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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &#x26; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">0000-0000</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20210009</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20210009</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Diuretics and Clinical Management of Congestion in Heart Failure: A Review</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Piardi</surname><given-names>Diogo Silva</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Butzke</surname><given-names>Maur&#xED;cio</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5702-210X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Beck-da-Silva</surname><given-names>Lu&#xED;s</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>2</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/></contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil.</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>2</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Cl&#xED;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#xED;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil.</institution></aff></contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Mailing Address: Luis Beck-da-Silva</bold> &#x2022; Servi&#xE7;o de Cardiologia - Hospital de Cl&#xED;nicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. Postal Code <postal-code>90035-003</postal-code>, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil. E-mail: <email>lbneto@hcpa.edu.br</email>, <email>luisbeckdasilva@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="con">
<p><bold>Author Contributions</bold></p>
<p>Writing of the manuscript: Piardi DS, Butzke M, Beck-da-Silva L; Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Piardi DS, Beck-da-Silva L.</p></fn></author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>06</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2021</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<season>Jul-Sep</season>
<year>2021</year></pub-date>
<volume>1</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>55</fpage>
<lpage>62</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>28</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2021</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>02</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2021</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>11</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2021</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p></license></permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Heart failure is a syndrome with variable presentations; congestion is the most common form in acutely decompensated patients. In this scenario, the main drug to resolve congestion is a loop diuretic. However, a portion of the population has diuretic resistance. In this context, adjuvant diuretic therapies are needed to resolve congestion in patients with heart failure. The main strategies studied so far are thiazide diuretics, mineralocorticoid receptors antagonists, vasopressin antagonists, nesiritide, sacubitril/valsartan, sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, hypertonic saline, and fluid and salt restriction. The purpose of this article is to review pharmacological modalities for management of congestion, associated or not with diuretic resistance, their positive and negative points, and the current state of knowledge about each drug.</p></abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords</title>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Diuretics</kwd></kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="0"/>
<table-count count="2"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="82"/>
<page-count count="8"/></counts></article-meta></front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Heart failure (HF) is a syndrome in which variable cardiovascular or systemic diseases with cardiovascular involvement converge to similar signs and symptoms. However, even within the same syndrome, patients may have different presentations. For example, symptoms may range from dyspnea during high-intensity sports in an elite athlete who suffered an infarction up to a cardiogenic shock in a post-infarction patient or in an 80-year-old patient with longstanding hypertension. Furthermore, the presentation of HF may be chronic, acute, or acutely decompensated. The treatment of chronic HF has undergone very significant advances, which has, in clinical practice, changed its natural history, especially from the 1980s onwards. Acutely decompensated HF (ADHF) is the central theme of the present article.</p>
<p>ADHF is the leading cause of hospitalizations in patients older than 65 years of age,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> accounting for around 1 million hospitalizations in the United States per year, having an impact both on morbidity and mortality. It is estimated that one out of two patients are readmitted within 6 months, with an in-hospital mortality rate from 4 to 12%. Even after hospital discharge, it is estimated that 35% of patients with ADHF evolve to death within 1 year.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> This is a serious situation both from the individual point of view, due to worsened quality of life and reduced survival, and in terms of public health, due to the high costs involved.</p>
<p>Similar to chronic presentations, ADHF is very heterogeneous, with regard to both patient care demand and disease clinical presentation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> One of the most common of these is clinical congestion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> In patients with presentations, decision-making is simple; however, many patients have subtle signs of congestion on physical examination, thus hampering accurate diagnosis. Moreover, the process of congested patient is dynamic, since variations in intracardiac pressures may change within a short time,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> depending on a cascade of events, such as ventricular and atrial end-diastolic pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure, pulmonary arterial wedge pressure, right chamber pressures, hemodynamic variations depending on patient&#x2019;s ventilation mode, among other factors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
<p>New tools have helped understand and improve the definition of congestion; some of them are well-established, others are still in the establishment stage. The use of natriuretic peptides,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> in addition to pulmonary echography<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> and point-of-care echocardiography, has become increasingly common for a better analysis of patient&#x2019;s hemodynamic profile, with potential improvements in outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> Furthermore, &#x201C;congested&#x201D; patients often have poor distribution of intravascular volume with but do not necessarily have increased total volume, which may also impact their therapy.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref></p>
<p>Several therapies have been implemented in congested patients. With regard to therapeutic advances in chronic HF over the last 30 years, the most used drugs still belong to one class: diuretics.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Use of diuretics in congested patients</title>
<p>&#x201C;The clamour for diuretics dates back many centuries to the earliest association of dropsy with impairment of renal function, but until twenty years ago these drugs were chiefly remarkable for the mediocrity of their therapeutic achievements&#x201D;. This sentence, retrieved from an article published in Lancet<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> in the 1940s, shows how the advent of diuretics occurred over the last 100 years, although dropsy dated back before Christ.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref></p>
<p>The first diuretics used in the treatment of HF, were based on mercurial diuretics, and its form of use with sustained efficacy was an incidental finding, as well as many great medical discoveries. The hypothesis of using mercury as a diuretic was grounded nearly 500 years ago, but, for 4 centuries, it had successively similar results, all of them frustrating. However, in the transition from the 1910s to the 1920s, sustained diuretic properties were found in mercurial compounds originally developed to treat syphilis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> The great limitation for their use was mercurial toxicity, which led to the development of progressively less toxic forms tested in oral, intravenous, intramuscular, and rectal routes of administration, with acceptable diuretic responses, especial the intravenous route.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Its mechanism of action is possibly related to sodium excretion in proximal convoluted tubule.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
<p>Later, other diuretics were developed, such as carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, in 1937; a sulfanilamide, in 1949;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> and thiazides. The clinical use of loop diuretics, especially furosemide and etacrynic acid,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> initiated in the early 1960s and is indicated today for the treatment of patients with HF.</p>
<sec>
<title>Loop diuretics</title>
