e envolvimento cardíaco. Portanto, a identificação de pacientes com AC que podem ser elegíveis para cardioversor-desfibrilador implantável (CDI) é desafiador.</p>
				<p>Embora ambas as formas de subtipos amiloides tenham uma predileção para o desenvolvimento de cardiomiopatia amilóide, a carga elétrica subjacente e o substrato arritmogênico variam entre os dois, com implicações clínicas distintas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> A interrupção resultante do sistema de condução cardíaca em pacientes com AC predispõe a arritmias, as mais identificadas sendo a fibrilação atrial (45% a 65%) e, menos frequentemente, atrasos na condução atrioventricular (3,5%) e taquiarritmias ventriculares (taquicardia ventricular 9,9% e fibrilação ventricular 0,7%, respectivamente).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A wATTR parece apresentar o maior risco de fibrilação atrial e medicamentos cardiovasculares comumente usadas, como betabloqueadores, bloqueadores dos canais de cálcio e digoxina, podem ser mal tolerados e levar à descompensação clínica na AC, adicionando mais complexidade ao co-manejo dessas condições. A literatura atualmente afirma que pacientes com AC AL têm maior propensão a desenvolver AV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A sobrevida historicamente relatada, inferior a 12 meses em pacientes com AL cardíaca representa uma contraindicação para CDI. No entanto, recentemente, a evolução das opções de tratamento melhorou a sobrevida geral, abrindo novas perspectivas em termos de proteção cardíaca e exigindo maior compreensão do perfil arrítmico e prevenção da MSC em pacientes com AL.</p>
				<sec>
					<title>Epidemiologia das arritmias ventriculares</title>
					<p>A prevalência de taquicardia ventricular não sustentada (TVNS) na amiloidose AL varia de 5% a 27% com monitoramento de rotina<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> e 100% durante o período de transplante de células-tronco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A prevalência de taquicardia ventricular (TV) na população com ATTR é relatada com menos frequência, mas pequenos estudos sugerem uma prevalência de aproximadamente 17%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Além disso, considerando que a amiloidose AL tem maior probabilidade de causar ICC de estágio final quando comparada à ATTR, há uma preponderância maior para o desenvolvimento de AV. O significado clínico da AV é variado, com alguns estudos sugerindo um papel prognóstico<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> - <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> e outros estudos relatando não haver tal correlação.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Fisiopatologia das arritmias ventriculares</title>
					<p>Existem diversos mecanismos que constituem a patogênese fundamental da AV na AC. Em primeiro lugar, a deposição de fibrilas amiloides com resultante resposta inflamatória e estresse oxidativo leva à separação dos miócitos, resultando em remodelamento e fibrose do VE, que progressivamente desenvolve potencial arritmogênico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Em segundo lugar, a deposição de fibrilas amiloides no sistema de condução pode potencializar arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Em terceiro lugar, a isquemia miocárdica micro e macrovascular devido à deposição amiloide pode ser demonstrada por disfunção miocárdica regional, conforme avaliada por ressonância magnética cardíaca (RMC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Entretanto, a causa e os mecanismos da AV na AC são mal compreendidos e provavelmente multifatoriais.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Prognóstico</title>
					<p>O acometimento cardíaco é o determinante do prognóstico na amiloidose. O risco de morte em pacientes com amiloidose AL pode ser estratificado usando os modelos revisados de estadiamento de Mayo, incluindo biomarcadores cardíacos: troponina T cardíaca (TnTc ≥ 0,025 ng/mL), NT-proBNP (≥ 1.800 pg/mL) e diferença de cadeia leve livre de imunoglobulina sérica ≥ 18 mg/dL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Semelhante à amiloidose AL, um sistema de estadiamento que inclui marcadores de aumento do estresse miocárdico, como NT-proBNP e TnTc de alta sensibilidade, foi proposto para amiloidose ATTR. Pacientes com TnTc &gt; 0,05 ng/mL e NT-proBNP &gt; 3.000 pg/mL tiveram o pior prognóstico, com sobrevida mediana de apenas 20 meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Além dos biomarcadores cardíacos elevados, a disfunção renal também foi identificada como um fator de risco significativo para pior prognóstico. No sistema de prognóstico recentemente proposto para estadiamento da amiloidose ATTR, os pacientes com taxa de filtração glomerular estimada diminuída &lt; 45 mL/min/1,73 m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> e NT-proBNP &gt; 3.000 pg/mL tiveram sobrevida significativamente pior em comparação com aqueles que não obtiveram esses valores de corte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Porém, os modelos de estadiamento mencionados apenas predizem a mortalidade geral. Não há correlação significativa entre os níveis de biomarcadores cardíacos e o risco de AV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
