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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &#x26; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">0000-0000</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20210008</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20210008</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Acute Myocarditis in Childhood and Adolescence in the Covid-19 Era</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7935-7966</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Torbey</surname><given-names>Ana Fl&#xE1;via Malheiros</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5969-8226</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Souza</surname><given-names>Aurea L&#xFA;cia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5648-7813</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Bustamante</surname><given-names>Ana Catarina Dur&#xE1;n</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3496-6554</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Brand&#xE3;o</surname><given-names>Carmen Z.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4916-130X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Abdallah</surname><given-names>Luan Rodrigues</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2343-291X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Souza</surname><given-names>Yves P. D. March e</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Mesquita</surname><given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Niter&#xF3;i</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ - Brazil</institution></aff></contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Ana Fl&#xE1;via Malheiros Torbey</bold> &#x2022; Hospital Universit&#xE1;rio Ant&#xF4;nio Pedro, Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento Materno Infantil - Rua Marqu&#xEA;s de Paran&#xE1;, 303. Postal Code <postal-code>24033-900</postal-code>, Centro, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ - Brazil. E-mail: <email>anatorbey@id.uff.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="con">
<p><bold>Author contributions</bold></p>
<p>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Torbey AFM, Souza ALAAG, Mesquita ET; Acquisition of data: Torbey AFM, Souza ALAAG, Bustamante ACD, Brand&#xE3;o CZ, Abdallah LR, Souza YPDM; Writing of the manuscript: Torbey AFM, Souza ALAAG, Bustamante ACD, Brand&#xE3;o CZ, Abdallah LR, Souza YPDM, Mesquita ET.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn></author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>06</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2021</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<season>Jul-Sep</season>
<year>2021</year></pub-date>
<volume>1</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>44</fpage>
<lpage>54</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>28</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2021</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>26</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2021</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>20</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2021</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p></license></permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Myocarditis in children and adolescents is an inflammatory myocardial disease with a heterogeneous presentation ranging from oligosymptomatic, with no impaired ejection fraction to catastrophic clinical presentation with cardiogenic shock (fulminant myocarditis) or sudden death. Thus, this condition remains a major challenge from the diagnostic and therapeutic points of view. Despite the different etiologies listed, the most frequent form may be related to viral diseases, and new forms of myocarditis, such allergic ones (eosinophilic and use of medications, particularly cancer immunotherapy), have been currently described. Increasing the rate of suspicion is crucial. Measurement of serum levels of troponin and N-terminal B-type natriuretic peptide, as well as the use of advanced methods of cardiac imaging, such as strain echocardiogram, positron emission tomography, and cardiac magnetic resonance, are integral part of multimodal assessment in suspected patients. Although endomyocardial biopsy remains is still the gold standard for disease diagnosis, currently it tends to be performed in specific situations, such as fulminant clinical presentation and chronic or recurrent myocarditis. The management of this condition includes general supportive care, treatment of heart failure, control of arrhythmias when present, assessment of mechanical support and cardiac transplantation. Treatments based on immunosuppression and immunotherapy are still controversial. In this article, we propose a broad review of diagnostic and treatment methods, as well as the different etiologies in the pediatric population.</p></abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>Myocarditis</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiomyopathy</kwd>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Children</kwd>
<kwd>Adolescents</kwd></kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="6"/>
<table-count count="4"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="62"/>
<page-count count="11"/></counts></article-meta></front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>Myocarditis represents a heterogeneous group of myocardial inflammatory diseases in terms of etiology, inflammatory response, clinical course, and response to treatment. Additionally, it shows high morbidity and mortality rates in the pediatric population<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> and is considered the most common cause of heart failure (HF) in previously healthy children.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> Furthermore, its clinical presentation has a spectrum of signs and symptoms ranging from oligosymptomatic cases to cardiogenic shock and sudden death, which represents a diagnostic challenge in pediatrics.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), a severe complication of myocarditis, is a common cause of heart transplantation in childhood.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref></p>
<p>This article aims to present the advances in the field of diagnosis and treatment, in order to propose an algorithm to aid pediatricians, family physicians, and pediatric cardiologists in approaching patients with myocarditis.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Definition</title>
<p>Myocarditis is characterized by myocardial inflammation associated with a process of myocyte degeneration and necrosis, may be focal or diffuse, and may cause cardiac dysfunction and/or arrhythmias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> In 1995, myocarditis was classified as an inflammatory cardiomyopathy by the World Health Organization, and its diagnosis is established based on histopathological, immunological and immunohistochemical criteria. Moreover, infectious causes, toxic agents, autoimmune and autoinflammatory conditions, allergic reactions, or idiopathic causes may be involved,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> thus characterizing the heterogeneous nature of the disease.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Epidemiology</title>
<p>The incidence and prevalence of myocarditis are difficult to determine, due to its varied clinical presentation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> A population-based registry study conducted by Arola et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> in Finland observed an incidence of myocarditis of 1.95:100 000 people/year (considering children and adolescents from 0 to 15 year old).</p>
<p>Despite its rarity, myocarditis is significant,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> since most patients require admission at intensive care unit, as well and ventilatory and circulatory supports.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> This condition is responsible for 0.5 cases for each 10 000 consultations in pediatric emergency;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> however, the actual frequency is probably higher than that reported, due to undiagnosed or asymptomatic cases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref></p>
<p>In international studies not including Latin American countries, the age distribution of disease diagnosis is bimodal, with a peak in the first year of life and another at 16 years of age. In adolescents, the disease is more frequent in the male sex (81%) than in the female.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Also according to the work performed by Arola et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> the incidence of myocarditis among male adolescents may be as high as 18.1:100 000 people/year. This increased incidence among male adolescents may be justified by the presence of testosterone.</p>
<p>Although outcome is favorable in nearly 50% of patients, morbidity and mortality rates remain significant. Sequelae and chronic evolution occur in approximately 30% of the cases, with 80% of cases of chronic cardiomyopathy leading to cardiac transplantation or death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> An autopsy study with pediatric patients observed that 2% of deaths were caused by myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> In a recent autopsy pediatric study, 1.8% of patients had histological evidence compatible with myocarditis; of these, 57% had sudden death and 54% were younger than 1 year of age.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
<p>Myocarditis accounts for 30% to 35% of children with a phenotype of DCM in registers from Australia and North America and for 22% of new-onset left ventricular dysfunction in the United Kingdom.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
<p>Myocarditis in children is associated with higher rates of HF, hospitalization, length of stay at intensive care unit, and use of inotropic support at the time of diagnosis compared to children with idiopathic DCM. A recent study of hospitalized patients in the United States showed that almost a half of patients required inotropic support, 37.5% required mechanical ventilation, and 7.4% required extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
<p>Mortality at the acute phase ranges from 7 to 15% of the cases, and myocarditis is an important cause of DCM and cardiac transplantation in children without congenital heart disease, which account for 80% of the cases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Pathophysiology</title>
<p>Although the pathogenesis of myocarditis will depend on its etiology, much of our understanding on the disease is based on experimental models of guinea pigs infected with coxsackievirus.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> In viral myocarditis, the existence of three phases has been proposed. Initially, there is a period of viral replication, leading to acute myocyte injury and consequently evolving to DCM, which is associated with changes in the extracellular matrix of the myocardial tissue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Etiology</title>
<p>A wide spectrum of infectious and immunomediated causes, as well as hypersensitivity to medications, drugs, and toxins, are involved in the etiology of myocarditis.<sup>1,18-20</sup> Most cases in the pediatric population are caused by viral infections, mainly with adenovirus, cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, and enterovirus, the main of which being coxsackie virus type B. However, with the emergence of new diagnostic modalities, other pathogens were also detected, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and endomyocardial biopsy (EMB), parvovirus B19, human herpes virus 6, in several patients with myocarditis confirmed by biopsy in European studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Arboviruses, such as Chikungunya, dengue, and Zika virus, may also be involved.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> Recently, cases of myocarditis due to H1N1 infection were documented.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref></p>
<p>Thus, infectious exposures, especially to viruses, are responsible for most cases of pediatric myocarditis in Canada and in the United States;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> whereas the most common cause of this condition worldwide is <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic>. It is worth emphasizing that, in Latin America, chagasic myocarditis may affect children and adolescents in endemic areas and, due to migration, patients from these areas may be diagnosed in North America, Europe, and Asia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>Currently, in view of the pandemic caused by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-1), cases of myocarditis related to the severe acute respiratory syndrome virus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been described.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> In pediatrics, myocarditis has shown to be related to cases of multi-systemic inflammatory syndrome and associated with clinical signs of Kawasaki disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> In this cases, troponin elevation is one of main markers of myocardial involvement.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> Dolhnikof et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> showed the presence of particles of SARS-CoV-2 in the myocardial tissue through an electronic microscopic study and detection of viral RNA with reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR). Multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children occurs some weeks after SARS-CoV-2 infection; therefore, patients may present with signs of acute HF and negative RT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2, associated with a significant elevation of troponin levels and inflammatory markers.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref></p>
<p>Autoimmune myocarditis may be an isolated condition, such as in giant cell eosinophilic myocarditis and, or be part of a systemic disease, such as systemic lupus eritematosus, Sj&#xF6;gren syndrome, vasculitis, and polymyositis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> In scenarios of autoimmune myocarditis, there is lymphocytic infiltrate, suggesting important participation of T cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> Simpson et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> showed evidence of autoimmune mechanism in children with clinical picture of myocarditis through the presence of significant elevation of human cardiac anti-myosin antibodies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref></p>