<p>Loop diuretics, represented by furosemide, bumetanide, and torsemide (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref>) are undoubtedly the main tool for decongestioning patients with ADHF, being used in more than 90% of patients hospitalized with HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> These diuretics act on the Na-K-2Cl pump of the thick segment of Henle&#x2019;s loop, promoting diuresis through sodium excretion. Loop diuretics are possibly the most study class within this context, although evidence in this field is still considerably limited. In addition to their diuretic effect, loop diuretics have a vasodilatory action on smooth muscle cells of vessel walls. There is also an effect on renin&#x2013;angiotensin&#x2013;aldosterone system activation, which has both positive aspects, such as modulation of glomerular flow in the nephron, and negative aspects, such as neurohumoral activation leading to the perpetuation of detrimental effects in patients with HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> The efficacy of loop diuretics for decongestion depends on several factors, such as route administration, chronic use by the patients, dose, comorbidities (especially renal dysfunction), and dietary salt intake, among others.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Equipotency between loop diuretics and route of administration<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th valign="middle" align="left">Medication</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Furosemide</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Torsemide</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Bumetanide</th></tr></thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Intravenous dose</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">40 mg</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">20 mg</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">1 mg</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Intravenous/oral conversion</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">1:2</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">1:1</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">1:1</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap>
<p>The largest study involving diuretics in HF was the DOSE study.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> A total of 308 patients were randomized in a 2-by-2 factorial design to receive intravenous furosemide either continuously or intermittently, to maintain their outpatient dose (low-dose strategy) or to receive a 2.5-time higher dose (high-dose strategy), both applied intravenously. There was no difference in the overall assessment of symptoms by the patient and in the change in creatinine levels after 72 h, which were the primary study outcomes. In a post hoc analysis adjusted for decongestion parameters, the effect of the high dose apparently improved resolution of congestion: the higher the dose of diuretics, the greater the decongestion, and the greater the response.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Moreover, there was a higher number of patients with worsened renal function in the group that used higher doses of furosemide.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Diuretic resistance</title>
<p>Compared with healthy patients, those with HF already using loop diuretics have an attenuated response to diuretics.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain this process, such as reduced diuretic efficacy, salt retention, rebound effect, and nephron remodeling.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> This process generates diuretic resistance, in which diuretics do not achieve the desired decongestion, manifested by low urine sodium concentrations, despite the recommended maximum doses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> Some adjuvant treatments have been proposed to overcome the problem by maximizing diuretic response and promoting decongestion in patients with HF.</p>
<sec>
<title>Thiazide diuretics</title>
<p>A strategy to &#x201C;overcome&#x201D; diuretic resistance is using thiazides, a class of medications that acts in the distal convoluted tubule, a site different from that where loop diuretics act, suggesting synergy in the diuretic action in the nephron and producing distal blockade of sodium reabsorption.</p>
<p>The most used medications in this context are hydrochlorothiazide e metolazone (considering that metolazone is not available in our setting), in addition to chlorothiazide. Studies conducted so far are promising, with increased diuresis and reduced congestion, but methodology was very limited<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> and there was remarkable heterogeneity, including with regard to clinical outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> The doses and medications have been different (in the case of hydrochlorothiazide, the doses used in the studies range from 25 to 200 mg; in the case of metolazone, from 1.25 to 10 mg).</p>
<p>In patients with diuretic resistance, a study comparing metolazone, chlorothiazide, and tolvaptan (a vasopressin antagonist) identified increased diuresis with the addition of any of the three medications, with no difference between the groups, in patients receiving a high-dose of diuretics.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> There was no placebo group in the trial. In a retrospective unicenter study with patients receiving intravenous furosemide, diuresis was greater in those using intravenous chlorothiazide compared to those using oral hydrochlorothiazide.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref></p>
<p>Resuming the analysis of the DOSE trial, with regard to the use of thiazides, there was a trend of higher use of thiazides in the low-dose group (23% vs 13%, p = 0.06), which may somehow have contributed to study neutrality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> Furthermore, the largest study in the history of hypertension (ALLHAT) found a reduction in the incidence of HF with use of chlorthalidone,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> there are no studies with the addition of chlorthalidone to loop diuretics in congested patients with HF.</p>
<p>In summary, thiazide diuretics are promising in the treatment of congestion in patients with HF. However, there is scarcity of more robust studies to better define effect magnitude. Two clinical trials are currently in progress (ClinicalTrials NCT01647932<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> and ReBEC RBR-5qkn8h<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref>), and their results may possibly be published in the near future.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Vasopressin antagonists</title>
<p>The mechanism of action of vasopressin antagonists, especially of the most studied in HF, namely tolvaptan, which was developed in Japan in the 1990s, may be mainly explained by their affinity with V2 receptors located in the collecting duct, thus inhibiting free water resorption<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> and producing aquaresis, with no electrolyte elimination. With a well defined and innovative mechanism and animal tests with favorable results, randomized clinical trials started to be conducted.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> The first multicenter study on the topic was the ACTIV in CHF,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref> a phase 2 randomized clinical trial that tested different doses of tolvaptan (30 mg, 60 mg e 90 mg) vs placebo in 319 patients with ejection fraction below 40% and decompensated HF. In the three groups, there was a weight reduction compared to the placebo group, with no worsening of renal function or electrolytic disorders. Moreover, in a post hoc analysis, there was greater benefit in more congested patients and with worse renal function. A safety analysis showed that there was a higher number of sudden deaths in the tolvaptan 60 mg group compared with placebo (6% vs 1.3%, p &#x3C; 0.01).</p>
<p>Since tolvaptan passed its initial test, the EVEREST<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> studies were published 3 years later, in which 4133 patients with a profile very similar to those of the previous study, ie, ejection fraction below 40%, functional class III/IV, and decompensation within the last 48 hours, were randomized to tolvaptan 30 mg or placebo. There was no difference between the groups with regard to the primary outcome of hospitalization due to HF or cardiovascular mortality (tolvaptan 42% vs placebo 40.2%, p = 0.55).</p>
<p>In summary, these were two more neutral studies that belonged to an era when pharmacological treatment of HF seemed stagnant, with no significant advances.</p>
<p>In relation to diuretic resistance, however, some findings were interesting for patient&#x2019;s compensation: there was greater body weight reduction in 1 (-1.76 vs -0.97 kg; p &#x3C; 0.001) and 7 days, less dyspnea, less edema and, in hyponatremic patients, greater sodium increase in the tolvaptan group. In a subsequent sub-analysis, there was reduced cardiovascular mortality or hospitalization in patients with sodium concentration below 130 mEq/L (hazard ratio: 0.6 [0.37-0.98]); p = 0.04), in addition to greater weight loss (0.7 kg on day 1). In another study of a population with HF in an intensive care unit, the amount of continuous furosemide was lower, the urine volume was higher, and the number of patients with worsening kidney injury was lower in the tolvaptan group than in placebo group.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> Furthermore, a clinical trial of 217 patients with renal dysfunction stages 3 and 4 observed-that tolvaptan resulted in higher 48-h urine volume (6464.4&#xB1;3173.0 vs 4997.2&#xB1;2101.4 mL, p &#x3C; 0.001), with no worsening of renal function compared with placebo, in addition to greater weight loss.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref></p>
<p>However, more recently, in the TACTICS-HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> study of a population with decompensated HF, 257 patients were randomized to tolvaptan or placebo. There was worsening of renal function with tolvaptan (39% vs 27%; p = 0.037) and there was no greater relief of dyspnea, thus persisting the findings from previous studies of greater negative water balance. These two similar findings were reproduced in a subsequent study, in which patients with diuretic resistance were randomized,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> but no worsening of renal function was observed.</p>