					<p>É fundamental compreender a fisiopatologia da AV na AC para prever o risco de morte. A amiloide nos espaços extracelulares distorce as células do miocárdio e também pode infiltrar o sistema de condução cardíaca e as artérias coronárias. Além da infiltração, as cadeias leves amiloidogênicas na amiloidose AL podem diretamente prejudicar a função dos cardiomiócitos por meio de um aumento no estresse oxidante celular. Parece que a cicatriz miocárdica e a fibrose, típicas de cardiomiopatias isquêmicas crônicas ou não isquêmicas, são menos comuns na AC. É bem sabido que pacientes com cardiopatia estrutural apresentam menor limiar para o desenvolvimento de arritmias e isso pode ser o caso de pacientes com AC, especificamente do subtipo AL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Vários correlatos ecocardiográficos de cardiopatia estrutural são conhecidos por resultar em TV, por exemplo, evidência de aumento do diâmetro sistólico do VE, fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo (FEVE) comprometida (&lt; 30%), QRS largo (&gt; 125 mseg), idade &gt; 65 anos, histórico anterior de ICC e terapia diurética ativa, quando comparada a pacientes sem TV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Esses achados clínicos e ecocardiográficos específicos são frequentemente vistos em pacientes com AC e, portanto, essas populações de alto risco devem ser monitoradas com frequência.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Da mesma forma, um estudo de Falk et al. demonstrou que, em pacientes com AC que apresentam AV de alto grau, é mais provável que haja histórico de ICC e ecocardiograma anormal, quando comparados a pacientes sem arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Esses achados destacam a relação entre cardiopatia estrutural, insuficiência cardíaca e TV. Portanto, a avaliação estrutural nesses pacientes pode fornecer valor prognóstico e permitir uma terapia médica mais adequada. Em alguns pacientes, a qualificação para implantação primária de CDI é baseada no padrão de disfunção sistólica do VE com FEVE ≤ 35%. No entanto, na maioria dos pacientes com AC, o declínio da função sistólica do VE é uma manifestação tardia; portanto, são necessários outros parâmetros ecocardiográficos para avaliar a função do VE (mesmo nos pacientes com FEVE preservada). Harmon et al. mostraram que a AV era mais comum em pacientes com SLG bidimensional do VE reduzido (≥ −15%), avaliado por ecocardiografia speckle-tracking.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
					<p>A RMC não apenas desempenha um papel importante no diagnóstico da AC; também fornece informações prognósticas importantes. Na amiloidose, a RMC permite a caracterização do tecido miocárdico por meio de sequências de imagem ponderadas em T1 e T2, mapeamento T1 (pré e pós-contraste), realce tardio com gadolínio (RTG) e imagem do volume extracelular. O padrão global subendocárdico ou transmural do RTG e, em um grau menor, o RTG focal irregular são todos características da AC. A extensão do RTG também pode servir como substituto do substrato arritmogênico para a ocorrência de AV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> A sobrevida de 2 anos em pacientes com AC sem RTG foi de 92%, ao passo que foi significativamente menor naqueles que apresentaram RTG subendocárdico ou transmural (81% e 45%, respectivamente).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Tanto na AC AL quanto na ATTR, a presença de RTG transmural tem se mostrado um preditor independente de sobrevida pior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Porém, a limitação do RTG é a dificuldade de quantificar, o que dificulta também o rastreamento de mudanças na AC, por exemplo, devido ao tratamento. O mapeamento T1 pós-contraste após a administração de gadolínio permite a estimativa do volume extracelular. Os valores de volume extracelular são significativamente elevados na AC e o volume extracelular é um marcador de prognóstico robusto na AC. Além disso, a avaliação do volume extracelular e dos valores nativos de T1 tornam possível rastrear a doença e