<p>In addition to chemotherapy and radiation therapy used in the treatment of childhood cancer, new therapies with immunotherapy &#x2013; checkpoint inhibitors &#x2013; characterize potential risks for cardiac toxicity and are related to cases of myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> These patients should receive special attention, because they may initially present with normal echocardiogram, and more complex diagnostic methods are needed to confirm myocardial inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> The <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Table 1</xref> shows the different causes of myocarditis.</p>
<table-wrap id="t1">
<label>Table 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Etiology of myocarditis in childhood and adolescence</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th valign="middle" align="left">Etiology</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center" colspan="2">Examples</th></tr></thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left" rowspan="4">Infectious</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Viruses</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Adenovirus, echovirus, enterovirus (coxsackie), herpes (cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, human herpes virus type 6, hepatitis C, HIV, H1N1, parvovirus B19, arboviruses (dengue, Chikungunya, and Zika), SARS-CoV-2</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Bacteria</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Clamidia, <italic>Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Klebsiella, Salmonella, Legionella, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, micoplasma, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus A, Streptococcus pneumonia, Tryponema pallidum, Haemophilus influenzae</italic></td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Fungi</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Actinomyces, Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptococcus</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Protozoa</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma cruzi</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Autoimmune</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2">Celiac disease, Churg-Strauss syndrome, dermatomyositis, giant cell myocarditis, hypereosinophilic syndrome, Kawasaki disease, systemic lupus eritematosus, lymphofollicular myocarditis, rheumatoid arthritis, sarcoidosis, ulcerative colitis, scleroderma</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Hypersensitivity reactions</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2">Penicillin, ampicillin, cephaloesporin, tetracyclines, sulfonamides, benzodiazepines, clozapine, thiazide and loop diuretics, methyldopa, tetanus toxin, varicella vaccine, antidepressants</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"/>
<td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2">Anphetamines, anthracyclines, catecholamine, cocaine, cyclophosphamide, phenytoin, transtuzumab, toxic amitriptyline, amphotericin B, <italic>cannabis</italic>, carbon monoxide, electric shock, ethanol, Hymenoptera, isoniazid, lidocaine, methyldopa, spider and scorpion venoms</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN1">
<p>HIV: human immunodeficiency virus; SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Clinical presentation</title>
<p>The diagnosis of pediatric myocarditis remains a challenge, due to its varied clinical presentation, which ranges from asymptomatic patients with only subtle findings on electrocardiogram (ECG) to fulminant HF and sudden death (MAY 2011). Thus, initial clinical suspicion is necessary for the diagnosis to be confirmed, especially in oligosymptomatic cases.</p>
<p>Studies such as those by Rodrigues-Gonzales et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> and Durani et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> showed that, in most patients (59 to 83%), the diagnosis of myocarditis was not made on the initial assessment; thus, more than one medical assessment were required before the diagnosis of myocarditis or DCM was made.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> In the studies, children often received an initial diagnosis of respiratory disease (bronchiolitis, asthma, or pneumonia) or gastrointestinal infection.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref></p>
<p>Clinical presentation also varies according to patient&#x2019;s age. Neonates and infants may present with unspecific symptoms suggestive of infection, including fever, hypoactivity, and suction difficulty, or may severe signs, such apneia, cyanosis, and cardiogenic shock.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
<p>In older children and in adolescents, clinical manifestations may also be different. Most children present with unspecific respiratory or gastrointestinal complaints; only a minority of them report chest pain. The most frequently reported signs of myocarditis are unspecific symptoms, such as shortness of breath (69%), vomiting (48%), or feeding difficulties (40%). Sudden death may occur in some cases of myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> Every patient with new-onset HF or arrhythmia should have myocarditis considered as a possible diagnosis.</p>
<p>The presentation of myocarditis may be categorized into clinical syndromes such as: chest pain, HF with phenotype of DCM or fulminant myocarditis, arrhythmias, and sudden death.</p>
<p><underline>Chest pain:</underline> intense chest pain, similar to that of acute myocardial infarction, associated with typical electrocardiographic changes and increase in biomarkers such as troponin and brain natriuretic peptide (BNP).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> It is usually associated with pericardial impairment, but cardiac function is normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> In these patients, it is necessary to ensure that coronaries do not have congenital or acquired anatomical abnormalities through imaging tests such as echocardiogram and coronary computed tomography angiography.</p>
<p><underline>Sudden death:</underline> despite being a rare event, sudden death in the pediatric population is commonly associated with myocarditis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> and may be the initial presentation of the disease. In these cases, diagnosis is made histologically, in which an infiltrative inflammatory process becomes an arrhythmogenic focus generating fatal arrhythmia, or through cardiac imaging after an event of aborted sudden death. Myocarditis accounts for approximately 9% of sudden deaths in young athletes in the United States with confirmed cardiovascular event was documented.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref></p>
<sec>
<title>1. Arrhythmias</title>
<p>Symptoms such as palpitations and syncope occur in pediatric patients with myocarditis even in the absence of HF or of overt reduction of left ventricular a function.</p>
<p>Resting sinus tachycardia is also an important subtle characteristic and, despite not being a consistent finding, it may be the only finding in mild forms.</p>
<p>The presence of ventricular arrhythmias in structurally normal hearts and ventricular tachyarrhythmias in athletes has been associated with myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> Myocarditis should also be considered in children with acquired complete heart block. Lyme carditits and Chagas disease have been associated with complete heart block. Although most children may recover atrioventricular conduction, some patients may require permanent. Although most children may recover atrioventricular conduction, some patients may require permanent pacemaker implantation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>2. HF with phenotype of DCM</title>
<p>The most classical presentation of myocarditis is the onset of symptoms of HF in a phenotype of DCM some weeks after a history compatible with viral disease. Respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms, as well as myalgia, are characteristic of this phase, and fever may be present or not.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></p>
<p>Signs of congestive HF are observed in most patients<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> varying in severity of symptoms according to the degree of myocardial inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Tachydyspnea, tachycardia, changes in cardiac and respiratory auscultation, and hepatomegaly are usually observed, followed by signs of low cardiac output.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>3. Fulminant acute myocarditis</title>
<p>Is a different subset of acute myocarditis characterized by HF with severe hemodynamic involvement requiring mechanical or inotropic circulatory support and meeting at least two of the following criteria: fever, onset with symptoms different from those of HF within 1 or 2 days, and history of viral disease in the 2 weeks before hospitalization. Fulminant myocarditis is associated with symptoms of major left ventricular dysfunction and unexpected HF from 2 to 3 weeks after the onset of viral infection.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> Fulminant myocarditis accounts for 10 to 38% of all cases of myocarditis,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> and has been described in children with mortality rates ranging from 48.4% in Japan to 9% in France. Despite the severe presentation, results are significantly better that those of adults with acute myocarditis. In children presenting with cardiogenic shock, ventricular arrhythmia, or atrioventricular block stabilization with mechanical circulatory support (MCS) will be required, such as extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). In patients who do not respond after a period of 1 to 2 weeks, an endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) should be considered in order to rule out giant cell myocarditis that responds to treatment with immunosuppression, despite having a poor prognosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Diagnosis</title>
<p>The diagnosis of myocarditis is especially challenging due to its varied clinical presentation, which encompasses from asymptomatic patients with only subtle findings on ECG to fulminant HF and sudden death. Diagnosis remains mostly based on high degree of clinical suspicion, supported by biomarkers, such as cardiac troponin and BNP, and advanced techniques of cardiac imaging, such as tissue Doppler echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance, with EMB being considered the gold standard of diagnosis. Clinical characteristics of myocarditis are usually similar to that of HF, and this condition is the most common cause of new-onset HF in healthy children. Patients with mild symptoms are at risk of worsening and, thus, early diagnosis is important in the establishment of appropriate monitoring and support care.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref></p>
<p>After clinical suspicion, based on medical history taking and physical examination, investigation begins with supplementary tests. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref> summarize the main diagnostic tools and possible findings.</p>
<table-wrap id="t2">
<label>Table 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Main diagnostic tools in acute myocarditis in children and adolescents</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th valign="middle" align="left">Investigation tools</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Possible findings</th></tr></thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Medical history taking</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Typical symptoms of cold/influenza, gastroenteritis, insect bites, family history of cardiomyopathy, and precordial pain. Signs of new-onset heart failure or arrhythmia in previously healthy children.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Physical examination</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Resting tachycardia and clinical signs of heart failure.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Biomarkers</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Troponin and BNP elevation.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Chest x-ray</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Image suggestive of increased cardiac area, pulmonary congestion, pleural effusion, and pulmonary infiltrate.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Electrocardiogram</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sinus tachycardia, ventricular hypertrophy, abnormalities in ST segment and in T wave, arrhythmias, AVB, QT segment prolongation, low QRS complex voltage.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Echocardiogram</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Increased telesystolic and diastolic ventricular volume, wall motion abnormalities, septal or ventricular thickening, reduced ejection fraction, valvular regurgitation, and presence of thrombi.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Gallium scintigraphy</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Capture of gallium</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Nuclear magnetic resonance</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Edema, cardiac tissue inflammation and necrosis/fibrosis.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Myocardial biopsy</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Presence of lymphocytic infiltrate, edema, and necrosis of cardiac muscle cells, viral PCR.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN2">
<p>AVB: atrioventricular block; BNP: brain natriuretic peptide.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Diagnostic flowchart for pediatric patients with suspected myocarditis.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0044-gf01.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>ECG</title>
<p>In children with myocarditis, ECG is altered in at least 93% of patients,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> although normal results do not exclude the diagnosis of this condition. Changes are unspecific and range from sinus tachycardia to ventricular arrhythmias, and there may be low QRS complex voltage, atrioventricular block, changes in ST segment and QT interval.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Biomarkers</title>