<p>With regard to diuretic resistance specifically, data are scarce: in addition to the aforementioned study, with 60 patients divided into three groups,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> an open randomized study of 81 patients with HF and renal dysfunction (glomerular filtration rate &#x3C; 45 mL/min/1.73 m&#xB2;) showed grater urine output with tolvaptan (in agreement with previous studies in other settings), with no weight loss and with less worsening of renal function. It is worth emphasizing that the concept of diuretic resistance was not strict in this study, being defined as signs of congestion regardless of using a daily dose equal to or greater than 40 mg of furosemide.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
<p>In short, vasopressin antagonists did not show benefits in clinical outcomes. Is there room for their use in chronic HF? Absolutely not. Is there room for their use in acute HF? Maybe, in the scenario of patients with significant congestion, hyponatremia, loss of renal function, and actual diuretic resistance.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Nesiritide</title>
<p>One of the responses to situations of myocute distention (similar to congestive presentations) is secretion of natriuretic peptides &#x2013; particularly, B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP). As a consequent, there are vasodilatation, neurohumoral modulation and, in addition to other responses, natriuresis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref></p>
<p>Considering the vasodilatory and diuretic properties, nesiritide, a recombinant BNP, was developed. The proposal seemed interesting, which led to clinical trials. In comparison to nitroglycerin and placebo, there was a favorable hemodynamic response with nesiritide in the VMAC study, which randomized decompensated patients.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> However, in outpatient patients with ejection fraction below 40%, hospitalizations for HF and functional class III-IV, there was no reduction in the composite outcome of overall mortality, cardiovascular hospitalization, or hospitalization due to renal causes; thus, the ideia of nesiritide was abandoned for this use.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p>
<p>Initially, results with nesiritide seemed favorable. Nonetheless, subsequent evidence suggested worsening of renal function and increased mortality, which led to a gradual reduction in the use of this medication in the mid-2000s.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> As a result, larger and better-designed studies on the topic were subsequently conducted.</p>
<p>The first large clinical trial on nesiritide in acute patients was ASCEND-HF, in which 7141 patients with HF were randomized.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref> The result was a neutral study, with no effect on mortality or new hospitalization for HF, but perhaps with a better response with regard to dyspnea. As a furosemide potentiator, a mechanism that could be interesting in the case of patients with diuretic resistance, the result was also neutral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
<p>The next study on the topic focused on patients with renal dysfunction stages 3 and 4. The ROSE-AHF study compared low-dose dopamine, nesiritide, and placebo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> There was no difference in decongestion or in improvement of renal function between the groups. In 2018, the production of nesiritide was discontinued in the United States.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists</title>
<p>Spironolactone and eplerenone are representative of aldosterone antagonists and of the path of diuretics in HF, promoting reduced mortality in combination with other well-established therapies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref> They act on the distal convoluted tubule, and thus have both neurohumoral and diuretic actions. Based on the latter action, it was possible to build the rationale for the use of these antagonists in patients with ADHF.</p>
<p>In ADHF, the first data on the use of de spironolactone in diuretic dose were favorable: less signs of congestion and lower levels of natriuretic peptides.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref> Subsequently, the ATHENA-HF study was published, which involved 460 patients and compared spironolactone 100 mg vs placebo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref> The results were neutral, thus failing to show the benefit of spironolactone in ADHF.</p>
<p>Therefore, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists still have a major role in the treatment of chronic HF, but with no apparent benefit in the context of ADHF.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Sacubitril/valsartan</title>
<p>Sacubitril/valsartan, a combination of an angiotensin blocker with a neprilysin inhibitor, had its effect compared with that of enalapril in the largest study ever performed in patients with chronic HF, the PARADIGM-HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> In this study, sacubitril/valsartan promoted a 20% reduction in a primary composite outcome of cardiovascular death or hospitalization for HF (relative risk [RR] 0.80; confidence interval [CI] 0.73-0.87; p = 0.0000002). There was also a statistically significant reduction of similar magnitude in cardiovascular mortality (RR 0.80 CI 0.71-0.89; p = 0.00004) and overall mortality (RR 0.84 CI 0.76-0.93; p = 0.0001). The mechanism of action of this drug may be explained by inhibition of BNP degradation, promoted by neprilysin, associated with renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system blockade, promoted by valsartan. As a result, there is an increase in BNP serum levels and, respectively, in its endogenous effects of vasodilatation and natriuresis, both of which are desirable in the treatment of patients with HF.</p>
<p>Based on the foregoing, we may consider sacubitril/valsartan as another medication that may potentially add knowledge in the study of diuretics. In a sub-analysis of the PARADIGM-HF study, there was a decrease in the use of furosemide (or equivalent) in the sacubitril/valsartan arm compared with the enalapril arm: around 2% in 6 months, 4.1% in 12 months, and 6.1% in 24 months.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref> There are controversies whether reduced diuretic requirement results from improvement in clinical-hemodynamic parameters in patients with HF or from a direct diuretic effect.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref></p>
<p>In the context of ADHF, the sacubitril/valsartan was again compared with enalapril in the PIONEER-HF study.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref> Patients hospitalized with ADHF were followed for up to 8 weeks. There was a statistically significant decrease in the primary outcome of serum levels of NT-ProBNP, an outcome replacing clinical improvement in this population. Additionally, there was a 44% decrease in the relative risk of hospitalization for HF.</p>
<p>Furthermore, an additional finding may suggest a clinically relevant diuretic effect: a higher level of hypotension was observed in patients receiving sacubitril/valsartan compared with those receiving enalapril, which may have been caused by a diuretic effect.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref> However, there is still scarcity of larger studies for a better understanding de um eventual diuretic effect of sacubitril/valsartan.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>SGLT-2 inhibitors</title>
<p>More than 150 years have gone from the discovery of the first non-selective sodium-glucose cotransporter inhibitors up to the emergence of current medications. The sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT-2) is predominantly located on proximal convoluted tubule and is responsible for absorbing nearly 90% of the glucose filtered by the kidney through a sodium-dependent channel. Natriuresis induced by transporter blockade leads to greater sodium load to the macula densa and, through glomerular feedback, causes afferent arteriole constriction, reducing intraglomerular pressure and proteinuria. Osmotic natriuresis promoted by SGLT-2 inhibitors reduces blood pressure and blood volume, leading to lower pre- and afterload, with consequent reduction in ventricular filling pressures.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref></p>
<p>The exact mechanism responsible for the beneficial effect of SGLT-2 inhibitors in HF is unknown; however, several of their effects may have a positive impact on this condition, such as blood pressure reduction, blood volume reduction, renin&#x2013;angiotensin&#x2013;aldosterone axis blockade, and weight loss.</p>
<p>The decrease of &#x201C;hard&#x201D; cardiovascular outcomes (cardiovascular death, infarction, and stroke) related to atherosclerosis in clinical trials was small and limited to patients with established disease, whereas the reduction in hospitalizations for HF and in renal disease progression was robust and not limited to patients with atherosclerotic disease or history of HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref></p>
<p>It is believed that the benefit of SGLT-2 inhibitors in reducing rates of hospitalization for HF results predominantly from their diuretic effect, since patients in clinical trials showed fewer hospitalizations during the first months after randomization.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref> Furthermore, a sub-analysis found a decrease in mortality and in hospitalizations for HF in patients with diabetes and HF, with no phenotypical distinction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref> It is unlikely that the effect on death, HF, and nephroprotection may result from better glycemic control, since the decrease in glycated hemoglobin was slight compared with placebo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> Moreover, SGLT-2 inhibitors have the advantage of not activating neurohumoral mechanisms.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><sup>64</sup></xref></p>