a resposta à terapia ao longo do tempo. Além disso, o mapeamento de T2 fornece dados sobre os tempos de relaxamento de T2 que representam edema miocárdico e inflamação ativa e estão potencialmente ligados ao potencial arritmogênico. Em um estudo recente,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> a presença de edema miocárdico foi demonstrada na AC, conforme indicado pelo aumento do tempo de relaxamento T2 em pacientes com amiloidose em comparação com indivíduos controle, bem como na amiloidose AL não tratada em comparação com a amiloidose AL e ATTR tratadas. Nesse estudo, o T2 foi um preditor prognóstico na amiloidose AL, o que pode sugerir mecanismos adicionais à infiltração amiloide contribuindo para a mortalidade nessa doença.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Também existem estudos que avaliaram a relação entre os achados do monitoramento cardíaco e a TV na AC. Em um estudo recente de 239 pacientes com AC AL, enquanto a presença de TVNS conferiu pior sobrevida antes do transplante de células-tronco, o monitoramento cardíaco detectou sua presença em apenas 25% dos pacientes, aproximadamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Em uma série prospectiva de 20 pacientes com síncope no contexto de AC grave por Sayed et al., foi documentado apenas 1 episódio de TV, com um total de 13 mortes. As demais arritmias detectadas foram arritmias atriais ou bloqueio da condução atrioventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> A TVNS é um achado comum entre pacientes com AC e seu papel em predizer MSC nessa população é debatido, pois parece ter pouco valor discriminativo para identificar aqueles que morrem de AV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Na metanálise de Halawa et al., apesar da alta prevalência de TVNS (em 51% dos pacientes com AC), apenas 18% dos pacientes receberam terapia apropriada com CDI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> No entanto, a TVNS na fase inicial da amiloidose AL pode ser considerada uma indicação para implantação de CDI na prevenção primária (classe IIb).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Para melhor entender a fisiopatologia subjacente, Orini et al. combinou a avaliação do substrato ventricular eletrofisiológico e estrutural de 21 pacientes com AC (11 AL e 10 ATTR).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Os autores usaram um sistema eletrocardiográfico especial com 256 eletrodos para mapeamento epicárdico não invasivo dos potenciais ventriculares e RMC. Quando comparados com voluntários saudáveis, os pacientes com AC apresentaram amplitude de sinal epicárdico significativamente menor, condução intraventricular mais lenta e heterogênea e repolarização prolongada e mais espacialmente dispersa. Além disso, o fracionamento do sinal epicárdico e o tempo médio de repolarização aumentaram com o volume extracelular calculado por RMC. Foi encontrada uma forte correlação inversa entre a amplitude do sinal epicárdico e o T1 nativo na RMC. As anormalidades tanto da condução epicárdica quanto da repolarização foram mais notáveis em pacientes com amiloidose AL em comparação com a ATTR. A heterogeneidade da condução-repolarização espacial é considerada um marcador de maior propensão a AV e morte arrítmica súbita em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca e pode contribuir para maior mortalidade na amiloidose AL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Esse estudo também sugeriu uma ligação entre o atraso da condução-repolarização e o aumento da deposição extracelular.</p>
					<p>O estudo eletrofisiológico invasivo raramente é realizado em pacientes com AC. Reisinger e col. demonstraram um prolongamento do intervalo His-ventricular (HV) &gt; 55 ms na maioria da população examinada (23 de 25 pacientes com amiloidose AL confirmada por biópsia), indicando assim doença do sistema His-Purkinje distal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> O intervalo HV marcadamente prolongado (≥ 80 ms) foi o único preditor independente de MSC na análise multivariada. Os autores concluíram que o prolongamento do intervalo HV não indica apenas o risco de bloqueio atrioventricular total devido à infiltração do sistema de condução com fibrilas amiloides e bradiarritmia como causa potencial de morte; também pode indicar infiltração miocárdica grave e servir como um marcador da propensão para AV letal ou dissociação eletromecânica aguda. É interessante que, nesse estudo, a TV monomórfica foi induzida em apenas 4 pacientes durante a estimulação ventricular programada e, à semelhança de outras cardiomiopatias não isquêmicas, a não indutibilidade da TV mostrou pouco valor prognóstico.</p>