<p>The levels of inflammatory activity markers, such as hemosedimentation velocity and reactive C protein, are often elevated, and leukocytosis may be present, although normal results do not rule out the diagnosis of myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>Abnormal troponin levels may support the diagnosis of myocarditis. Troponin T may have greater sensitivity to detect micronecrosis in myocarditis, due to the proportionally higher and longer increase in its serum levels compared with creatine kinase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> It is believed that EMB should be performed when troponin levels are elevated, because there is a greater likelihood of showing myocardial inflammatory infiltrate.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref></p>
<p>Soongswang et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> found that troponin T has good sensitivity (71%) and specificity (86%) to diagnose acute myocarditis in children and that troponin T levels were higher in patients with myocarditis compared to those with DCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> However, it is important to highlight that, in clinical practice, values of troponin T and I are measured by different methods; therefore, it is essential to know the cutoff values for the test kits used in the institution where the patient was treated.</p>
<p>High levels of natriuretic peptide (BNP and N-terminal B-type natriuretic peptide [NT-pro-BNP]) may be present in myocarditis and are useful to determine cardiac etiology in children with respiratory symptoms.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> showed that NT-proBNP levels &#x3E; 5,000 pg/mL are associated with worse prognosis in children with myocarditis.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Chest X-RAY</title>
<p>Findings on chest x-ray usually include increased cardiac area on account of increased left ventricular (LV) diameter and/or pericardial effusion<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> and may reveal pulmonary congestion and edema, infiltrates, or pleural effusion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Echocardiography</title>
<p>Echocardiographic findings typical of myocarditis are increased LV systolic and diastolic diameters and reduced LV shortening and ejection fractions, characterizing the phenotype of DCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> Atrioventricular valvular regurgitation and segmental abnormalities of ventricular wall motion, as well as pericardial effusion, may also be observed.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> Changes in right ventricular function may be associated with greater likelihood of adverse outcomes, including cardiac transplantation or death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
<p>Fulminant myocarditis may be characterized by increased intraventricular septal thickness due to interstitial edema and LV dimensions close to normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> Patients with this condition have better prognosis in recovering LV function.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> Phenotypes of hypertrophic and restrictive cardiomyopathy have already been described in patients with diagnosis of myocarditis confirmed by histopathology.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>The use of tissue Doppler and ventricular strain may also contribute in the diagnosis of myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> However, the diagnostic value of ECHO is limited, because many patients with mild myocarditis may present with normal echocardiographic results.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> Echocardiography is also important to rule out other causes of HF, especially coronary abnormalities.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Nuclear medicine</title>
<p>The presence of cardiac inflammation may be demonstrated scintigraphy studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> In children with DCM, gallium-67 scintigraphy may be used to detect myocarditis, showing high sensitivity (87%) and specificity (81%) compared with EMB.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> However, this technique is not frequently used in children with suspected myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Cardiac magnetic resonance</title>
<p>Cardiovascular magnetic resonance is a tool widely accepted to investigate patients with suspected myocarditis and became the non-invasive diagnostic method of choice in the diagnosis of myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> In pediatrics, in addition to contributing to diagnosis, cardiovascular magnetic resonance is able to contribute in prognosis, especially in cases of fulminant myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Martinez-Villar et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref> showed the contribution of resonance in the diagnosis of myocarditis in adolescents with infarction-like presentation.</p>
<p>This technique allows for a detailed assessment of ventricular wall dimensions and thickness and of cardiac function; moreover, it provides data on myocardial tissue, showing the presence of edema, inflammation, and fibrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> Edema is seen through enhancement of T2-weigthed image, early enhancement on T-1 weighted image is related to hyperemia. Conversely, late gadolinium enhancement translates the presence of fibrosis, which is typically not restricted to a vascular territory, being usually mesomural and subepicardial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figures 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">3</xref> illustrate these changes. Cardiac resonance is also able to identify segmental changes in ventricular walls, more commonly in inferolateral and basal walls.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref></p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Cardiac magnetic resonance showed myocardial edema at anterolateral mid-basal walls. (A) Effusion, thickening, and pericardial enhancement more evident near the right and left ventricular basal segments. (B) Aspect suggestive of recent or active myopericarditis.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0044-gf02.tif"/></fig>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Presence of atypical late enhancement for coronary disease with heterogeneous pattern, sparing the endocardium located in the anterior, anteroseptal, and inferior segments. Compatible with non-ischemic necrosis/fibrosis (myocarditis).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0044-gf03.tif"/></fig>
<p>Friedrich et al. published in 2009 the Consensus on cardiovascular magnetic resonance for inflammatory cardiomyopathies, the Lake Louise criteria, which establish that the presence of edema, hyperemia, and necrosis/fibrosis are assessed through T2-weighted images, early enhancement, and late gadolinium enhancement; likewise, the presence of 2 or more of these criteria strongly suggest the presence of myocarditis,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> with a sensitivity of 67% and a specificity of 91%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> Diagnostic accuracy may be improved with myocardial assessment on T1-weighted images.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Therefore, the use of T-1 mapping together with T2-weighted images and late gadolinium enhancement increases diagnostic accuracy to 96%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
<p>Others unspecific findings of myocarditis include: regional changes in ventricular wall motion, reduced myocardial function, and pericardial effusion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref></p>
<p>In addition to the diagnosis of myocarditis, magnetic resonance may provide information on disease progression and resolution.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>EMB</title>
<p>The histopathological demonstration defined by the Dallas criteria, proposed in 1986.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> Is still necessary for the definite diagnosis of myocarditis; thus, EMB is still the gold standard.<sup>2,16,19</sup> EMB shows the etiology of myocarditis, because infectious, inflammatory, toxic, infiltrative, and autoimmune changes occur at the cell level, and non-invasive methods are not able to demonstrate them.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> Although some factors limit its routine use,<sup>1,6,38</sup> the indication of EMB is justified by the fact that specific inflammatory diseases of the myocardium have an unique treatment, impacting on prognosis.<sup>16,48,49-51</sup> For example, the treatment of myocarditis mediated by immune processes differs from that of viral myocarditis, and it is difficult to diagnose them by non-invasive methods.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></p>
<p>The EMB procedure may rarely be related to some complications such as cardiac tamponade and atrioventricular block requiring temporary pacemaker.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> In pediatric patients, the overall risk of complications is relatively low, ranging from 1 to 6 %,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> and is directly related to patient&#x2019;s clinical condition, to the experience of the medical team in performing the procedure, and to the availability of cardiac surgery if needed.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> Mortality rates range from 0 to 0.4%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Therefore, the risk/benefit of biopsy should be individually assessed.</p>
<p>The sensitivity of Dallas criteria for the diagnosis of myocarditis is around 55%; however, the use of immunohistochemistry and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for viral research increases the diagnostic sensitivity of EMB,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> since some studies showed the presence of virus in the absence of Dallas criteria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref> The collection EMB samples from both ventricles increases sensitivity for the diagnosis of myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> The diagnosis may be improved with the combined use of EMB and magnetic resonance improve diagnosis, because magnetic resonance can guide the better site for the collection of EMB samples when focal lesions are present in the right or in the left ventricle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref></p>
<p>In 2007, a joint publication by the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology Foundation, and the European Society of Cardiology defined as class I recommendation for EMB two scenarios out of 14: unexplained new-onset HF of less than 2 weeks&#x2019; duration associated with hemodynamic compromise; or unexplained new-onset HF of 2 weeks&#x2019; to 3 months&#x2019; duration associated with ventricular dilatation or arrhythmias or conduction disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> However, the European Society of Cardiology recently included the presence of pseudoinfarction as recommendation for EMB, after exclusion of coronary disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref> In the pediatric population, the presence of unexplained cardiomyopathy receives recommendation IIa for EMB.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></p>
<p>According to the Dallas criteria, acute myocarditis is defined by lymphocytic infiltrates in association with myocyte necrosis, whereas borderline myocarditis is characterized by inflammatory infiltrate without evidence of necrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Treatment</title>
<p>The therapeutic approach of myocarditis in childhood and adolescence is still controversial and mainly based on support treatment.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> However, specific treatment may be required, according to results from EMB, clinical presentation, and disease prognosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>General measures</title>
<p>These measures consist of treating HF and arrhythmias and of preventing sudden death by reducing myocardial oxygen consumption, treating anemia, and adhering to water and salt restriction with strict control of water balance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item>
<p>Physical activity limitation/rest: competitive activities should be suspended for 6 months, as long as ventricular function is normal and there is no evidence of clinically relevant arrhythmias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p></list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Treatment of HF: stabilizing children with hemodynamic compromise is crucial, admission to the pediatric intensive care unit for hemodynamic and ventilatory supports is required in cases presenting with HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Infusion of inotropics, use of afterload reducers, and use of diuretics help improve cardiac function.</p>