<p>In the DAPA-HF study,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref> 4744 patients with class III-IV HF and an ejection fraction of 40% or less were assessed. There was a significant reduction in worsening HF (hospitalization or need for intravenous diuretics), regardless of the presence or absence of diabetes. These results represent an advance in the treatment of HF, being the first clearly demonstrated a reduced mortality in HF with the use of an antidiabetic drug.</p>
<p>Empagliflozin was tested in the EMPEROR-Reduced study,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref> which randomized 3730 patients with class III-IV HF and an ejection fraction of 40% or less. In this study, there was a reduction in the composite outcome of cardiovascular mortality or hospitalization due to HF worsening on account of reduced hospitalizations.</p>
<p>More recently, sotagliflozin was assessed in patients with diabetes and recent hospitalization due to worsening HF. In the SOLOIST-WHF study,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref> 1222 patients were evaluated, of which nearly 79% had an ejection fraction below 50% &#x2014; median 35%. Similar to what was observed in the EMPEROR-Reduced study,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref> the primary composite outcome of cardiovascular mortality or hospitalizations for IC was lower in the intervention group on account of reduced hospitalizations. The study ended early because of loss of funding from the sponsor. In short, SGLT-2 inhibitors are a promising class in the treatment of HF, with a decrease in hospitalizations and possibly in cardiovascular mortality, without definite data so far in patients with ADHF.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Hypertonic saline</title>
<p>Over the last 20 years, hypertonic saline has been studied with greater interest in the management of congestion in patients with ADHF. Its main rationale is based on the concept of relative hypovolemia, relative to IC, or absolute, due to the use of diuretics. As a response, glomerulus causes a decrease in glomerular filtration rate; by administering hypertonic saline, this glomerular effect may be attenuated or even eliminated, leading to greater diuresis when used in association with furosemide.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68"><sup>68</sup></xref></p>
<p>First data on hypertonic saline showed increased diuresis, reduced length of hospital stay and BNP levels, improved renal function, and reduced mortality, thus encouraging the continuity of studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69"><sup>69</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73"><sup>73</sup></xref> However, there is considerable heterogeneity between the studies,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75"><sup>75</sup></xref> and an episode of duplicate data in publications, leading to the retraction of one meta-analysis on the topic.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76"><sup>76</sup></xref> Furthermore, despite body weight reduction, doubts remain with regard to the actual benefit of hypertonic saline in the resolution of pulmonary congestion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77"><sup>77</sup></xref></p>
<p>Finally, a systematic review and meta-analysis about hypertonic saline that assessed studies with 2.4 to 4.6% saline associated with 500 mg of furosemide administered intravenously twice a day showed that saline improved weight loss, preserved renal function, and decreased hospitalizations for HF, length of hospital stay, and mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78"><sup>78</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Fluid and sodium restriction</title>
<p>Fluid and sodium restriction in congested patients with HF is a very ancient practice, being recommended in the main HF guidelines. However, evidence supporting this recommendation is scarce.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79"><sup>79</sup></xref> Moreover, there is considerable heterogeneity both in the tested interventions and in the recommended interventions. Generally speaking, the results of the best studies so far in patients with ADHF were neutral and failed to show the benefits of fluid and sodium restriction on weight loss and clinical stability; furthermore, they showed that this restriction increased thirst perception in patients randomized to fluid and sodium restriction.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80"><sup>80</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82"><sup>82</sup></xref> Hence, there is no evidence recommending routine fluid and sodium restriction in congested patients hospitalized with ADHF and receiving contemporary treatment.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>There have been many advances in the study of diuretics, especially during the last 50 years. In possession of current knowledge, clinical physicians can choose from a wide range of options for the best management of congestion in patients with ADHF. There are several open knowledge gaps on the best strategy for congest patients with ADHF, especially with regard to the study of thiazide diuretics, sacubitril/valsartan, and SGLT-2 inhibitors. This may be interpreted as an opportunity window in knowledge, with the combination of diuretics being a reality as an effective therapy in the management of congestion in ADHF, which may occur as evidence advances.</p>
</sec></body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn></fn-group>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revis&#xE3;o</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Diur&#xE9;ticos e Manejo Cl&#xED;nico da Congest&#xE3;o em Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca: Uma Revis&#xE3;o</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Piardi</surname><given-names>Diogo Silva</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Butzke</surname><given-names>Maur&#xED;cio</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5702-210X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Beck-da-Silva</surname><given-names>Lu&#xED;s</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4"><sup>2</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/></contrib>
<aff id="aff3">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil.</institution></aff>
<aff id="aff4">
<label>2</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#xED;nicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil.</institution></aff></contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Luis Beck-da-Silva</bold> &#x2022; Servi&#xE7;o de Cardiologia - Hospital de Cl&#xED;nicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA), Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350. CEP <postal-code>90035-003</postal-code>, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil. E-mail: <email>lbneto@hcpa.edu.br</email>, <email>luisbeckdasilva@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="con">
<p><bold>Contribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos autores</bold></p>
<p>Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito: Piardi DS, Butzke M, Beck-da-Silva L; Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante: Piardi DS, Beck-da-Silva L.</p></fn></author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca &#xE9; uma s&#xED;ndrome com variadas apresenta&#xE7;&#xF5;es, sendo a congest&#xE3;o a forma mais comum em pacientes agudamente descompensados. Nesse cen&#xE1;rio, a principal droga para resolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da congest&#xE3;o &#xE9; o diur&#xE9;tico de al&#xE7;a. No entanto, uma parcela dos pacientes apresenta resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica. Nesse contexto, s&#xE3;o necess&#xE1;rias terapias diur&#xE9;ticas adjuvantes para o manejo da congest&#xE3;o em pacientes com insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca. As principais estrat&#xE9;gias estudadas at&#xE9; o momento s&#xE3;o diur&#xE9;ticos tiaz&#xED;dicos, antagonistas dos receptores mineralocorticoides, antagonistas da vasopressina, nesiritide, sacubitril-valsartana, inibidores do cotransportador s&#xF3;dio-glicose 2, solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina hipert&#xF4;nica e restri&#xE7;&#xE3;o hidrossalina. O objetivo do presente artigo &#xE9; fazer uma revis&#xE3;o sobre as alternativas terap&#xEA;uticas farmacol&#xF3;gicas para o manejo da congest&#xE3;o associada ou n&#xE3;o &#xE0; resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica, seus pontos positivos e negativos e o est&#xE1;gio atual do estudo das drogas.</p></abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave</title>
<kwd>Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca</kwd>
<kwd>Diur&#xE9;ticos</kwd></kwd-group></front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdu&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>A insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca (IC) &#xE9; uma s&#xED;ndrome na qual variadas doen&#xE7;as cardiovasculares ou sist&#xEA;micas com acometimento cardiovascular convergem para sinais e sintomas semelhantes. No entanto, mesmo dentro de uma mesma s&#xED;ndrome, o paciente pode ter diferentes apresenta&#xE7;&#xF5;es. Como exemplo, os sintomas podem variar desde dispneia em esportes de alta intensidade em um atleta de elite que sofreu um infarto at&#xE9; choque cardiog&#xEA;nico em um paciente p&#xF3;s-infarto ou em um octogen&#xE1;rio hipertenso de longa data. Al&#xE9;m disso, a apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o pode ser cr&#xF4;nica, aguda ou agudamente descompensada. O tratamento da IC cr&#xF4;nica tem passado por avan&#xE7;os muito significativos, de modo que, na pr&#xE1;tica, vem mudando a hist&#xF3;ria natural da doen&#xE7;a, em especial da d&#xE9;cada de 1980 em diante. A IC agudamente descompensada (ICAD) &#xE9; o tema central do presente artigo.</p>