					<p>A infiltração amilóide é mais grave na ATTR quando comparada à amiloidose AL, o que acaba resultando em maior massa do VE e taxas mais altas de ICC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Apesar dessas diferenças fenotípicas, a amiloidose AL confere pior prognóstico com altas taxas de MSC (aproximadamente 33% dos pacientes) nos primeiros 3 meses de diagnóstico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Isso pode ser secundário à maior condução e repolarização heterogênea espacial, que é um marcador de arritmogênese e pior prognóstico geral, conforme demonstrado por Orini et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Manejo</title>
					<p>O manejo de AV na AC requer uma abordagem diferente das diretrizes de padrão para AV no contexto da insuficiência cardíaca ou cardiomiopatias convencionais. O tratamento de TV pode ser subdividido em medicamentos antiarrítmicos cardíacos, terapia baseada em procedimentos e modalidades cirúrgicas. Os pacientes que apresentam TV frequentemente são submetidos a extensas investigações, incluindo RMC para avaliar RTG miocárdico ou cicatrizes, pois fornece informações prognósticas e pode identificar um local de origem da TV que pode então ser efetivamente tratado pela ablação por cateter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Essa propedeûtica pode ser benéfica em pacientes com AC que apresentam AV. As farmacoterapias convencionais usadas no tratamento de TV incluem agentes antiarrítmicos orais e betabloqueadores. Os betabloqueadores, embora amplamente utilizados na supressão de TV com atividade antagonista beta-adrenérgica, podem ser prejudiciais com a perda resultante do débito cardíaco em pacientes com AC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> A amiodarona, outra terapia frequentemente usada e eficaz para TV, pode resultar em complicações no tratamento de pacientes com AC, a saber, bloqueio cardíaco completo quando comparada a pacientes sem AC, conforme mostrado em um estudo (43,8% versus 30,0%, <italic>P</italic> &lt; 0,0001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> Esses achados indicam resultados gerais piores com a terapia farmacológica convencional para TV, quando usada em pacientes com AC.</p>
					<p>A quimioterapia para amiloidose AL é baseada principalmente em regimes usados para o tratamento de mieloma e não especificamente aprovados para acometimento cardíaco AL. A maioria dessas drogas tem potencial cardiotóxico estabelecido, com risco aumentado de insuficiência cardíaca e eventos arrítmicos. Um estudo de Le Bras et al. demonstrou que a dexametasona como agente indutor para o tratamento de pacientes com AC AL pode potencializar a retenção de líquidos e promover arritmias, resultando em um substrato ventricular arritmogênico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Da mesma forma, a quimioterapia em altas doses, especificamente ciclofosfamida e bortezomibe, na amiloidose AL pode ser de natureza cardiotóxica e resultar em TV devido à disfunção miocárdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Embora o papel da ablação por cateter para o tratamento de arritmias atriais esteja evoluindo, com a literatura atual mostrando benefícios potenciais em termos de taxa de recorrência e sobrevida global, faltam dados sobre seu uso na AV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Além de relatos de casos de ablação por radiofrequência para TV bem-sucedida, não há estudos em grande escala que avaliem o papel da ablação para TV ou para fibrilação ventricular na AC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> A ablação por cateter para TV demonstrou ter alguma utilidade em pacientes com outras cardiomiopatias infiltrativas, como sarcoidose cardíaca e assim pode ser uma opção viável para pacientes com AC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> São necessários mais estudos em grande escala para avaliar o risco e os benefícios da ablação por cateter para TV na AC, não havendo dados atuais que mostrem um benefício em relação à mortalidade.</p>
					<p>O desenvolvimento de insuficiência cardíaca refratária é geralmente visto com TV incessante e pressagia um mau prognóstico. O mapeamento epicárdico e a ablação por cateter também são opções para o manejo da TV incessante.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup> A terapia cirúrgica definitiva para o tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca de estágio final, que pode ser observada com AV recorrente, é o transplante cardíaco ortotópico, uma opção num cenário de falha do tratamento médico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> O transplante cardíaco é uma terapia eficaz para AC em estágio final com boas taxas de sobrevida no acompanhamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