<p>The administration of diuretics should be made with caution, because rapid reduction in volemia may worsen hypotension and compromise tissue perfusion in a patient with an already reduced cardiac output.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> The use of inotropics such as dobutamine, dopamine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline will be necessary in patients with hypotension, low cardiac output, and reduced cardiac function; their infusion may increase the risk for arrhythmias. The use of milrinone (phosphodiesterase inhibitor) is very useful in afterload reduction, improves cardiac function, and has a lower risk of predisposing to arrhythmias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>The use de angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI) and beta blockers in adult patients is associated with good prognosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> However, beta blockers should not be administered to children in the acute phase of myocarditis, when there is low cardiac output. After stabilization and transition to the use of an oral diuretic, the use of beta blockers such as carvedilol is recommended, as well as the use of ACEI, which is associated with reduced reverse remodeling and improved functional class.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> Digoxin should be used with extreme caution in patients in the acute phase of disease, since its administration may trigger arrhythmias and increase the production of inflammatory cytokines.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p></list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Arrhythmias: in patients with myocarditis, arrhythmias are usually transient and occur during the acute phase of disease. However, changes in cardiac rhythm may be associated with greater mortality and should be managed conventionally. Despite that, some patients will require peacemaker implantation for total atrioventricular block, and those with sustained ventricular arrhythmia will require amiodarone and, in selected cases, implantable cardioverter defibrillator.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></p></list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Advance life support: mechanical circulatory support (MCS) is required in patients with refractory cardiogenic shock. MCS devices are able to replace heart&#x2019;s pumping function until myocardial function is recovered (rescue therapy) or until cardiac transplantation is possible (bridge therapy for transplantation).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p>
<p>Pediatric patients with fulminant myocarditis benefit from ECMO support, because recovery of ventricular function may occur within some weeks.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></p></list-item></list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Specific measures</title>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item>
<p>Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG): the use of immunoglobulin in pediatric patients with new-onset myocarditis or DCM is still controversial, since there are no available controlled studies showing its benefit.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref> The use of immunoglobulin is based on its antiviral and immunomodulatory potential, which reduces the cytokine production and inflammation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Robinson et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref> conducted a Cochrane review with several databases and concluded that IVIG may be useful in children with myocarditis associated encephalitis and that more controlled clinical trials are needed to demonstrate the benefit of IVIG in pediatric myocarditis. However, studies with series of pediatric cases show that the use of immunoglobulin improves ventricular function and survival in this population, suggesting that immunoglobulin has a beneficial role in pediatric myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref> In a meta-analysis study, Huang et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> demonstrated that patients with fulminant myocarditis showed better survival at follow-up and that the use of IVIG showed to be superior compared with conventional treatment in reducing in-hospital mortality rates.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> However, a systematic review with meta-analysis conducted by Yen et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref> found that immunoglobulin did not change survival rates, and thus should not be routinely administered for acute pediatric myocarditis.</p>
<p>In the I Brazilian guideline on HF and cardiac transplantation in fetuses, children and adults with congenital heart disease, developed by the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (<italic>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</italic>, SBC), the use of IVIG is considered recommendation IIb, with level of evidence B, for the following conditions: idiopathic DCM (optimized clinical treatment, more than 1 year with symptoms of HF) with presence of high titers of parvovirus B19 genome for in the myocardial tissue confirmed by EMB and molecular biology; myocarditis confirmed by EMB through immunohistochemistry and presence of viral genome in the myocardial tissue on molecular biology.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p></list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Immunosuppression: the role of immunosuppression is still discussed in the treatment of myocarditis, with the purpose of suppressing inflammatory response and autoimmune activity in order to improve clinical status and ventricular function and reduce mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref> It may be considered adjuvant therapy when EMB is performed, and the presence of viral activity is ruled out through PCR study and documentation of inflammatory activity.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> The Tailored Immunosuppression in Inflammatory Cardiomyopathy (TIMIC) study confirms the efficacy of immunosuppressive therapy in this situation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref></p>
<p>In giant cell myocarditis confirmed by EMB, immunosuppression received class I recommendation I, level of evidence B. Conversely, in inflammatory cardiomyopathy confirmed by EMB through immunohistochemistry with optimized clinical treatment and more than 6 months of symptoms of HF, in the absence of viral genome by molecular biology, immunosuppression received class recommendation IIb and level of evidence B.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> This therapy is also indicated in eosinophilic myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>Camargo el al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> showed that immunosuppressive therapy is beneficial in pediatric patients with inflammation on EMB, regardless of the presence of viral genome. However, their study did not use a control group of active patients with myocarditis treated conventionally.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
<p>Therapy may be based on the association of prednisone and azathioprine or corticosteroids associated or not with cyclosporine.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p></list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Antiviral therapy: the presence of viral genome in EMB samples has guided antiviral therapy. Interferon-&#x3B2; (IFN-&#x3B2;) and IVIG are the main therapeutic options, whose objective is to interrupt viral replication by eliminating them. It is necessary to confirm inflammatory activity associated with viral replication documented by EMB.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> Patients with DCM and persistent viral genome show improved cardiac function after using subcutaneous IFN-&#x3B2;.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> The use of antiviral therapy is more effective in the earlier stages of myocarditis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>Infections with cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) should receive their predefined therapies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p></list-item></list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Prognosis</title>
<p>The prognosis of myocarditis is as variable as its clinical presentation. The patients may recover and subsequently evolve to DCM or death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref> Patients with normal cardiac function usually have good prognosis, unlike those with DCM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> In general, nearly 50% of patients will improve after 2 to 4 weeks of disease onset, nearly 30% will develop DCM, and the remaining 20% may evolve to clinical worsening, requirement for cardiac transplantation, or death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref></p>
<p>Ejection fraction below 30% and shortening fraction bellow 15%, LV dilatation, and moderate to severe mitral regurgitation are considered predictors of poor prognosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> In a study conducted by Kim et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref> LV dilatation was the main factor associated with mortality in children with acute myocarditis. Transplantation-free survival in children with acute viral myocarditis ranges from 70 to 75%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref> However, neonates and infants have significant mortality rates in up to 45% of the cases.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref></p>
<p>Patients with fulminant myocarditis are more likely to recover ventricular function after surviving the acute phase with cardiogenic shock.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>New horizons</title>
<p>New models of pathogen identification through metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) have contributed in the approach of myocarditis in large centers. In most studies with mNGS, it was observed that the identified viruses were not included in the routine viral panels.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref> These studies also reinforce the need of population research fronts specific for epidemiology and etiology of myocardites. The pursuit of etiopathogenic diagnosis will contribute to characterize outcomes and prognosis in specific populations, thus enabling to include investigations with vaccines and appropriate antiviral therapeutics.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusions</title>
<p>Myocarditis is characterized as a multifaceted disease able to promote different clinical pictures and outcomes. Numeral diagnostic and therapeutic technological advances have changed its natural history; however, epidemiological studies of clinical registries are essential to characterize the population in each country.</p>
<p>The Children and Adolescents Myocarditis and Cardiomyopathy Registry (ChARisMa), conducted by Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF) in Niter&#xF3;i, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with partner institutions and the support from the SBC Department of Heart Failure (<italic>Departamento de Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia</italic>, DEIC-SBC), aims to map and characterize pediatric and adolescent population with suspected or diagnosed myocarditis and cardiomyopathy. The obtained population data will contribute in guiding and developing protocols with educational, diagnostic, therapeutic, and follow-up measures.</p>
<p>Promoting research guidelines in diagnostic suspicion in childhood may contribute to better outcomes, not only in this population but also in the adult population with DCM of unknown etiology.</p>
</sec></body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
<p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This article is part of the thesis of Doctoral submitted by Ana Fl&#xE1;via Malheiros Torbey e Aurea L&#xFA;cia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de Souza, from Programa de P&#xF3;s-Gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Ci&#xEA;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn></fn-group>
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<article-title>Two Years of Viral Metagenomics in a Tertiary Diagnostics Unit: Evaluation of the First 105 Cases</article-title>
<source>Genes</source>
<year>2019</year>
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<pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/genes10090661</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>61. Kufner V, Plate A, Schmutz S, Braun DL, G&#xFC;nthard HF, Capaul R, et al. Two Years of Viral Metagenomics in a Tertiary Diagnostics Unit: Evaluation of the First 105 Cases. Genes. 2019;10(9):661. doi: 10.3390/genes10090661.</mixed-citation></ref>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revis&#xE3;o</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Miocardites Agudas na Inf&#xE2;ncia e Adolesc&#xEA;ncia na Era da COVID-19</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7935-7966</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Torbey</surname><given-names>Ana Fl&#xE1;via Malheiros</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5969-8226</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Souza</surname><given-names>Aurea L&#xFA;cia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5648-7813</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Bustamante</surname><given-names>Ana Catarina Dur&#xE1;n</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3496-6554</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Brand&#xE3;o</surname><given-names>Carmen Z.</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4916-130X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Abdallah</surname><given-names>Luan Rodrigues</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2343-291X</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Souza</surname><given-names>Yves P. D. March e</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Mesquita</surname><given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Niter&#xF3;i</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ - Brasil</institution></aff></contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Ana Fl&#xE1;via Malheiros Torbey</bold> &#x2022; Hospital Universit&#xE1;rio Ant&#xF4;nio Pedro, Faculdade de Medicina, Departamento Materno Infantil - Rua Marqu&#xEA;s de Paran&#xE1;, 303. CEP <postal-code>24033-900</postal-code>, Centro, Niter&#xF3;i, RJ - Brasil. E-mail: <email>anatorbey@id.uff.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="con">
<p><bold>Contribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos autores</bold></p>