<p>A ICAD &#xE9; a principal causa de interna&#xE7;&#xF5;es hospitalares em pacientes com mais de 65 anos,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> sendo respons&#xE1;vel por cerca de 1 milh&#xE3;o de interna&#xE7;&#xF5;es anuais nos Estados Unidos, ocasionando impacto tanto em morbidade quanto em mortalidade. Estima-se que um a cada dois pacientes apresente reinterna&#xE7;&#xE3;o em 6 meses, com uma taxa de mortalidade intra-hospitalar de 4 a 12%. Mesmo ap&#xF3;s a alta hospitalar, estima-se que 35% dos pacientes com ICAD evoluem para &#xF3;bito no per&#xED;odo de 1 ano.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> Trata-se de uma situa&#xE7;&#xE3;o grave tanto do ponto de vista individual, por piora de qualidade de vida e redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de sobrevida, quanto em mat&#xE9;ria de sa&#xFA;de p&#xFA;blica, em fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos altos custos envolvidos.</p>
<p>Da mesma forma que quadros cr&#xF4;nicos, a ICAD &#xE9; bastante heterog&#xEA;nea, tanto na forma de procura de atendimento do paciente quanto em sua apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> Uma das mais comuns &#xE9; o paciente clinicamente congesto.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> Em pacientes com quadros exuberantes, a tomada de decis&#xE3;o &#xE9; simples; no entanto, muitos pacientes apresentam sinais sutis de congest&#xE3;o no exame f&#xED;sico, dificultando o diagn&#xF3;stico preciso. Al&#xE9;m disso, o processo do paciente congesto &#xE9; din&#xE2;mico, j&#xE1; que varia&#xE7;&#xF5;es de press&#xF5;es intracard&#xED;acas podem mudar em curto espa&#xE7;o de tempo,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> dependendo de uma cascata de eventos, tais como press&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica final ventricular e atrial, press&#xE3;o capilar pulmonar, press&#xE3;o arterial pulmonar, press&#xF5;es em c&#xE2;maras direitas, varia&#xE7;&#xF5;es hemodin&#xE2;micas dependentes da forma de ventila&#xE7;&#xE3;o do paciente, entre outros fatores.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
<p>Novas ferramentas v&#xEA;m auxiliando a entender e refinar a defini&#xE7;&#xE3;o de congest&#xE3;o; algumas consagradas, outras em processo de consagra&#xE7;&#xE3;o. O uso de pept&#xED;deos natriur&#xE9;ticos,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> al&#xE9;m de ecografia pulmonar<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> e ecocardiografia <italic>point of care</italic>, tem se tornado mais comum para uma melhor an&#xE1;lise do perfil hemodin&#xE2;mico do paciente, com potencial de melhorias nos desfechos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> Al&#xE9;m disso, o paciente &#x201C;congesto&#x201D; frequentemente possui, na verdade, uma m&#xE1; distribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o do volume intravascular, sem aumento, necessariamente, do volume total, o que tamb&#xE9;m pode ter impacto em sua terap&#xEA;utica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref></p>
<p>Diversas terapias t&#xEA;m sido empregadas no perfil de paciente congesto. Em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE0; evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o terap&#xEA;utica da IC cr&#xF4;nica nos &#xFA;ltimos 30 anos, as principais drogas continuam sendo de uma classe: os diur&#xE9;ticos.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Uso de diur&#xE9;ticos em pacientes congestos</title>
<p>&#x201C;The clamour for diuretics dates back many centuries to the earliest association of dropsy with impairment of renal function, but until twenty years ago these drugs were chiefly remarkable for the mediocrity of their therapeutic achievements&#x201D;. Essa frase, retirada de um artigo do Lancet<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> de 1942, ilustra como o advento dos diur&#xE9;ticos se fez nos &#xFA;ltimos 100 anos, embora a dropsia seja um achado conhecido desde &#xE9;pocas antes de Cristo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref></p>
<p>Os primeiros diur&#xE9;ticos utilizados no tratamento de IC, eram baseados em diur&#xE9;ticos mercuriais, tendo sido sua forma de uso com efic&#xE1;cia mais sustentada um achado acidental, assim como muitas grandes descobertas da medicina. A hip&#xF3;tese do uso de merc&#xFA;rio como diur&#xE9;tico teve sua base h&#xE1; cerca de 500 anos, mas, durante 4 s&#xE9;culos, apresentou sucessivas respostas iguais, todas frustrantes. No entanto, na transi&#xE7;&#xE3;o da d&#xE9;cada de 1910 para a d&#xE9;cada de 1920, foram constatadas propriedades diur&#xE9;ticas sustentadas nos compostos mercuriais desenvolvidos originalmente como tratamento de s&#xED;filis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> A grande limita&#xE7;&#xE3;o do uso foi a toxicidade do merc&#xFA;rio, o que levou ao desenvolvimento de formas progressivamente menos t&#xF3;xicas, sendo testadas em formas oral, endovenosa, intramuscular e retal, com respostas diur&#xE9;ticas aceit&#xE1;veis, principalmente na forma endovenosa.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Seu mecanismo de a&#xE7;&#xE3;o possivelmente se relaciona com a excre&#xE7;&#xE3;o de s&#xF3;dio no t&#xFA;bulo contorcido proximal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
<p>Posteriormente, outros diur&#xE9;ticos foram desenvolvidos, como os inibidores da anidrase carb&#xF4;nica, em 1937; a sulfanilamida, em 1949;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> e os tiaz&#xED;dicos. No come&#xE7;o dos anos 1960, deu-se in&#xED;cio ao uso cl&#xED;nico de diur&#xE9;ticos de al&#xE7;a, em especial a furosemida e o &#xE1;cido etacr&#xED;nico,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> sendo utilizados at&#xE9; hoje no tratamento do paciente com IC.</p>
<sec>
<title>Diur&#xE9;ticos de al&#xE7;a</title>
<p>Sem d&#xFA;vida, os diur&#xE9;ticos de al&#xE7;a, atuantes na bomba Na-K-2Cl da por&#xE7;&#xE3;o espessa da al&#xE7;a de Henle, que proporcionam diurese atrav&#xE9;s da espolia&#xE7;&#xE3;o de s&#xF3;dio, representados por furosemida, bumetanida e torsemida (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 1</xref>), s&#xE3;o a principal ferramenta na descongest&#xE3;o do paciente com ICAD, sendo utilizados em mais de 90% dos pacientes hospitalizados com IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> Os diur&#xE9;ticos de al&#xE7;a s&#xE3;o possivelmente a classe mais estudada dentro desse contexto, embora as evid&#xEA;ncias nesse campo ainda sejam consideravelmente limitadas. Al&#xE9;m de efeito diur&#xE9;tico, os diur&#xE9;ticos de al&#xE7;a possuem a&#xE7;&#xE3;o vasodilatadora em c&#xE9;lulas musculares lisas das paredes dos vasos. Tamb&#xE9;m h&#xE1; efeito sobre a ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona, que possui uma face positiva, como o ajuste do fluxo glomerular no n&#xE9;fron, e uma negativa, como a ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o neuro-humoral, levando &#xE0; perpetua&#xE7;&#xE3;o de efeitos delet&#xE9;rios no paciente acometido por IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> A efic&#xE1;cia dos diur&#xE9;ticos de al&#xE7;a para descongest&#xE3;o depende de diversos fatores, tais como via de administra&#xE7;&#xE3;o, uso cr&#xF4;nico pr&#xE9;vio do paciente, dose, comorbidades (em especial a disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal), ingest&#xE3;o de sal na dieta, entre outros.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Equipot&#xEA;ncia entre diur&#xE9;ticos de al&#xE7;a e via de administra&#xE7;&#xE3;o<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref></title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="25%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th valign="middle" align="left">Medica&#xE7;&#xE3;o</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Furosemida</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Torsemida</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Bumetanida</th></tr></thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Dose endovenosa</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">40 mg</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">20 mg</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">1 mg</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Convers&#xE3;o endovenosa/oral</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">1:2</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">1:1</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">1:1</td></tr></tbody></table></table-wrap>
<p>O maior trabalho envolvendo diur&#xE9;ticos em IC foi o estudo DOSE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> Trezentos e oito pacientes foram randomizados em estudo fatorial 2x2 para receber dose cont&#xED;nua ou intermitente de furosemida endovenosa e para manuten&#xE7;&#xE3;o da dose ambulatorial (dose baixa) ou aumento em 2,5 vezes da dose habitual (dose alta), ambas na forma endovenosa. N&#xE3;o houve diferen&#xE7;a na avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o global de sintomas pelo paciente e na varia&#xE7;&#xE3;o de creatinina em 72 h, que eram os desfechos prim&#xE1;rios do estudo. Em an&#xE1;lise <italic>post-hoc</italic> ajustada para par&#xE2;metros de descongest&#xE3;o, o efeito de alta dose pareceu ter promovido mais resolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de congest&#xE3;o: mais diur&#xE9;tico, mais descongest&#xE3;o e mais resposta.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Al&#xE9;m disso, houve tend&#xEA;ncia a um maior n&#xFA;mero de pacientes com piora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal no grupo que utilizou doses mais elevadas de furosemida.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica</title>