					<p>O advento de terapias modificadoras de doenças para a ATTR tem revolucionado os protocolos de manejo. Tafamidis, um estabilizador da transtirretina, evita a dissociação geral do tetrâmero e a amiloidogênese; portanto, demonstrou reduzir a mortalidade por todas as causas e hospitalizações cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> De modo semelhante, diflusinal é uma droga não esteroidal que também estabiliza o tetrâmero de transtirretina e demonstrou estabilizar a massa do VE, indicando uma cessação na progressão da amiloidogênese cardíaca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Ao prevenir efetivamente a amiloidogênese, essas terapias podem resultar na redução da incidência de MSC com o potencial de mitigar AV na população com ATTR.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Terapia baseada em dispositivo</title>
					<p>Ainda é uma questão em debate a existência de uma população selecionada de pacientes com AC em risco de MSC arrítmica (versus MSC devido à dissociação eletromecânica) que se beneficiariam de implante de CDI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Atualmente, não há consenso sobre o benefício absoluto que os CDIs podem conferir aos pacientes com AC. Embora seu potencial para eliminar AV fatal seja apoiado por casos selecionados e anedóticos, a eficácia geral dos CDIs e sua segurança permanecem pouco claras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> A maioria das decisões tomadas em relação ao implante de CDI são amplamente centradas no paciente e baseadas na <italic>expertise</italic> local.</p>
					<p>Estudos mostraram que até metade dos pacientes com AC morrem repentinamente; porém, o implante de CDI para prevenção primária e secundária na AC não foi fortemente apoiado por diretrizes de especialistas. Os motivos para isso incluem os seguintes: 1) a causa mais comum de morte súbita foi historicamente considerada secundária à dissociação eletromecânica, resultando em atividade elétrica sem pulso em vez de AV letal; 2) a sugestão de que a AC apresenta um limiar de desfibrilação mais alto que pode ser refratário à terapia de CDI; e 3) prognóstico e expectativa de vida historicamente desfavoráveis nessa população.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>As Diretrizes da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia de 2015 para o manejo de AV e a prevenção de MSC afirmam que “não há dados suficientes para fornecer recomendações” para o uso de CDIs para a prevenção primária da MSC em pacientes com AC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> A Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia considera classe IIa, nível de evidência C para implantação de CDI na prevenção secundária, recomendando consideração para aqueles com AC AL ou hATTR e “arritmia ventricular causando instabilidade hemodinâmica, com expectativa de sobrevida &gt; 1 ano e bom estado funcional”. A diretriz da American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology/Heart Rhythm Society de 2017 para o manejo de pacientes com AV e a prevenção de MSC recomenda a tomada de decisão individualizada para a implantação de CDI para prevenção primária e secundária em AC, pois os dados permanecem muito limitados para permitir recomendações formais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> De acordo com o consenso da Heart Rhythm Society de 2019, um CDI profilático pode ser considerado em pacientes com TVNS no curso de AL e expectativa de sobrevida de mais de 1 ano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> No entanto, é apenas uma recomendação de classe IIb. Tanto as diretrizes da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia e quanto as da American Heart Association são consistentes em contraindicar o implante de CDI para prevenção primária ou secundária em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca e expectativa de sobrevida significativa &lt; 1 ano, incluindo aqueles com insuficiência cardíaca classe funcional IV da New York Heart Association refratários ao tratamento medicamentoso que também não são candidatos à terapia de ressincronização cardíaca, transplante cardíaco ou dispositivos de assistência VE.</p>