<p>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante: Torbey AFM, Souza ALAAG, Mesquita ET; Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados: Torbey AFM, Souza ALAAG, Bustamante ACD, Brand&#xE3;o CZ, Abdallah LR, Souza YPDM; Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito: Torbey AFM, Souza ALAAG, Bustamante ACD, Brand&#xE3;o CZ, Abdallah LR, Souza YPDM, Mesquita ET.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesse</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn></author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>A miocardite em crian&#xE7;as e adolescentes &#xE9; uma doen&#xE7;a inflamat&#xF3;ria do mioc&#xE1;rdio com apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o heterog&#xEA;nea, podendo se mostrar oligossintom&#xE1;tica, sem comprometimento da fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o, ou com apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica catastr&#xF3;fica, com choque cardiog&#xEA;nico (miocardite fulminante) ou morte s&#xFA;bita. Dessa forma, a miocardite permanece um grande desafio dos pontos de vista diagn&#xF3;stico e terap&#xEA;utico. Apesar das diversas etiologias listadas, a forma mais frequente parece estar relacionada &#xE0;s doen&#xE7;as virais; atualmente, novas formas de miocardite, como as al&#xE9;rgicas (eosinof&#xED;lica e uso de f&#xE1;rmacos, em particular a imunoterapia do c&#xE2;ncer), t&#xEA;m sido descritas. Aumentar o &#xED;ndice de suspeita &#xE9; crucial. A dosagem dos n&#xED;veis s&#xE9;ricos de troponina e N-terminal do pept&#xED;deo natriur&#xE9;tico tipo B, bem como a utiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de m&#xE9;todos avan&#xE7;ados de cardioimagem, como ecocardiograma com <italic>strain</italic>, tomografia por emiss&#xE3;o de p&#xF3;sitrons e resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca, s&#xE3;o parte integral da avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o multimodal nos pacientes suspeitos. Apesar de a bi&#xF3;psia endomioc&#xE1;rdica permanecer o padr&#xE3;o ouro para diagn&#xF3;stico da doen&#xE7;a, a tend&#xEA;ncia, atualmente, &#xE9; realiz&#xE1;-la em situa&#xE7;&#xF5;es espec&#xED;ficas, como em apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica fulminante e miocardite cr&#xF4;nica ou redicivante. O manuseio inclui cuidados gerais de suporte, abordagem da insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca, controle das arritmias quando presentes, avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o de suporte mec&#xE2;nico e transplante card&#xED;aco. Tratamentos voltados &#xE0; imunossupress&#xE3;o e imunoterapia permanecem controversos. Neste artigo, propomos uma revis&#xE3;o ampla dos m&#xE9;todos de diagn&#xF3;stico e de tratamento, bem como as diferentes etiologias na faixa et&#xE1;ria pedi&#xE1;trica.</p></abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
<kwd>Miocardite</kwd>
<kwd>Cardiomiopatia</kwd>
<kwd>Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca</kwd>
<kwd>Crian&#xE7;as</kwd>
<kwd>Adolescentes</kwd></kwd-group></front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdu&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>A miocardite representa um grupo heterog&#xEA;neo de doen&#xE7;as inflamat&#xF3;rias do mioc&#xE1;rdio dos pontos de vista etiol&#xF3;gico, da resposta inflamat&#xF3;ria, do curso cl&#xED;nico e da resposta ao tratamento, apresentando elevada morbidade e mortalidade na popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o pedi&#xE1;trica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> &#xC9; considerada a causa mais comum de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca (IC) em crian&#xE7;as previamente h&#xED;gidas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> Sua apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica possui espectro de sinais e sintomas, variando desde casos oligossintom&#xE1;ticos at&#xE9; choque cardiog&#xEA;nico e morte s&#xFA;bita, o que constitui um desafio diagn&#xF3;stico na pediatria.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> A cardiomiopatia dilatada (CMD) &#xE9; uma grave complica&#xE7;&#xE3;o da miocardite, sendo uma causa comum de transplante card&#xED;aco na inf&#xE2;ncia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref></p>
<p>Este artigo tem como objetivo apresentar os avan&#xE7;os na &#xE1;rea de diagn&#xF3;stico e tratamento, propondo um algoritmo para auxiliar pediatras, m&#xE9;dicos de fam&#xED;lia e cardiologistas pediatras na abordagem de pacientes com miocardite.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Defini&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>A miocardite se caracteriza pela inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio associada a um processo de degenera&#xE7;&#xE3;o e necrose do mi&#xF3;cito, podendo ser focal ou difusa e podendo ocasionar disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca e/ou arritmias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Em 1995, foi classificada como cardiomiopatia inflamat&#xF3;ria pela Organiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o Mundial da Sa&#xFA;de, sendo seu diagn&#xF3;stico estabelecido atrav&#xE9;s de crit&#xE9;rios histopatol&#xF3;gicos, imunol&#xF3;gicos e imuno-histoqu&#xED;micos. Al&#xE9;m disso, podem estar envolvidas causas infecciosas, agentes t&#xF3;xicos, condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es autoimunes e autoinflamat&#xF3;rias e rea&#xE7;&#xF5;es al&#xE9;rgicas ou idiop&#xE1;ticas,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> caracterizando a natureza heterog&#xEA;nea da doen&#xE7;a.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Epidemiologia</title>
<p>A incid&#xEA;ncia e a preval&#xEA;ncia da miocardite s&#xE3;o de dif&#xED;cil determina&#xE7;&#xE3;o devido &#xE0; apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica variada da doen&#xE7;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Em um estudo populacional do tipo registro, realizado por Arola et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> na Finl&#xE2;ndia, observou-se uma incid&#xEA;ncia de miocardite de 1,95:100.000 pessoas/ano (considerando crian&#xE7;as e adolescentes de 0 a 15 anos de idade).</p>
<p>Apesar de rara, &#xE9; significativa,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> sendo que grande parte dos pacientes necessita de interna&#xE7;&#xE3;o em unidade de terapia intensiva e suportes ventilat&#xF3;rio e circulat&#xF3;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> A miocardite &#xE9; respons&#xE1;vel por 0,5 casos a cada 10.000 atendimentos em emerg&#xEA;ncia pedi&#xE1;trica;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref>no entanto, a frequ&#xEA;ncia verdadeira provavelmente &#xE9; maior do que a relatada devido a casos n&#xE3;o diagnosticados ou assintom&#xE1;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref></p>
<p>Em estudos internacionais, n&#xE3;o envolvendo pa&#xED;ses da am&#xE9;rica latina, a distribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o et&#xE1;ria de diagn&#xF3;stico da doen&#xE7;a &#xE9; bimodal, com um pico no primeiro ano de vida e outro aos 16 anos de idade. Em adolescentes, ad oen&#xE7;a &#xE9; mais frequente no sexo masculino (81%) do que no sexo feminino.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Ainda segundo o trabalho de Arola et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> a incid&#xEA;ncia entre adolescentes do sexo masculino pode atingir at&#xE9; 18,1:100.000 pessoas/ano. Esse aumento da incid&#xEA;ncia entre adolescentes do sexo masculino pode ser justificado pela presen&#xE7;a da testosterona.</p>
<p>Embora o desfecho seja favor&#xE1;vel em cerca de 50% dos pacientes, a morbimortalidade permanece significativa. Sequelas e evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o cr&#xF4;nica ocorrem em aproximadamente 30% dos casos, com 80% dos casos de cardiomiopatia cr&#xF4;nica levando a transplante card&#xED;aco ou morte.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> Em estudos de aut&#xF3;psia em pacientes pedi&#xE1;tricos, observa-se a miocardite como causa de &#xF3;bito em at&#xE9; 2% dos casos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> Em um estudo recente de aut&#xF3;psia pedi&#xE1;trica, 1,8% dos pacientes apresentou evid&#xEA;ncias histol&#xF3;gicas compat&#xED;veis com miocardite, sendo que, desses, 57% apresentaram morte s&#xFA;bita e 54% eram crian&#xE7;as com menos de 1 ano de idade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
<p>A miocardite &#xE9; respons&#xE1;vel por 30 a 35% das crian&#xE7;as com fen&#xF3;tipo de CMD nos registros da Austr&#xE1;lia e da Am&#xE9;rica do Norte e por 22% da disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular esquerda de in&#xED;cio recente no Reino Unido.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
<p>A miocardite em crian&#xE7;as est&#xE1; associada a altas taxas de IC, hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o, perman&#xEA;ncia em unidade de terapia intensiva e uso de suporte inotr&#xF3;pico no momento do diagn&#xF3;stico em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com crian&#xE7;as com CMD idiop&#xE1;tica. Um estudo recente de pacientes hospitalizados nos Estados Unidos demonstrou que quase metade dos pacientes necessitava de suporte inotr&#xF3;pico, 37,5% necessitavam de ventila&#xE7;&#xE3;o mec&#xE2;nica e 7,4% necessitavam de suporte de oxigenador de membrana extracorp&#xF3;rea (ECMO).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref></p>
<p>A mortalidade na fase aguda varia de 7 a 15 % dos casos, sendo a miocardite uma importante causa de CMD e transplante card&#xED;aco em crian&#xE7;as sem cardiopatia cong&#xEA;nita, que correspondem a 80% dos casos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Fisiopatologia</title>
<p>Embora a patog&#xEA;nese da miocardite dependa da sua etiologia, muito do que se compreende sobre a doen&#xE7;a se deve a modelos experimentais de cobaias infectadas com o coxsackievirus.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> Na miocardite viral, &#xE9; proposta a exist&#xEA;ncia de tr&#xEA;s fases. Inicialmente, ocorre um per&#xED;odo de replica&#xE7;&#xE3;o viral, causando les&#xE3;o aguda do mi&#xF3;cito e consequente evolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o para CMD, que est&#xE1; associada a altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es na matrix extracelular do tecido mioc&#xE1;rdico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref>.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Etiologia</title>
<p>Um amplo espectro de causas infecciosas, imunomediadas e de hipersensibilidade a medicamentos, drogas e toxinas est&#xE3;o envolvidas na etiologia da miocardite.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> A maioria dos casos na popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o pedi&#xE1;trica &#xE9; causada por infec&#xE7;&#xF5;es virais, principalmente por adenov&#xED;rus, citomegalov&#xED;rus, v&#xED;rus Epstein-Barr e enterov&#xED;rus, sendo o v&#xED;rus coxsackie tipo B o principal. Entretanto, com o advento de novas modalidades diagn&#xF3;sticas, incluindo a rea&#xE7;&#xE3;o em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) e a bi&#xF3;psia endomioc&#xE1;rdica (BEM), detectaram-se outros v&#xED;rus, incluindo o parvov&#xED;rus B19 e o herpesv&#xED;rus humano tipo 6, em v&#xE1;rios pacientes com miocardite comprovada por bi&#xF3;psia em estudos europeus.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Podem estar envolvidos, tamb&#xE9;m, os arbov&#xED;rus Chikungunya, dengue e Zika v&#xED;rus.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> Recentemente, foram documentados casos de miocardite devido a infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o pelo H1N1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref></p>
<p>Assim, exposi&#xE7;&#xF5;es infecciosas, especialmente v&#xED;rus, s&#xE3;o respons&#xE1;veis pela grande maioria das miocardites pedi&#xE1;tricas no Canad&#xE1; e nos Estados Unidos,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> enquanto a causa mais comum globalmente &#xE9; o <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic>. Na Am&#xE9;rica Latina, devemos ressaltar que a miocardite chag&#xE1;sica pode acometer crian&#xE7;as e adolescentes em &#xE1;reas end&#xEA;micas e, do ponto de vista migrat&#xF3;rio, pacientes provenientes dessas &#xE1;reas podem ser diagnosticados na Am&#xE9;rica do Norte, Europa e &#xC1;sia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>Atualmente, diante da pandemia causada pela doen&#xE7;a do coronav&#xED;rus 2019 (COVID-19), casos de miocardite relacionados ao coronav&#xED;rus 2 da s&#xED;ndrome respirat&#xF3;ria aguda grave (SARS-CoV-2) t&#xEA;m sido descritos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Na pediatria, a miocardite tem se mostrado relacionada a quadros de s&#xED;ndrome inflamat&#xF3;ria multissist&#xEA;mica e associada a sinais cl&#xED;nicos da doen&#xE7;a de Kawasaki.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref> Nesses casos, a eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o da troponina &#xE9; um dos principais marcadores do envolvimento mioc&#xE1;rdico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref> Dolhnikof et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref> demonstraram a presen&#xE7;a de part&#xED;culas de SARS-CoV-2 no tecido mioc&#xE1;rdico atrav&#xE9;s de estudo com microscopia eletr&#xF4;nica e detec&#xE7;&#xE3;o de RNA viral com transcri&#xE7;&#xE3;o reversa seguida de PCR (RT-PCR). A s&#xED;ndrome inflamat&#xF3;ria multissist&#xEA;mica em crian&#xE7;as ocorre algumas semanas ap&#xF3;s a infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o pelo SARS-CoV-2, podendo, portanto, o paciente apresentar sinais de IC aguda e RT-PCR negativo para o SARS-CoV-2, associados a eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa da troponina e de marcadores inflamat&#xF3;rios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref></p>
<p>A miocardite autoimune pode ser uma condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o isolada, como na miocardite de c&#xE9;lulas gigantes e eosinof&#xED;lica, ou fazer parte de uma doen&#xE7;a sist&#xEA;mica, como l&#xFA;pus eritematoso sist&#xEA;mico, s&#xED;ndrome de Sj&#xF6;gren, vasculite e polimiosite.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> Nos quadros de miocardite autoimune, h&#xE1; infiltrado linfocit&#xE1;rio, sugerindo importante participa&#xE7;&#xE3;o das c&#xE9;lulas T.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> Simpson et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref> demonstraram evid&#xEA;ncias do mecanismo autoimune em crian&#xE7;as com quadro cl&#xED;nico de miocardite atrav&#xE9;s da presen&#xE7;a de eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa de anticorpos antimiosina card&#xED;aca humana.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref></p>
<p>Al&#xE9;m da quimioterapia e radioterapia utilizadas no tratamento para o c&#xE2;ncer infantil, as novas terapias com imunoterapia &#x2013; inibidores do <italic>checkpoint</italic> &#x2013; caracterizam riscos potenciais para toxicidade card&#xED;aca e est&#xE3;o relacionadas a casos de miocardite.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> Esses pacientes devem receber aten&#xE7;&#xE3;o especial, pois podem cursar incialmente com ecocardiograma normal, podendo ser necess&#xE1;rios m&#xE9;todos diagn&#xF3;sticos mais complexos para confirma&#xE7;&#xE3;o da inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o mioc&#xE1;rdica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 1</xref> mostra as diversas causas de miocardite.</p>