<p>Em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com pacientes h&#xED;gidos, os pacientes com IC j&#xE1; em uso de diur&#xE9;ticos de al&#xE7;a possuem uma resposta atenuada aos diur&#xE9;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> Diversos mecanismos s&#xE3;o propostos para tal processo, como redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da efic&#xE1;cia diur&#xE9;tica, reten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de sal ap&#xF3;s o uso, efeito rebote e remodelamento do n&#xE9;fron.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> Tal processo se configura como resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica, na qual os diur&#xE9;ticos n&#xE3;o atingem a descongest&#xE3;o desejada, manifestada por baixas concentra&#xE7;&#xF5;es de s&#xF3;dio urin&#xE1;rio, apesar do uso das doses m&#xE1;ximas recomendadas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> Alguns tratamentos adjuvantes t&#xEA;m sido propostos para contornar o problema, maximizando a resposta diur&#xE9;tica e atingindo a descongest&#xE3;o do paciente com IC.</p>
<sec>
<title>Diur&#xE9;ticos tiaz&#xED;dicos</title>
<p>Uma estrat&#xE9;gia utilizada para &#x201C;driblar&#x201D; a resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica se d&#xE1; por uso de tiaz&#xED;dicos, classe de medicamentos cuja a&#xE7;&#xE3;o se d&#xE1; no t&#xFA;bulo contorcido distal, s&#xED;tio diferente dos diur&#xE9;ticos de al&#xE7;a, sugerindo sinergia na a&#xE7;&#xE3;o diur&#xE9;tica no n&#xE9;fron e produzindo bloqueio de reabsor&#xE7;&#xE3;o de s&#xF3;dio distalmente.</p>
<p>As medica&#xE7;&#xF5;es mais utilizadas nesse contexto s&#xE3;o hidroclorotiazida e metolazona (sendo a metolazona n&#xE3;o dispon&#xED;vel em nosso meio), al&#xE9;m de clorotiazida. Os estudos realizados at&#xE9; o momento s&#xE3;o promissores, com aumento de diurese e redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de congest&#xE3;o, por&#xE9;m com metodologia bastante limitada<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> e marcada heterogeneidade, inclusive sobre os desfechos cl&#xED;nicos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> As doses e medica&#xE7;&#xF5;es t&#xEA;m sido diversas (no caso da hidroclorotiazida, as doses nos estudos variam de 25 a 200 mg; com metolazona, de 1,25 a 10 mg).</p>
<p>Em pacientes com resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica, um estudo comparando metolazona, clorotiazida e tolvaptan (um antagonista de vasopressina) identificou aumento de diurese com a adi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de qualquer uma das tr&#xEA;s medica&#xE7;&#xF5;es, sem diferen&#xE7;a entre os grupos, em pacientes com dose alta de diur&#xE9;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> N&#xE3;o havia grupo placebo no ensaio. Em um estudo retrospectivo unic&#xEA;ntrico com pacientes recebendo furosemida endovenosa, o uso de clorotiazida endovenosa, em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com hidroclorotiazida oral, mostrou maior diurese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref></p>
<p>Retomando a an&#xE1;lise do estudo DOSE, no que diz respeito ao uso de tiaz&#xED;dicos, houve tend&#xEA;ncia a um maior uso de tiaz&#xED;dicos no grupo de baixa dose (23% <italic>versus</italic> 13%, p = 0,06), o que pode ter, de alguma forma, contribu&#xED;do para a neutralidade do estudo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> Al&#xE9;m do maior estudo da hist&#xF3;ria da hipertens&#xE3;o (ALLHAT), que demonstrou redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de incid&#xEA;ncia de IC com uso de clortalidona,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> n&#xE3;o h&#xE1; estudos com o uso adicional de clortalidona aos diur&#xE9;ticos de al&#xE7;a em pacientes congestos com IC.</p>
<p>Em resumo, os diur&#xE9;ticos tiaz&#xED;dicos s&#xE3;o promissores no tratamento de congest&#xE3;o em pacientes com IC. No entanto, h&#xE1; car&#xEA;ncia de estudos mais robustos para melhor defini&#xE7;&#xE3;o da magnitude do efeito. Dois ensaios cl&#xED;nicos est&#xE3;o em andamento no momento [ClinicalTrials NCT01647932<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> e ReBEC RBR-5qkn8h<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref>], com possibilidade de publica&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos resultados em um futuro breve.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Antagonistas da vasopressina</title>
<p>O mecanismo de a&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos antagonistas da vasopressina, em especial do mais estudado em IC, o tolvaptan, desenvolvido no Jap&#xE3;o na d&#xE9;cada de 1990, se faz principalmente pela afinidade com receptores V2 localizados no ducto coletor, inibindo a reabsor&#xE7;&#xE3;o de &#xE1;gua livre<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> e produzindo aquarese, sem elimina&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eletr&#xF3;litos. Com um mecanismo bem definido e inovador e testes em animais com resposta favor&#xE1;vel, passou-se &#xE0; realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de ensaios cl&#xED;nicos randomizados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> O primeiro estudo multic&#xEA;ntrico sobre o assunto foi o ACTIV in CHF,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref> ensaio cl&#xED;nico randomizado de fase 2 que testou diferentes doses de tolvaptan (30 mg, 60 mg e 90 mg) <italic>versus</italic> placebo em 319 pacientes com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o menor que 40% e descompensa&#xE7;&#xE3;o da IC. Nos tr&#xEA;s grupos, houve maior redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de peso em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o ao placebo, sem piora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal ou dist&#xFA;rbios eletrol&#xED;ticos. Al&#xE9;m disso, em an&#xE1;lise <italic>post-hoc</italic>, houve maior benef&#xED;cio em pacientes mais congestos e com pior fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal. Em an&#xE1;lise de seguran&#xE7;a, houve mais morte s&#xFA;bita no grupo tolvaptan 60 mg em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com placebo (6% <italic>versus</italic> 1,3%, p &#x3C; 0,01).</p>
<p>Visto que o tolvaptan passou bem em sua &#x201C;prova de fogo&#x201D; inicial, os estudos EVEREST<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> foram publicados 3 anos depois, nos quais 4.133 pacientes, com perfil bastante semelhante ao estudo pr&#xE9;vio, fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o menor que 40%, classe funcional III/IV e descompensa&#xE7;&#xE3;o nas &#xFA;ltimas 48 horas, foram randomizados para tolvaptan 30 mg ou placebo. N&#xE3;o houve diferen&#xE7;a sobre o desfecho prim&#xE1;rio de hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por IC ou mortalidade cardiovascular entre os grupos (tolvaptan 42% <italic>versus</italic> placebo 40,2%, p = 0,55).</p>
<p>Em resumo, foram mais dois estudos neutros que fizeram parte de uma era em que o tratamento farmacol&#xF3;gico da IC parecia estagnado, sem avan&#xE7;os significativos.</p>
<p>Em se tratando de resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica, no entanto, alguns achados foram interessantes para a compensa&#xE7;&#xE3;o do paciente: houve maior perda de peso em 1 (-1,76 <italic>versus</italic> -0,97 kg; p &#x3C; 0,001) e 7 dias, menos dispneia, menos edema e, em pacientes hiponatr&#xEA;micos, maior aumento de s&#xF3;dio no grupo tolvaptan. Em suban&#xE1;lise posterior, houve redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de mortalidade cardiovascular ou hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o cardiovascular em pacientes com s&#xF3;dio inferior a 130 mEq/L (HR: 0,6 (0,37-0,98); p = 0,04), al&#xE9;m de maior perda de peso (0,7 kg no primeiro dia). Em outro estudo, em popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o com IC em unidade de terapia intensiva, houve menor necessidade de furosemida cont&#xED;nua, maior d&#xE9;bito urin&#xE1;rio e menor agravamento de inj&#xFA;ria renal com o tolvaptan do que com o placebo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> Al&#xE9;m disso, em um ensaio cl&#xED;nico com 217 pacientes com disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal est&#xE1;gios 3 e 4, observou-se que o tolvaptan ocasionou maior d&#xE9;bito urin&#xE1;rio em 48 h (6464,4&#xB1;3173,0 <italic>versus</italic> 4997,2&#xB1;2101,4 mL, p &#x3C; 0,001), sem piora de fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o ao placebo, al&#xE9;m de maior perda de peso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref></p>
<p>No entanto, mais recentemente, no estudo TACTICS-HF,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> em popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o com IC descompensada, 257 pacientes foram randomizados para tolvaptan ou placebo. Houve piora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal com o tolvaptan (39% <italic>versus</italic> 27%; p = 0,037) e n&#xE3;o houve maior al&#xED;vio de dispneia, persistindo os achados de estudos pr&#xE9;vios de maior negativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de balan&#xE7;o, esses dois achados semelhantes reproduzidos em estudo posterior,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> mas n&#xE3;o demonstrou piora de fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal. Nesse trabalho, foram randomizados pacientes com resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica.</p>
<p>Com rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o espec&#xED;fica &#xE0; resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica, os dados s&#xE3;o escassos: al&#xE9;m do estudo acima citado, com 60 pacientes divididos em tr&#xEA;s grupos,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> um estudo randomizado aberto com 81 pacientes com IC e disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal (taxa de filtra&#xE7;&#xE3;o glomerular &#x3C; 45 mL/min/1,73 m&#xB2;) demonstrou maior d&#xE9;bito urin&#xE1;rio com o tolvaptan (concordante com estudos pr&#xE9;vios em outros cen&#xE1;rios), sem redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de peso e com menor piora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal. Cabe ressaltar que o conceito de resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica foi bastante leniente nesse estudo, sendo definido como sinais de congest&#xE3;o independentemente de dose di&#xE1;ria igual ou superior a 40 mg de furosemida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref></p>