					<p>Análises retrospectivas ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1002">Tabela 1</xref> ) dos desfechos em pacientes com AC implantados com CDI para prevenção primária e secundária mostraram que quase um quarto dos pacientes recebeu terapia adequada de CDI e a incidência de intervenções inadequadas de CDI foi baixa (7%). Porém, apenas um quarto dos pacientes que receberam terapia apropriada de CDI sobreviveu durante o acompanhamento e, em quase dois terços dos pacientes, o CDI provavelmente não teve efeito sobre a sobrevivência. Kristen et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> verificaram que apenas 11% de 19 pacientes com AC AL implantados com CDI para prevenção primária receberam terapias de CDI adequadas para taquiarritmias ventriculares sustentadas. Lin et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> da Mayo Clinic verificaram que 28% de 53 pacientes receberam choques de CDI apropriados em 1 ano. Pacientes com AC AL compreendem a maioria daqueles que receberam choques apropriados (12 de 15 pacientes) e aqueles que receberam choques com mais frequência receberam o CDI para prevenção secundária. A terapia com CDI não foi associada à melhora em relação à mortalidade durante o acompanhamento. Varr et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> da Universidade de Stanford verificaram que 26% de 19 pacientes receberam choques apropriados durante o acompanhamento. Nesse estudo, nem um único paciente que recebeu um CDI para prevenção primária recebeu terapia adequada e bem-sucedida de CDI. Existem várias limitações para esses estudos. Em primeiro lugar, todos os estudos incluídos nesta revisão foram retrospectivos com diversos tamanhos de amostra. Em segundo lugar, os relatos incluíram pacientes com uma variedade de etiologias de AC, incluindo AL e ATTR, embora cada um tenha apresentação clínica, história natural, prognóstico e tratamento diferentes. Em relação ao prognóstico, Harmon et al. indicaram em análise multivariada que a amiloidose AL foi um preditor independente de alta mortalidade em pacientes com AC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Em terceiro lugar, a maioria dos CDIs foi implantada para prevenção primária em pacientes que tinham FEVE &lt; 35%. A qualificação foi baseada principalmente em critérios adotados arbitrariamente, que incluíam a presença de diferentes tipos de AV (como TVNS ou batimentos ventriculares prematuros frequentes) e/ou síncope não postural. Embora a detecção de TVNS e relatos de síncope devam suscitar preocupações clínicas imediatas, o valor preditivo para prevenção primária de MSC é controverso. A síncope inexplicada é um sintoma comum e inespecífico na população com AC e pode resultar de outras causas além de distúrbios de condução ou AV, como hipotensão ortostática, disfunção autonômica ou uso de diuréticos ou vasodilatadores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<table-wrap id="t1002">
							<table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
								<colgroup width="14%">
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
									<col/>
								</colgroup>
								<thead>
									<tr>
										<th align="left">Estudo e ano de publicação</th>
										<th>Pacientes com AC, com CDI (n)</th>
										<th>Amiloidose AL</th>
										<th>CDI na prevenção primária (n/%)</th>
										<th>Critérios para implante de CDI na prevenção primária</th>
										<th>Terapia apropriada com CDI (n/%)</th>
										<th>Sobrevida geral (n/%)</th>
									</tr>
								</thead>
								<tbody>
									<tr>
										<td>Kristen et al. (2008) [55]</td>
										<td align="center">19</td>
										<td align="center">19/19 (100%)</td>
										<td align="center">19 (100%)</td>
										<td align="center">Síncope e/ou BVP frequentes</td>
										<td align="center">2 (11%)</td>
										<td align="center">1/2(50%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Lin et al. (2013) [32]</td>
										<td align="center">53</td>
										<td align="center">33/53 (62%)</td>
										<td align="center">41 (77%)</td>
										<td align="center">FEVE ≤ 35%, sincope ou TVNS</td>
										<td align="center">15 (28%)</td>
										<td align="center">21/53(40%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Varr et al. (2014) [22]</td>
										<td align="center">19</td>
										<td align="center">15/19 (79%)</td>
										<td align="center">15 (79%)</td>
										<td align="center">Não especificados</td>
										<td align="center">5 (26%)</td>
										<td align="center">UN</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Harmon et al. (2016) [26]</td>
										<td align="center">45</td>
										<td align="center">12/45 (27%)</td>
										<td align="center">38 (84%)</td>
										<td align="center">FEVE ≤ 35% ou indicação para estimulação e SLGVE ≥ –15% e/ou TVNS/BVP frequentes com síncope ou TC programado</td>
										<td align="center">12 (27%)</td>
										<td align="center">27/45 (60%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Chuzi et al. (2018)</td>
										<td align="center">31</td>
										<td align="center">14/31 (45%)</td>