<table-wrap id="t3">
<label>Tabela 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Etiologia da miocardite na inf&#xE2;ncia e na adolesc&#xEA;ncia</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="33%">
<col/>
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th valign="middle" align="left">Etiologia</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center" colspan="2">Exemplos</th></tr></thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left" rowspan="4">Infecciosa</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">V&#xED;rus</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Adenov&#xED;rus, echov&#xED;rus, enterov&#xED;rus (coxsackie), herpes (citomegalov&#xED;rus, v&#xED;rus Epstein-Barr, herpesv&#xED;rus humano tipo 6), hepatite C, HIV, H1N1, parvov&#xED;rus B19, arbov&#xED;rus (dengue, Chikungunya e Zika v&#xED;rus), SARS-CoV-2</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Bact&#xE9;rias</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Clam&#xED;dia, <italic>Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Klebsiella, Salmonella, Legionella, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, micoplasma, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus A, Streptococcus pneumonia, Tryponema pallidum, Haemophilus influenzae</italic></td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Fungos</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><italic>Actinomyces, Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptococcus</italic></td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Protozo&#xE1;rios</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma cruzi</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Autoimune</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2">Doen&#xE7;a cel&#xED;aca, s&#xED;ndrome de Churg-Strauss, dermatomiosite, miocardite de c&#xE9;lulas gigantes, s&#xED;ndrome hipereosinof&#xED;lica, doen&#xE7;a de Kawasaki, l&#xFA;pus eritematoso sist&#xEA;mico, miocardite linfofolicular, artrite reumatoide, sarcoidose, colite ulcerativa, esclerodermia</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Rea&#xE7;&#xF5;es de hipersensibilidade</td>
<td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2">Penicilina, ampicilina, cefalosporina, tetraciclinas, sulfonamidas, benzodiazep&#xED;nicos, clozapina, diur&#xE9;ticos tiaz&#xED;dicos e de al&#xE7;a, metildopa, toxina tet&#xE2;nica, vacina varicela, antidepressivos</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"/>
<td valign="middle" align="left" colspan="2">Anfetaminas, antraciclinas, catecolaminas, coca&#xED;na, ciclofosfamida, fenito&#xED;na, transtuzamabe, amitriptilina, anfotericina B, <italic>cannabis</italic>, mon&#xF3;xido de carbono, choque el&#xE9;trico, etanol, Hymenoptera, isoniazida, lidoca&#xED;na, metildopa, veneno de cobra e escorpi&#xE3;o</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN3">
<p>HIV: v&#xED;rus da imunodefici&#xEA;ncia humana; SARS-CoV-2: coronav&#xED;rus 2 da s&#xED;ndrome respirat&#xF3;ria aguda grave.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica</title>
<p>O diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite pedi&#xE1;trica permanece um desafio devido ao quadro cl&#xED;nico vari&#xE1;vel da doen&#xE7;a, desde pacientes assintom&#xE1;ticos com apenas achados sutis no eletrocardiograma (ECG) at&#xE9; IC fulminante e morte s&#xFA;bita <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref>. Assim, &#xE9; necess&#xE1;ria suspeita cl&#xED;nica inicial para que o diagn&#xF3;stico seja confirmado, principalmente nos casos oligossintom&#xE1;ticos.</p>
<p>Estudos como os de Rodriguez-Gonzales et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> e Durani et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> mostram que, na maioria dos pacientes, o diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite n&#xE3;o &#xE9; feito na avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o inicial (59 a 83%), sendo necess&#xE1;ria mais de uma avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o m&#xE9;dica at&#xE9; que o diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite ou CMD seja realizado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Nos estudos, as crian&#xE7;as frequentemente recebiam um diagn&#xF3;stico inicial de doen&#xE7;a respirat&#xF3;ria (bronquiolite, asma ou pneumonia) ou infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o gastrointestinal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref></p>
<p>A apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica tamb&#xE9;m varia com a idade do paciente. Os neonatos e lactentes podem apresentar sintomas inespec&#xED;ficos sugestivos de infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o, incluindo febre, hipoatividade e dificuldade de suc&#xE7;&#xE3;o, ou podem apresentar sinais mais graves, como apneia, cianose e choque cardiog&#xEA;nico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
<p>Em crian&#xE7;as mais velhas e em adolescentes, as manifesta&#xE7;&#xF5;es cl&#xED;nicas tamb&#xE9;m podem ser diferentes. A maioria das crian&#xE7;as apresenta queixas respirat&#xF3;rias ou gastrointestinais inespec&#xED;ficas; apenas uma minoria relata dor no peito. Os sinais de miocardite mais frequentemente relatados s&#xE3;o sintomas inespec&#xED;ficos, como falta de ar (69%), v&#xF4;mitos (48%) ou dificuldade alimentar (40%). A morte s&#xFA;bita pode ocorrer em alguns casos de miocardite.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> Todo paciente com in&#xED;cio recente de IC ou arritmia deve ter a miocardite considerada como poss&#xED;vel diagn&#xF3;stico.</p>
<p>A apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica da miocardite pode ser categorizada em s&#xED;ndromes cl&#xED;nicas como dor tor&#xE1;cica, IC com fen&#xF3;tipo de CMD ou miocardite fulminante, arritmias e morte s&#xFA;bita.</p>
<p><underline>Dor tor&#xE1;cica:</underline> dor tor&#xE1;cica intensa, semelhante ao infarto agudo do mioc&#xE1;rdio, associada a altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es eletrocardiogr&#xE1;ficas t&#xED;picas e eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o de biomarcadores como troponina e pept&#xED;deo natriur&#xE9;tico cerebral (BNP).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Geralmente, h&#xE1; comprometimento peric&#xE1;rdico associado, por&#xE9;m com fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> Nesses pacientes, &#xE9; preciso assegurar que as coron&#xE1;rias n&#xE3;o apresentem altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es anat&#xF4;micas adquiridas ou cong&#xEA;nitas atrav&#xE9;s de exames de imagem como ecocardiograma e angiotomografia de coron&#xE1;rias.</p>
<p><underline>Morte s&#xFA;bita:</underline> a morte s&#xFA;bita na popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o pedi&#xE1;trica, apesar de ser um evento raro, &#xE9; comumente associada &#xE0; miocardite,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> podendo ser a apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o inicial da doen&#xE7;a. Nesses casos, o diagn&#xF3;stico &#xE9; feito histologicamente, em que um processo inflamat&#xF3;rio infiltrativo se torna foco arritmog&#xEA;nico, gerando uma arritmia fatal, ou atrav&#xE9;s de cardioimagem ap&#xF3;s um evento de morte s&#xFA;bita abortado. A miocardite &#xE9; respons&#xE1;vel por aproximadamente 9% das mortes s&#xFA;bitas em jovens atletas nos Estados Unidos nos quais um evento cardiovascular confirmado foi documentado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref></p>
<sec>
<title>1. Arritmias</title>
<p>Sintomas como palpita&#xE7;&#xF5;es e s&#xED;ncope ocorrem em pacientes pedi&#xE1;tricos com miocardite, mesmo na aus&#xEA;ncia de IC ou de redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o demonstr&#xE1;vel da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular esquerda.</p>
<p>A taquicardia sinusal em repouso tamb&#xE9;m &#xE9; uma caracter&#xED;stica sutil importante e, embora nem sempre seja um achado consistente, pode ser o &#xFA;nico achado das formas leves.</p>
<p>A presen&#xE7;a de arritmias ventriculares em cora&#xE7;&#xF5;es estruturalmente normais e taquiarritmias ventriculares em atletas tem sido associada &#xE0; miocardite.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> A miocardite deve sempre ser considerada em uma crian&#xE7;a com bloqueio card&#xED;aco completo adquirido. A cardite de Lyme e a doen&#xE7;a de Chagas t&#xEA;m sido associadas a bloqueio card&#xED;aco completo. A maioria recupera, por&#xE9;m em alguns casos o implante do marcapasso pode ser necess&#xE1;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>2. IC com fen&#xF3;tipo de CMD</title>
<p>A apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o mais cl&#xE1;ssica do quadro de miocardite &#xE9; o aparecimento de sintomas de IC em um fen&#xF3;tipo de CMD algumas semanas ap&#xF3;s uma hist&#xF3;ria compat&#xED;vel com uma doen&#xE7;a viral. Sintomas respirat&#xF3;rios e gastrointestinais e mialgia s&#xE3;o caracter&#xED;sticos dessa fase, podendo a febre estar ou n&#xE3;o presente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref></p>
<p>Sinais de IC congestiva s&#xE3;o observados na grande maioria dos pacientes,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> variando na gravidade dos sintomas de acordo com o grau de inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o do mioc&#xE1;rdio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Geralmente, s&#xE3;o observadas taquidispneia, taquicardia, altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es na ausculta card&#xED;aca e respirat&#xF3;ria e hepatomegalia, acompanhadas de sinais de baixo d&#xE9;bito card&#xED;aco.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>3. A miocardite aguda fulminante</title>
<p>&#xC9; um subconjunto distinto de miocardite aguda caracterizada por IC com comprometimento hemodin&#xE2;mico grave que requer suporte circulat&#xF3;rio mec&#xE2;nico ou inotr&#xF3;pico em pelo menos dois dos seguintes crit&#xE9;rios: febre, in&#xED;cio distinto dos sintomas de IC dentro de um per&#xED;odo de 1 a 2 dias e hist&#xF3;ria consistente com doen&#xE7;a viral nas 2 semanas antes da hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o. A miocardite fulminante est&#xE1; associada a sintomas de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular esquerda significativa e IC inesperada dentro de 2 a 3 semanas ap&#xF3;s o in&#xED;cio da infec&#xE7;&#xE3;o viral.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> A miocardite fulminante representa de 10 a 38% de todos os casos de miocardite,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> tendo sido descrita em crian&#xE7;as com mortalidade variando de 48,4, no Jap&#xE3;o, a 9%, na Fran&#xE7;a. Apesar da apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o severa, os resultados s&#xE3;o substancialmente melhores do que em adultos com miocardite aguda. Em crian&#xE7;as que se apresentam com choque cardiog&#xEA;nico, arritmia ventricular ou bloqueio atrioventricular ser&#xE1; necess&#xE1;ria a estabiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o com suporte circulat&#xF3;rio mec&#xE2;nico (MCS), como a oxigena&#xE7;&#xE3;o por membrana extracorp&#xF3;rea (ECMO). Nos pacientes que n&#xE3;o respondem ap&#xF3;s o per&#xED;odo de 1 a 2 semanas, deve-se considerar a realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o da bi&#xF3;psia endomioc&#xE1;rdica (BEM) a fim de se afastar miocardite por c&#xE9;lulas gigantes que apresenta resposta ao tratamento com imunossupress&#xE3;o, apesar de ter progn&#xF3;stico reservado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Diagn&#xF3;stico</title>
<p>O diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite &#xE9; especialmente desafiador devido &#xE0; variabilidade de apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica da doen&#xE7;a, observando-se desde pacientes assintom&#xE1;ticos com apenas achados sutis no ECG at&#xE9; IC fulminante e morte s&#xFA;bita. O diagn&#xF3;stico permanece, em grande parte, baseado no alto grau de suspeita cl&#xED;nica, apoiado em biomarcadores como a troponina card&#xED;aca e o BNP e t&#xE9;cnicas avan&#xE7;adas de cardioimagem, como o eco-Doppler tecidual e a resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca, sendo a BEM considerada o padr&#xE3;o outro para o diagn&#xF3;stico. As caracter&#xED;sticas cl&#xED;nicas s&#xE3;o, geralmente, as de IC, sendo a causa mais comum de IC de in&#xED;cio recente em crian&#xE7;as h&#xED;gidas. Pacientes com sintomas leves correm risco de deteriora&#xE7;&#xE3;o e, portanto, o diagn&#xF3;stico precoce &#xE9; importante no estabelecimento de monitoramento e cuidados de suporte adequados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref></p>
<p>Ap&#xF3;s a suspeita cl&#xED;nica, baseada em anamnese e exame f&#xED;sico, inicia-se a investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o com os exames complementares. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 2</xref> e a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 1</xref> resumem as principais ferramentas diagn&#xF3;sticas e os poss&#xED;veis achados.</p>
<table-wrap id="t4">
<label>Tabela 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Principais ferramentas diagn&#xF3;sticas nas miocardites agudas em crian&#xE7;as e adolescentes</title></caption>
<table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
<colgroup width="50%">
<col/>
<col/></colgroup>
<thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<th valign="middle" align="left">Ferramentas de investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o</th>
<th valign="middle" align="center">Poss&#xED;veis achados</th></tr></thead>
<tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Anamnese</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Sintomas t&#xED;picos de resfriado/gripe, gastroenterite, picada de insetos, hist&#xF3;ria familiar de cardiomiopatia e dor precordial. In&#xED;cio recente de sinais de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca ou arritmia em crian&#xE7;a previamente h&#xED;gida.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Exame f&#xED;sico</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Taquicardia em repouso e sinais cl&#xED;nicos de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Biomarcadores</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o de troponina e do BNP.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Radiografia de t&#xF3;rax</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Imagem sugestiva de aumento da &#xE1;rea card&#xED;aca, congest&#xE3;o pulmonar, derrame pleural e infiltrado pulmonar.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Eletrocardiograma</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Taquicardia sinusal, hipertrofia ventricular, anormalidades do segmento ST e da onda T, arritmias, BAV, prolongamento do segmento QT e baixa voltagem do complexo QRS.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Ecocardiograma</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Aumento da dimens&#xE3;o telessist&#xF3;lica ou diast&#xF3;lica do ventr&#xED;culo, anormalidade da motilidade da parede, espessamento septal ou ventricular, redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o, regurgita&#xE7;&#xE3;o valvar e presen&#xE7;a de trombos.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Cintilografia com g&#xE1;lio</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Capta&#xE7;&#xE3;o do g&#xE1;lio.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Resson&#xE2;ncia nuclear magn&#xE9;tica</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Edema, inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o e necrose/fibrose do tecido card&#xED;aco.</td></tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left">Bi&#xF3;psia do mioc&#xE1;rdio</td>
<td valign="middle" align="center">Presen&#xE7;a de infiltrado linfocit&#xE1;rio, edema e necrose das c&#xE9;lulas musculares card&#xED;acas, pesquisa de PCR viral.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<fn id="TFN4">
<p>BAV: bloqueio atrioventricular; BNP: pept&#xED;deo natriur&#xE9;tico cerebral.</p></fn></table-wrap-foot></table-wrap>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Fluxograma diagn&#xF3;stico para paciente pedi&#xE1;trico com suspeita de miocardite.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0044-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>ECG</title>
<p>Em crian&#xE7;as com miocardite, o ECG est&#xE1; alterado em pelo menos 93% dos pacientes,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> embora o ECG normal n&#xE3;o exclua o diagn&#xF3;stico da doen&#xE7;a. As altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es s&#xE3;oinespec&#xED;ficas e variam desde taquicardia sinusal at&#xE9; arritmias ventriculares, podendo haver baixa voltagem do complexo QRS, bloqueio do &#xE1;trio ventricular e altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es do segmento ST e do intervalo QT.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Biomarcadores</title>
<p>Os n&#xED;veis de marcadores de atividade inflamat&#xF3;ria, como velocidade de hemossedimenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o e prote&#xED;na C-reativa, frequentemente est&#xE3;o elevados, podendo tamb&#xE9;m haver leucocitose, embora n&#xED;veis normais n&#xE3;o descartem o diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>N&#xED;veis anormais de troponina podem apoiar o diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite. A troponina T pode fornecer melhor sensibilidade para detec&#xE7;&#xE3;o de micronecrose na miocardite devido a uma eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o proporcionalmente mais alta e mais duradoura dos seus n&#xED;veis s&#xE9;ricos quando comparada com a creatina quinase.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref> Acredita-se que a BEM deva ser realizada no momento em que a troponina se apresente elevada, pois h&#xE1; melhores chances em demostrar o infiltrado inflamat&#xF3;rio mioc&#xE1;rdico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref></p>
<p>Soongswang et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> demostraram que a troponina T apresenta boa sensibilidade (71%) e especificidade (86%) para o diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite aguda em crian&#xE7;as. Al&#xE9;m disso, a troponina T se mostrou mais elevada em pacientes com miocardite quando comparada em pacientes portadores de CMD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> No entanto, &#xE9; importante ressaltar que, na pr&#xE1;tica cl&#xED;nica, os valores de troponina T e I utilizam diferentes m&#xE9;todos, sendo fundamental que sejam conhecidos os valores de corte para os respectivos kits de testagem na institui&#xE7;&#xE3;o na qual o paciente &#xE9; atendido.</p>
<p>N&#xED;veis elevados de pept&#xED;deo natriur&#xE9;tico [BNP e N-terminal do pept&#xED;deo natriur&#xE9;tico tipo B (NT-proBNP)] podem estar presentes na miocardite e s&#xE3;o &#xFA;teis para a determina&#xE7;&#xE3;o da etiologia card&#xED;aca em crian&#xE7;as com sintomas respirat&#xF3;rios.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> Rodriguez-Gonzalez et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> demonstraram que n&#xED;veis NT-proBNP &#x3E; 5.000 pg/mL est&#xE3;o associados a um pior progn&#xF3;stico em crian&#xE7;as com miocardite.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Radiografia de t&#xF3;rax</title>
<p>Os achados das radiografias de t&#xF3;rax geralmente incluem aumento da &#xE1;rea card&#xED;aca &#xE0; custa do aumento dos di&#xE2;metros do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo (VE) e/ou derrame peric&#xE1;rdico<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> e podem demonstrar congest&#xE3;o e edema pulmonar, infiltrados ou derrames pleurais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Ecocardiograma</title>
<p>Os achados ecocardiogr&#xE1;ficos t&#xED;picos da miocardite s&#xE3;o o aumento dos di&#xE2;metros sist&#xF3;lico e diast&#xF3;lico do VE e a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o das fra&#xE7;&#xF5;es de encurtamento ou eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o do VE, caracterizando o fen&#xF3;tipo de CMD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> A regurgita&#xE7;&#xE3;o valvar atrioventricular e as anormalidades segmentares da motilidade das paredes ventriculares, bem como o derrame peric&#xE1;rdico, tamb&#xE9;m podem ser observados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> Altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es na fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do ventr&#xED;culo direito (VD) podem estar associadas a uma maior probabilidade de resultados adversos, incluindo transplante card&#xED;aco ou morte.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
<p>A miocardite fulminante pode ser caracterizada por aumento da espessura do septo interventricular devido a edema intersticial e dimens&#xF5;es do VE pr&#xF3;ximas do normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> Esses pacientes possuem um melhor prognostico na recupera&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do VE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> Fen&#xF3;tipos de cardiomiopatia hipertr&#xF3;fica e restritiva j&#xE1; foram descritos em pacientes com diagn&#xF3;stico confirmado de miocardite por estudo histopatol&#xF3;gico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>O uso de Doppler tecidual e <italic>strain</italic> ventricular tamb&#xE9;m contribuem para o diagn&#xF3;stico da miocardite.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> Entretanto, o valor diagn&#xF3;stico do ecocardiograma &#xE9; limitado, j&#xE1; que muitos pacientes com quadro leve de miocardite podem apresentar exame normal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> O ECO tamb&#xE9;m &#xE9; importante para descartar outras causas de IC, principalmente anormalidades coron&#xE1;rias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Medicina nuclear</title>
<p>A presen&#xE7;a de inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca pode ser demonstrada atrav&#xE9;s de estudo por cintilografia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> Em crian&#xE7;as com CMD, a cintilografia card&#xED;aca com g&#xE1;lio 67 pode ser utilizada para a detec&#xE7;&#xE3;o de miocardite, apresentando alta sensibilidade (87%) e especificidade (81%) quando comparada &#xE0; BEM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> No entanto, essa t&#xE9;cnica n&#xE3;o &#xE9; realizada com frequ&#xEA;ncia em crian&#xE7;as com suspeita de miocardite.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca</title>
<p>A resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica cardiovascular &#xE9; uma ferramenta amplamente aceita na investiga&#xE7;&#xE3;o do paciente com suspeita de miocardite, tendo se tornado o m&#xE9;todo diagn&#xF3;stico n&#xE3;o invasivo de escolha para o diagn&#xF3;stico da miocardite.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> Na pediatria, al&#xE9;m de contribuir para o diagn&#xF3;stico, &#xE9; capaz de contribuir no progn&#xF3;stico, principalmente nos casos de miocardite fulminante.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Martinez-Villar et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref> demonstraram a contribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o da resson&#xE2;ncia no diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite em adolescentes com apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o do tipo infarto.</p>
<p>Essa t&#xE9;cnica permite uma avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o detalhada das dimens&#xF5;es e da espessura das paredes ventriculares e da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca, al&#xE9;m de fornecer dados sobre o tecido mioc&#xE1;rdico que demonstrem a presen&#xE7;a de edema, inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o e fibrose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> O edema &#xE9; visto atrav&#xE9;s do aprimoramento da imagem ponderada em T2, enquanto o realce precoce na imagem ponderada em T1 est&#xE1; relacionado &#xE0; hiperemia. Por outro lado, o realce tardio com o gadol&#xED;nio traduz a presen&#xE7;a de fibrose, a qual se caracteriza por n&#xE3;o ser restrita a um territ&#xF3;rio vascular, sendo geralmente mesomural e subepic&#xE1;rdica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> As <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figuras 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">3</xref> ilustram essas altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es. A resson&#xE2;ncia card&#xED;aca tamb&#xE9;m &#xE9; capaz de identificar altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es segmentares nas paredes ventriculares, mais comumente nas paredes inferolateral e basal.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref></p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca mostra edema de mioc&#xE1;rdio em paredes &#xE2;ntero-lateral basal e medial. (A) Derrame, espessamento e realce peric&#xE1;rdico mais evidentes junto aos segmentos basais dos ventr&#xED;culos direito e esquerdo. (B) O aspecto &#xE9; sugestivo de miopericardite recente ou em atividade.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0044-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Presen&#xE7;a de realce tardio at&#xED;pico para doen&#xE7;a coron&#xE1;ria, de padr&#xE3;o heterog&#xEA;neo, poupando o endoc&#xE1;rdio localizado nos segmentos anteriores &#xE2;ntero-septais e inferiores. Compat&#xED;vel com necrose/fibrose de origem n&#xE3;o isqu&#xEA;mica (miocardite).</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0044-gf03-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>Friedrich et al. publicaram, em 2009, o Consenso para resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica cardiovascular para as cardiomiopatias inflamat&#xF3;rias &#x2013; os crit&#xE9;rios de Lake Louise &#x2013;, no qual a presen&#xE7;a de edema, hiperemia e necrose/fibrose &#xE9; avaliada atrav&#xE9;s de imagens ponderadas em T2 e realces precoce e tardio com gadol&#xED;nio. A presen&#xE7;a de dois ou mais crit&#xE9;rios sugere fortemente a presen&#xE7;a de miocardite,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> com sensibilidade de 67% e especificidade de 91%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref> A precis&#xE3;o diagn&#xF3;stica pode ser melhorada com a avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o mioc&#xE1;rdica em T1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Dessa forma, o uso do mapeamento em T1 junto a imagens ponderadas em T2 ou realce tardio com gadol&#xED;nio elevam a acur&#xE1;cia diagn&#xF3;stica para 96%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref></p>
<p>Outros achados inespec&#xED;ficos de miocardite incluem altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es regionais na motilidade das paredes ventriculares, redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o mioc&#xE1;rdica e derrame peric&#xE1;rdico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref></p>
<p>Al&#xE9;m do diagn&#xF3;stico da miocardite, a resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica pode fornecer informa&#xE7;&#xF5;es sobre a progress&#xE3;o e resolu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da doen&#xE7;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Bi&#xF3;psia endomioc&#xE1;rdica (BEM)</title>
<p>A demonstra&#xE7;&#xE3;o histopatol&#xF3;gica definida pelos crit&#xE9;rios de Dallas, propostos em 1986,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref> continua sendo necess&#xE1;ria para o diagn&#xF3;stico definitivo de miocardite, assim como a BEM permanece o exame padr&#xE3;o ouro.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> A BEM demonstra a etiologia da miocardite, pois as altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es infecciosas, inflamat&#xF3;rias, t&#xF3;xicas, infiltrativas e autoimunes ocorrem a n&#xED;vel celular, e os m&#xE9;todos n&#xE3;o invasivos n&#xE3;o s&#xE3;o capazes de demonstr&#xE1;-las.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> Apesar de apresentar alguns fatores que limitam sua realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de forma rotineira,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> a indica&#xE7;&#xE3;o da BEM se justifica pelo fato de doen&#xE7;as inflamat&#xF3;rias espec&#xED;ficas do mioc&#xE1;rdio terem tratamento &#xFA;nico, impactando no progn&#xF3;stico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref> Esse &#xE9; o caso do tratamento das miocardites mediadas por processo imune, que diferem das miocardites virais e dificilmente s&#xE3;o diagnosticadas por m&#xE9;todos n&#xE3;o invasivos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></p>