<p>Resumidamente, antagonistas da vasopressina n&#xE3;o mostraram benef&#xED;cio em desfechos cl&#xED;nicos. H&#xE1; espa&#xE7;o para o seu uso em IC cr&#xF4;nica? Definitivamente, n&#xE3;o. H&#xE1; espa&#xE7;o para o seu uso em IC aguda? Talvez, no cen&#xE1;rio de pacientes com congest&#xE3;o significativa, hiponatr&#xEA;micos e com perda de fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal e resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica verdadeira.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Nesiritide</title>
<p>Em situa&#xE7;&#xF5;es de distens&#xE3;o de mi&#xF3;citos (como em quadros congestivos), uma das respostas &#xE9; a secre&#xE7;&#xE3;o de pept&#xED;deos natriur&#xE9;ticos &#x2013; em particular, o pept&#xED;deo natriur&#xE9;tico tipo B (BNP) . Como consequ&#xEA;ncia, temos vasodilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o, modula&#xE7;&#xE3;o neuro-humoral e, al&#xE9;m de outras respostas, natriurese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref></p>
<p>Considerando as propriedades vasodilatadoras e diur&#xE9;ticas, foi desenvolvido o nesiritide, um BNP recombinante. A proposta parecia interessante, o que levou a ensaios cl&#xED;nicos. Em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com nitroglicerina e placebo, houve resposta hemodin&#xE2;mica favor&#xE1;vel com nesiritide no estudo VMAC, que randomizou pacientes descompensados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> No entanto, em pacientes ambulatoriais com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o inferior a 40%, hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xF5;es por IC e classe funcional III-IV, n&#xE3;o houve diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o de desfecho combinado de mortalidade geral, hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o cardiovascular ou hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por causas renais, abandonando-se a ideia do nesiritide para tal uso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p>
<p>Inicialmente, os resultados com nesiritide pareciam favor&#xE1;veis. No entanto, surgiram evid&#xEA;ncias posteriores sugerindo piora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal e at&#xE9; aumento da mortalidade, o que levou a um decl&#xED;nio gradual do uso da medica&#xE7;&#xE3;o na metade dos anos 2000.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> Como resultado, acabaram sendo realizados, posteriormente, estudos maiores e mais bem delineados sobre o assunto.</p>
<p>O primeiro ensaio cl&#xED;nico de grande porte sobre nesiritide em pacientes agudos foi o ASCEND-HF, no qual 7.141 pacientes com IC foram randomizados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref> O resultado foi um estudo neutro, sem efeito em mortalidade ou nova hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por IC, mas talvez com melhor resposta quanto &#xE0; dispneia. Como potencializador de furosemida, mecanismo que poderia ser interessante em caso de pacientes com resist&#xEA;ncia diur&#xE9;tica, a resposta tamb&#xE9;m foi neutra.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
<p>O pr&#xF3;ximo estudo sobre o assunto teve enfoque em pacientes com disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal est&#xE1;gios 3 e 4. No estudo ROSE-AHF, compararam-se dopamina em baixa dose, nesiritide e placebo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> N&#xE3;o houve diferen&#xE7;a de descongest&#xE3;o entre os grupos ou na melhora de fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal. Em 2018, a produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o de nesiritide foi descontinuada nos Estados Unidos.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Antagonistas de receptores mineralocorticoides</title>
<p>Espironolactona e eplerenona s&#xE3;o os maiores representantes dos antagonistas da aldosterona e da trajet&#xF3;ria dos diur&#xE9;ticos em IC, promovendo redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de mortalidade junto a outras terapias consagradas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref> Atuam no t&#xFA;bulo contorcido distal, tendo, portanto, al&#xE9;m de a&#xE7;&#xE3;o neuro-humoral, a&#xE7;&#xE3;o diur&#xE9;tica. Com base nessa &#xFA;ltima a&#xE7;&#xE3;o, construiu-se o racional de uso em pacientes com ICAD.</p>
<p>Na ICAD, os primeiros dados sobre o uso de espironolactona em dose diur&#xE9;tica foram favor&#xE1;veis: menos sinais de congest&#xE3;o e n&#xED;veis de pept&#xED;deos natriur&#xE9;ticos mais baixos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref> Posteriormente, foi publicado o estudo ATHENA-HF, com 460 pacientes, em que se utilizou espironolactona 100 mg <italic>versus</italic> placebo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref> Os resultados foram neutros, falhando em demonstrar benef&#xED;cio de espironolactona em ICAD.</p>
<p>Com isso, os antagonistas dos receptores mineralocorticoides continuar&#xE3;o a ter um papel importante no tratamento da IC cr&#xF4;nica, sem benef&#xED;cio aparente no contexto de ICAD.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Sacubitril-valsartana</title>
<p>O sacubitril-valsartana, uma associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de um bloqueador da angiotensina com um inibidor da neprilisina, teve seu efeito comparado ao enalapril no maior estudo j&#xE1; realizado em pacientes com IC cr&#xF4;nica, o PARADIGM-HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> Nesse estudo, o sacubitril-valsartana demonstrou uma redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de 20% no desfecho prim&#xE1;rio composto de morte cardiovascular ou hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por IC (RR 0,80 IC 0,73-0,87; p = 0,0000002). Houve tamb&#xE9;m redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de magnitude semelhante e estatisticamente significativa na mortalidade cardiovascular (RR 0,80 IC 0,71-0,89; p = 0,00004) e na mortalidade total (RR 0,84 IC 0,76-0,93; p = 0,0001). O mecanismo de a&#xE7;&#xE3;o se d&#xE1; pela inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o da degrada&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos BNP, promovida pela neprilisina, associada ao bloqueio do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona, promovido pela valsartana. Como resultado, h&#xE1; um aumento do n&#xED;vel s&#xE9;rico de BNP e, respectivamente, dos seus efeitos end&#xF3;genos de vasodilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o e natriurese, ambos efeitos desejados no tratamento de pacientes com IC.</p>
<p>A partir disso, podemos considerar o sacubitril-valsartana como mais uma medica&#xE7;&#xE3;o com potencial de agregar conhecimento no estudo dos diur&#xE9;ticos. Em suban&#xE1;lise do estudo PARADIGM-HF, houve redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de uso de furosemida (ou equivalente) no bra&#xE7;o com sacubitril-valsartana em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o aos que receberam enalapril: cerca de 2% em 6 meses, 4,1% em 12 meses e 6,1% em 24 meses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref> H&#xE1; controv&#xE9;rsias sobre se a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da necessidade de diur&#xE9;ticos se deve a uma melhora de par&#xE2;metros cl&#xED;nico-hemodin&#xE2;micos do paciente com IC ou a um discreto efeito diur&#xE9;tico direto.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref></p>
<p>No contexto de ICAD, a combina&#xE7;&#xE3;o sacubitril-valsartana foi novamente comparada ao enalapril no estudo PIONEER-HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref> Pacientes hospitalizados por ICAD foram seguidos por at&#xE9; 8 semanas. Houve redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o estatisticamente significativa no desfecho prim&#xE1;rio de n&#xED;veis s&#xE9;ricos de NT-ProBNP, um desfecho substituto de melhora cl&#xED;nica nessa popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o. Adicionalmente, houve redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de 44% no risco relativo de hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por IC.</p>
<p>Al&#xE9;m disso, um achado adicional pode sugerir efeito diur&#xE9;tico clinicamente relevante: observou-se maior n&#xED;vel de hipotens&#xE3;o nos pacientes em uso de sacubitril-valsartana em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o aos pacientes que receberam enalapril, podendo ser causado por efeito diur&#xE9;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref> No entanto, ainda carecemos de maiores estudos para uma melhor compreens&#xE3;o de um eventual efeito diur&#xE9;tico do sacubitril-valsartana.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Inibidores do SGLT2</title>
<p>Mais de 150 anos se passaram desde a descoberta dos primeiros inibidores n&#xE3;o seletivos de cotransportadores s&#xF3;dio-glicose at&#xE9; a chegada das medica&#xE7;&#xF5;es atuais. O cotransportador s&#xF3;dio-glicose 2 (SGLT2) localiza-se predominantemente no t&#xFA;bulo contorcido proximal e &#xE9; respons&#xE1;vel pela absor&#xE7;&#xE3;o de cerca de 90% da glicose filtrada pelo rim atrav&#xE9;s de um canal s&#xF3;dio-dependente. A natriurese induzida pelo bloqueio do transportador acarreta maior carga de s&#xF3;dio &#xE0; m&#xE1;cula densa e, atrav&#xE9;s de um <italic>feedback</italic> glomerular, causa constri&#xE7;&#xE3;o da arter&#xED;ola aferente, reduzindo a press&#xE3;o intraglomerular e a protein&#xFA;ria. A natriurese osm&#xF3;tica promovida pelos inibidores do SGLT2 reduz a press&#xE3;o arterial e a volemia, levando a menores pr&#xE9; e p&#xF3;s-cargas, com consequente redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o das press&#xF5;es de enchimento ventricular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref></p>