										<td align="center">25 (80%)</td>
										<td align="center">Não especificados</td>
										<td align="center">2 (6%)</td>
										<td align="center">19/31 (61%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Rezc et al. (2018)</td>
										<td align="center">15</td>
										<td align="center">15/15 (100%)</td>
										<td align="center">14 (93%)</td>
										<td align="center">TVNS e síncope/pré-síncope</td>
										<td align="center">4 (27%)</td>
										<td align="center">13/15 (87%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Kim et al. (2019) [62]</td>
										<td align="center">23</td>
										<td align="center">7/23 (30%)</td>
										<td align="center">23 (100%)</td>
										<td align="center">FEVE ≤ 35%, TVNS e/ou síncope</td>
										<td align="center">6 (26%)</td>
										<td align="center">14/23 (61%)</td>
									</tr>
									<tr>
										<td>Donellan et al. (2019) [60]</td>
										<td align="center">38</td>
										<td align="center">0/38 (0%)</td>
										<td align="center">35 (92%)</td>
										<td align="center">Não especificados</td>
										<td align="center">8 (21%)</td>
										<td align="center">NC</td>
									</tr>
								</tbody>
							</table>
							<table-wrap-foot>
								<fn id="TFN1002">
									<p><italic>AL: cadeia leve de imunoglobulina; AC: amiloidose cardíaca; BVP: batimentos ventriculares prematuros; CDI: cardioversor-desfibrilador implantável; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; NC: não conhecido; SLGVE: strain longitudinal global do ventrículo esquerdo; TC: transplante cardíaco; TVNS: taquicardia ventricular não sustentada.</italic></p>
								</fn>
							</table-wrap-foot>
						</table-wrap>
					</p>
					<p>Há uma consciência crescente de que o principal fator de mortalidade nesses pacientes é a dissociação eletromecânica, ao contrário da TV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> A dissociação eletromecânica é provavelmente uma manifestação de deterioração progressiva da insuficiência cardíaca não passível de terapia com CDI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup> A AC é frequentemente diagnosticada tardiamente em vários estágios da amiloidose e a mortalidade geral é maior em estágios avançados da doença. Vale ressaltar que os pacientes com maior comprometimento cardíaco, manifestado como maior concentração de NT-proBNP e menor FEVE, podem apresentar maior risco de morte por dissociação eletromecânica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Portanto, o implante de CDI pode ser mais benéfico em pacientes com envolvimento cardíaco, mas com nível mais baixo de NT-proBNP e FEVE preservada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
					<p>Sabe-se que o risco de taquiarritmias ventriculares e MSC varia com o tipo de AC e é significativamente maior em pacientes com amiloidose AL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup> Com base no estado atual do conhecimento, não existem diretrizes robustas para a decisão de implantar um CDI para prevenção primária em AC. Quando NSVT e síncope são detectados e documentados, o implante de CDI para prevenção de MSC na AC é provavelmente uma abordagem razoável.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup> Especificamente, isso seria mais apropriado para pacientes com amiloidose AL, onde o implante de CDI está associado a uma alta taxa de descargas apropriadas para AV. Um algoritmo para implantação de CDI poderia ser proposto para pacientes com amiloidose AL e FEVE &gt; 35% ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01002">Figura 1</xref> ). O CDI deve ser considerado em pacientes com TVNS registrada e nos estágios iniciais da doença com menor comprometimento da função cardíaca, conforme indicado por biomarcadores cardíacos minimamente a moderadamente elevados. Considerando que a NSVT tem sido documentada como um mau preditor de MSC na amiloidose AL, a incidência de síncope, diminuição do SLG do VE na ecocardiografia e a presença de RTG transmural na RMC podem melhorar ainda mais a estratificação. Finalmente, especificamente para amiloidose AL, o implante de CDI para prevenção primária também pode ser razoável para pacientes que estão aguardando transplante cardíaco ou um dispositivo mecânico de assistência do VE, seja como terapia de destino ou ponte para transplante. Isso é razoável apenas se a sobrevida percebida for significativa (maior que 1 ano), o NT-pro BNP for menor que 8.500 ng/L e a classe funcional da NYHA for menor que IV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup></p>
					<p>
						<fig id="f01002">
							<label>Figura 1</label>
							<caption>
								<title>– <italic>Algoritmo proposto para qualificação de pacientes com amiloidose cardíaca para implantação de cardioversor-desfibrilador implantável. AL: cadeia leve de imunoglobulina; AV: arritmia ventricular; CDI: cardioversor-desfibrilador implantável; FEVE: fração de ejeção do ventrículo esquerdo; NT-proBNP: N-terminal pró-peptídeo natriurético tipo B; NYHA: New York Heart Association; RTG: realce tardio com gadolínio na ressonância magnética cardíaca; SLGVE: strain longitudinal global do ventrículo esquerdo avaliado por ecocardiografia speckle-tracking; TVNS: taquicardia ventricular não sustentada; VE: ventrículo esquerdo.</italic></title>
							</caption>
							<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-02-0103-gf01-pt.tif"/>
						</fig>
					</p>
					<p>A doença de condução é altamente prevalente na AC e o atraso da condução atrioventricular envolvendo o sistema His-Purkinje parece ser mais comum do que a doença do nó sinusal pura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref></sup> O prolongamento do intervalo HV com duração de QRS relativamente estreita pode sugerir acometimento frequente e generalizado dos ramos direito e esquerdo em pacientes com AC. Marcapassos permanentes são frequentemente indicados para pacientes com AC e doença de condução significativa, mais frequentemente em wtATTR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Donnellan et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> da Cleveland Clinic verificaram que o uso rotineiro da terapia de ressincronização cardíaca foi associado a melhorias na gravidade da regurgitação mitral (67% dos pacientes), classe funcional da New York Heart Association (67% dos pacientes) e FEVE (78% dos pacientes) em pacientes com AC ATTR e indicação de marcapasso permanente.</p>
				</sec>
				<sec>
					<title>Direções futuras</title>
					<p>Novas terapias médicas para AC AL e ATTR estão levando ao aumento da sobrevida. Esses paradigmas de manejo visam reduzir a carga arritmogênica geral nesse grupo populacional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Considerando que os pacientes com AC vivem mais, são necessários estudos futuros sobre o manejo arrítmico nessa população. As perguntas que ainda precisam de resposta incluem as seguintes: 1) Quais fatores clínicos predizem AV letal nessa população? 2) Qual é a seleção apropriada de paciente? E, mais importante, há um benefício, em relação à mortalidade, para o implante de CDI?</p>
				</sec>
			</sec>
			<sec sec-type="conclusions">
				<title>Conclusão</title>
				<p>A AC apresenta um alto risco de MSC. Porém, a implantação de CDI para prevenção primária de MSC permanece controversa e não está claro se CDI melhora a sobrevida na AC. Há poucos dados disponíveis em relação à estratificação de risco de MSC arrítmica e a abordagem usual nesses pacientes é a prevenção secundária ou extrapolação de fatores de risco devido a outras cardiomiopatias, por exemplo, disfunção sistólica do VE ou TVNS, com ou sem síncope. No entanto, a sua mortalidade geral continua elevada, principalmente em pacientes em estágios avançados da doença; assim, têm maior risco de morte por dissociação eletromecânica. Portanto, o desafio é identificar pacientes de risco ainda em estágio inicial da doença quando o risco de AV predomina, além de identificar quem pode se beneficiar da terapia com CDI, principalmente no subtipo AL. A identificação rigorosa dos pacientes com maior probabilidade de morrer de arritmias e menos probabilidade de morrer de outras causas é necessária para garantir melhores resultados e uso prudente dos recursos. A incorporação de métodos que identificam pacientes com riscos particularmente elevados de morte por causas concorrentes, que provavelmente não se beneficiarão de terapia com CDI, será uma parte importante desse processo. São necessários mais estudos prospectivos para compreender a fisiopatologia das arritmias cardíacas em pacientes com AC, incluindo estudo eletrofisiológico com mapeamento endocárdico e RMC moderna, para indicar preditores de MSC arrítmica e, finalmente, definir o papel de CDI neste grupo de pacientes.</p>
			</sec>
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					<p>Vinculação Acadêmica</p>
					<p>Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação.</p>
				</fn>
				<fn fn-type="other">
					<p>Aprovação Ética e consentimento informado</p>
					<p>Este artigo não contém estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
			<fn-group>
				<fn fn-type="supported-by">
					<p>Fontes de Financiamento</p>
					<p>O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
				</fn>
			</fn-group>
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	</sub-article>
</article>