<p>&#xC9; desconhecido o exato mecanismo respons&#xE1;vel pelo seu efeito ben&#xE9;fico na IC; por&#xE9;m, v&#xE1;rios de seus efeitos podem ter impactos positivos na doen&#xE7;a, como redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da press&#xE3;o arterial, redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o vol&#xEA;mica, bloqueio do eixo renina-angiotensina-aldosterona e perda de peso.</p>
<p>A redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de desfechos cardiovasculares duros (morte cardiovascular, infarto e acidente vascular cerebral) relacionados &#xE0; aterosclerose nos ensaios cl&#xED;nicos foi pequena e restrita aos pacientes com doen&#xE7;a estabelecida, enquanto a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xF5;es por IC e de progress&#xE3;o da doen&#xE7;a renal foi robusta e n&#xE3;o limitada aos pacientes com doen&#xE7;a ateroscler&#xF3;tica ou hist&#xF3;rico de IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref></p>
<p>Acredita-se que o benef&#xED;cio dos inibidores do SGLT2 na redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por IC adv&#xE9;m, predominantemente, do seu efeito diur&#xE9;tico, visto que os pacientes dos ensaios cl&#xED;nicos apresentaram redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xF5;es dentro dos primeiros meses ap&#xF3;s a randomiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref> al&#xE9;m de suban&#xE1;lise demonstrando redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de mortalidade e hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por IC em pacientes diab&#xE9;ticos com IC, sem distin&#xE7;&#xE3;o fenot&#xED;pica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref> &#xC9; improv&#xE1;vel que o efeito sobre morte, IC e nefroprote&#xE7;&#xE3;o seja devido ao melhor controle glic&#xEA;mico, visto que a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da hemoglobina glicada foi discreta quando comparada ao placebo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> Al&#xE9;m disso, possui a vantagem de n&#xE3;o ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de mecanismos neuro-humorais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><sup>64</sup></xref></p>
<p>No estudo DAPA-HF,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref> foram avaliados 4.744 pacientes com IC classe III-IV com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o igual ou menor a 40%. Houve redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa de piora da IC (hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o ou necessidade de diur&#xE9;tico endovenoso), independentemente do paciente ser diab&#xE9;tico ou n&#xE3;o. Esses resultados representam um avan&#xE7;o no tratamento da IC, sendo a primeira clara demonstra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de mortalidade em IC de uma droga antidiab&#xE9;tica.</p>
<p>A empagliflozina foi testada no estudo EMPEROR-Reduced,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref> no qual foram randomizados 3.730 pacientes com IC classe III-IV com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o igual ou menor a 40%. Nesse estudo, houve redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do desfecho combinado de mortalidade cardiovascular ou hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por piora da IC &#xE0; custa da redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xF5;es.</p>
<p>Mais recentemente, foi avaliada a sotagliflozina em pacientes diab&#xE9;ticos com hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o recente por piora da IC. No estudo SOLOIST-WHF,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref> 1.222 pacientes foram avaliados, com cerca de 79% apresentando fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o inferior a 50% &#x2014; mediana de 35%. Da mesma forma em que no EMPEROR-Reduced,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref> o desfecho prim&#xE1;rio combinado de mortalidade cardiovascular ou hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xF5;es por IC foi menor no grupo interven&#xE7;&#xE3;o por redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xF5;es. O estudo foi interrompido precocemente por perda de financiamento do patrocinador. Em resumo, os inibidores do SGLT2 s&#xE3;o uma classe promissora no tratamento da IC, com redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xF5;es e possivelmente da mortalidade cardiovascular, estando em aberto, at&#xE9; o momento, dados definitivos em pacientes com ICAD.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina hipert&#xF4;nica</title>
<p>Nos &#xFA;ltimos 20 anos, a solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina hipert&#xF4;nica &#xE9; estudada com maior interesse no manejo da congest&#xE3;o de pacientes com ICAD. O seu principal racional se baseia no conceito de hipovolemia relativa, relativa &#xE0; IC, ou absoluta, devido ao uso de diur&#xE9;ticos. Como resposta, o glom&#xE9;rulo causa redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de taxa de filtra&#xE7;&#xE3;o glomerular; ao administrar solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina hipert&#xF4;nica, esse efeito glomerular poderia ser atenuado ou at&#xE9; mesmo abolido, levando a maior diurese quando utilizada em associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o com furosemida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68"><sup>68</sup></xref></p>
<p>Os primeiros dados a respeito da solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina hipert&#xF4;nica mostraram aumento da diurese, redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do tempo de hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o e do BNP, melhora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal e redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da mortalidade, incentivando o seguimento de estudos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69"><sup>69</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73"><sup>73</sup></xref> No entanto, h&#xE1; consider&#xE1;vel heterogeneidade entre os estudos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75"><sup>75</sup></xref> e um epis&#xF3;dio de duplica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados em publica&#xE7;&#xF5;es, motivando retrata&#xE7;&#xE3;o de uma das metan&#xE1;lises sobre o assunto.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76"><sup>76</sup></xref> Al&#xE9;m disso, apesar da redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de peso, h&#xE1; d&#xFA;vidas em rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o ao real benef&#xED;cio na resolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de congest&#xE3;o pulmonar.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77"><sup>77</sup></xref></p>
<p>Por fim, uma revis&#xE3;o sistem&#xE1;tica e metan&#xE1;lise sobre solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina hipert&#xF4;nica, avaliando estudos com solu&#xE7;&#xE3;o salina de 2,4 a 4,6% associadas ao uso de furosemida 500mg, EV, duas vezes ao dia, demonstrou mais perda de peso, melhora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal, menos hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xF5;es por IC, menor tempo de hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o e menor mortalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78"><sup>78</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Restri&#xE7;&#xE3;o hidrossalina</title>
<p>A restri&#xE7;&#xE3;o hidrossalina nos pacientes congestos com IC &#xE9; uma pr&#xE1;tica bastante antiga, sendo recomendada nas principais diretrizes de IC. No entanto, as evid&#xEA;ncias para tal recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o s&#xE3;o escassas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79"><sup>79</sup></xref> Al&#xE9;m disso, h&#xE1; consider&#xE1;vel heterogeneidade tanto em interven&#xE7;&#xF5;es testadas quanto em interven&#xE7;&#xF5;es recomendadas. Em linhas gerais, os resultados dos melhores trabalhos, at&#xE9; o momento, em pacientes com ICAD, foram neutros e falharam em demonstrar benef&#xED;cio sobre o peso e a estabilidade cl&#xED;nica, al&#xE9;m de aumentar a percep&#xE7;&#xE3;o de sede nos pacientes randomizados para restri&#xE7;&#xE3;o hidrossalina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80"><sup>80</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82"><sup>82</sup></xref> Dessa forma, n&#xE3;o h&#xE1; evid&#xEA;ncias para a recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o da restri&#xE7;&#xE3;o hidrossalina de forma rotineira em pacientes congestos hospitalizados com ICAD e recebendo tratamento contempor&#xE2;neo.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclus&#xE3;o</title>
<p>Muito se evoluiu no estudo dos diur&#xE9;ticos, principalmente nos &#xFA;ltimos 50 anos. De posse dos conhecimentos atuais, o cl&#xED;nico disp&#xF5;e de uma vasta gama de op&#xE7;&#xF5;es para o melhor manejo da congest&#xE3;o em pacientes com ICAD. Diversas lacunas de conhecimento sobre a melhor estrat&#xE9;gia do paciente congesto com ICAD est&#xE3;o abertas, especialmente no que diz respeito ao estudo dos diur&#xE9;ticos tiaz&#xED;dicos, do sacubitril-valsartana e dos inibidores do SGLT2. Isso pode ser interpretado como uma janela de oportunidade no conhecimento, com a combina&#xE7;&#xE3;o de diur&#xE9;ticos podendo vir a ser, conforme a progress&#xE3;o das evid&#xEA;ncias, realidade como terapia efetiva no manejo de congest&#xE3;o em ICAD.</p>
</sec></body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn2">
<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo n&#xE3;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<p><bold>Vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o acad&#xEA;mica</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo &#xE9; parte da tese de doutorado de Diogo Silva Piardi pela Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
<p><bold>Aprova&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9;tica e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo n&#xE3;o cont&#xE9;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn></fn-group>
</back></sub-article>
</article>