<p>O procedimento da BEM, embora raramente, pode estar relacionado a algumas complica&#xE7;&#xF5;es, como tamponamento card&#xED;aco e bloqueio atrioventricular com necessidade de marca-passo tempor&#xE1;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref> Em pacientes pedi&#xE1;tricos, o risco geral de complica&#xE7;&#xF5;es &#xE9; relativamente baixo, podendo variar de 1 a 6%,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> e est&#xE1; diretamente relacionado &#xE0; condi&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica do paciente, &#xE0; experi&#xEA;ncia da equipe m&#xE9;dica na realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o do procedimento e &#xE0; disponibilidade de cirurgia card&#xED;aca caso necess&#xE1;rio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> A mortalidade varia de 0 a 0,4%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Assim, o risco/benef&#xED;cio da bi&#xF3;psia deve ser avaliado individualmente.</p>
<p>Os crit&#xE9;rios de Dallas possuem sensibilidade para o diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite de cerca de 55%. No entanto, a utiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o da imuno-histoqu&#xED;mica e do PCR para pesquisa viral eleva a sensibilidade do diagn&#xF3;stico atrav&#xE9;s da BEM,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> j&#xE1; que alguns trabalhos demonstraram presen&#xE7;a de v&#xED;rus na aus&#xEA;ncia dos crit&#xE9;rios de Dallas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14"><sup>14</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
<p>A realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de BEM em ambos os ventr&#xED;culos aumenta a sensibilidade para o diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> O diagn&#xF3;stico pode ser potencializado com o uso conjunto de BEM e resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica, pois a resson&#xE2;ncia pode direcionar o melhor local para a realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de BEM quando houver presen&#xE7;a de les&#xF5;es focais no VD ou no VE1.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref></p>
<p>Em 2007, a <italic>American Heart Association</italic> (AHA), a <italic>American College Of Cardiology Foundation</italic> (ACCF) e a <italic>European Society of Cardiology</italic> (ESC), em publica&#xE7;&#xE3;o conjunta, definiram como classe I de recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o para realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de BEM dois de 14 cen&#xE1;rios: IC inexplicada associada a comprometimento hemodin&#xE2;mico de in&#xED;cio recente com dura&#xE7;&#xE3;o de menos de 2 semanas; ou IC inexplicada de in&#xED;cio recente, com dura&#xE7;&#xE3;o de 2 semanas a 3 meses, associada a dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o, arritmias ventriculares ou dist&#xFA;rbio da condu&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> No entanto, a ESC recentemente inclui a presen&#xE7;a de pseudoinfarto como recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o para realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de BEM ap&#xF3;s a exclus&#xE3;o de doen&#xE7;a coronariana.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref>Na popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o pedi&#xE1;trica, a presen&#xE7;a de cardiomiopatia inexplicada recebe recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o IIa para a realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o da BEM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></p>
<p>De acordo com os crit&#xE9;rios de Dallas, a miocardite aguda &#xE9; definida pela presen&#xE7;a de infiltrados linfocit&#xE1;rios em associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o com a necrose de mi&#xF3;citos, enquanto a miocardite lim&#xED;trofe &#xE9; caracterizada por infiltrado inflamat&#xF3;rio na aus&#xEA;ncia de necrose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Tratamento</title>
<p>A abordagem terap&#xEA;utica da miocardite na inf&#xE2;ncia e na adolesc&#xEA;ncia ainda permanece controversa e baseia-se, principalmente, no tratamento de suporte.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> No entanto, um tratamento espec&#xED;fico pode ser necess&#xE1;rio de acordo com o resultado obtido atrav&#xE9;s da BEM e com a apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica e o progn&#xF3;stico da doen&#xE7;a.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Medidas gerais</title>
<p>Consistem no tratamento da IC e das arritmias e na preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o da morte s&#xFA;bita a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do consumo de oxig&#xEA;nio pelo mioc&#xE1;rdio, o tratamento da anemia e a restri&#xE7;&#xE3;o h&#xED;drica e do consumo de sal, com controle rigoroso do balan&#xE7;o h&#xED;drico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item>
<p>Limita&#xE7;&#xE3;o de atividade f&#xED;sica/repouso: atividades competitivas devem ser suspensas em at&#xE9; 6 meses, desde que a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular seja normal e n&#xE3;o haja evid&#xEA;ncias de arritmias com relev&#xE2;ncia cl&#xED;nica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p></list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Tratamento da IC: a estabiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o da crian&#xE7;a com comprometimento hemodin&#xE2;mico &#xE9; fundamental; a interna&#xE7;&#xE3;o em unidade de terapia intensiva pedi&#xE1;trica para suportes hemodin&#xE2;mico e ventilat&#xF3;rio &#xE9; necess&#xE1;ria em casos de apresenta&#xE7;&#xF5;es com IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> A infus&#xE3;o de inotr&#xF3;picos, a utiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de redutores da p&#xF3;s-carga e o uso de diur&#xE9;ticos auxiliam na melhora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca.</p>
<p>A administra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de diur&#xE9;ticos deve ser feita com cautela, pois a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o r&#xE1;pida da volemia pode agravar a hipotens&#xE3;o e comprometer a perfus&#xE3;o tecidual em um paciente com o d&#xE9;bito card&#xED;aco j&#xE1; reduzido.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> O uso de inotr&#xF3;picos como dobutamina, dopamina, noradrenalina e adrenalina &#xE9; necess&#xE1;rio em pacientes com hipotens&#xE3;o, baixo d&#xE9;bito card&#xED;aco e redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca; sua infus&#xE3;o pode aumentar o risco para arritmias. O uso da milrinona (inibidor da fosfodiesterase) auxilia na redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da p&#xF3;s-carga, melhora a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca e tem menor risco de predispor o paciente a arritmias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>O uso de inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina (IECA) e betabloqueadores em pacientes adultos est&#xE1; associado a bom progn&#xF3;stico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> A administra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de betabloqueadores em crian&#xE7;as, no entanto, n&#xE3;o deve ser realizada na fase aguda da miocardite, em que h&#xE1; baixo d&#xE9;bito card&#xED;aco. Ap&#xF3;s a fase de estabiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o e a transi&#xE7;&#xE3;o para o uso de diur&#xE9;tico oral, o uso de betabloqueadores como o carvedilol passar a ser recomendado, assim como o uso de IECA, que est&#xE1; associado &#xE0; redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do remodelamento reverso e melhora na classe funcional.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref> O uso da digoxina deve ser feito com extrema cautela em pacientes na fase aguda da doen&#xE7;a, j&#xE1; que sua administra&#xE7;&#xE3;o pode precipitar arritmias e aumentar a produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o de citocinas inflamat&#xF3;rias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref></p></list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Arritmias: em pacientes com miocardite, as arritmias geralmente s&#xE3;o transit&#xF3;rias e ocorrem durante a fase aguda da doen&#xE7;a. Entretanto, as altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es de ritmo podem estar associadas a maior mortalidade, devendo ser abordadas de modo convencional. No entanto, alguns pacientes necessitar&#xE3;o de implante de marca-passo para bloqueio atrioventricular total (BAVT), enquanto aqueles com arritmias ventriculares sustentadas necessitar&#xE3;o de amiodarona e, em casos selecionados, de cardiodesfibrilador implant&#xE1;vel.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref></p></list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Suporte avan&#xE7;ado de vida: a assist&#xEA;ncia circulat&#xF3;ria mec&#xE2;nica (ACM) &#xE9; necess&#xE1;ria em pacientes com choque cardiog&#xEA;nico refrat&#xE1;rio. Os dispositivos de ACM s&#xE3;o capazes de substituir a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o de bomba do cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o at&#xE9; que a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o mioc&#xE1;rdica se recupere (terapia de resgate) ou at&#xE9; que o transplante card&#xED;aco seja poss&#xED;vel (terapia de ponte para o transplante).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p>
<p>Pacientes pedi&#xE1;tricos com quadro de miocardite fulminante se beneficiam do suporte de ECMO, j&#xE1; que a recupera&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular pode ocorrer em algumas semanas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref></p></list-item></list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Medidas espec&#xED;ficas</title>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item>
<p>Imunoglobulina intravenosa (IGIV): o uso da imunoglobulina em pacientes pedi&#xE1;tricos com miocardite ou CMD de in&#xED;cio recente permanece controverso, j&#xE1; que n&#xE3;o est&#xE3;o dispon&#xED;veis estudos controlados que demonstrem o seu benef&#xED;cio.<sup>1,2,53-55</sup> O uso da imunoglobulina se baseia no seu potencial antiviral e imunomodulador, que reduz a produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o de citocinas e inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Robinson et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56"><sup>56</sup></xref> conduziram um trabalho de revis&#xE3;o Cochrane com diversos bancos de dados e conclu&#xED;ram que a IGIV pode ser &#xFA;til em crian&#xE7;as com miocardite associada a encefalite, sendo necess&#xE1;rios mais ensaios cl&#xED;nicos controlados para demonstrar o benef&#xED;cio da IGIV na miocardite pedi&#xE1;trica. Entretanto, trabalhos com s&#xE9;ries de casos pedi&#xE1;tricos mostram que o uso da imunoglobulina melhora a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular e a sobrevida dessa popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o, sugerindo o papel ben&#xE9;fico da imunoglobulina na miocardite pedi&#xE1;trica.<sup>1,7,49,54</sup> Huang et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> em estudo de metan&#xE1;lise, demonstraram que pacientes com miocardite fulminante apresentaram melhor sobrevida no acompanhamento e que o uso da IGIV se mostrou superior na redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da mortalidade intra-hospitalar quando comparado ao tratamento convencional.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> Entretanto, em revis&#xE3;o sistem&#xE1;tica e metan&#xE1;lise conduzida por Yen et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55"><sup>55</sup></xref> a imunoglobulina n&#xE3;o modificou a taxa de sobrevida, n&#xE3;o devendo ser, portanto, administrada rotineiramente para miocardite aguda pedi&#xE1;trica.</p>
<p>Na I Diretriz brasileira de insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca (IC) e transplante card&#xED;aco no feto, na crian&#xE7;a e em adultos com cardiopatia cong&#xEA;nita da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (SBC), o uso da IGIV &#xE9; considerado recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o IIb, com n&#xED;vel de evid&#xEA;ncia B, diante quadro de CMD idiop&#xE1;tica (tratamento cl&#xED;nico otimizado, acima de um ano de sintomas de IC) com presen&#xE7;a de altos t&#xED;tulos de genoma viral de parvov&#xED;rus B19 no tecido mioc&#xE1;rdico comprovada por BEM e biologia molecular e para miocardite comprovada por BEM atrav&#xE9;s de imuno-histoqu&#xED;mica e presen&#xE7;a de genoma viral no tecido mioc&#xE1;rdico por biologia molecular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p></list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Imunossupress&#xE3;o: o papel da imunossupress&#xE3;o ainda &#xE9; discutido no tratamento da miocardite. Seu objetivo &#xE9; suprimir a resposta inflamat&#xF3;ria e a atividade autoimune, visando &#xE0; melhora cl&#xED;nica e da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular, al&#xE9;m de reduzir a mortalidade.<sup>12,16,44,57</sup> Pode ser considerada terapia adjuvante quando a BEM &#xE9; realizada e a presen&#xE7;a de atividade viral &#xE9; afastada atrav&#xE9;s da pesquisa de PCR e a atividade inflamat&#xF3;ria &#xE9; documentada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> O estudo TIMIC confirma a efic&#xE1;cia da terapia imunossupressora nessa situa&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57"><sup>57</sup></xref></p>
<p>Na miocardite de c&#xE9;lulas gigantes confirmada pela BEM, a imunossupress&#xE3;o tem classe de recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o I e n&#xED;vel de evid&#xEA;ncia B. J&#xE1; na cardiomiopatia inflamat&#xF3;ria comprovada por BEM atrav&#xE9;s de imuno-histoqu&#xED;mica com tratamento cl&#xED;nico otimizado e mais de 6 meses de sintomas de IC, na aus&#xEA;ncia de genoma viral por biologia molecular, a imunossupress&#xE3;o tem classe de recomenda&#xE7;&#xE3;o IIb e n&#xED;vel de evid&#xEA;ncia B.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> O uso de imunossupress&#xE3;o tamb&#xE9;m est&#xE1; indicado para miocardite eosinof&#xED;lica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>Camargo et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> demostraram que a terapia imunossupressora &#xE9; ben&#xE9;fica em pacientes pedi&#xE1;tricos com inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o demostrada atrav&#xE9;s da BEM, independentemente da presen&#xE7;a de genoma viral ou n&#xE3;o. No entanto, o estudo n&#xE3;o utilizou grupo controle de pacientes com miocardite em atividade tratados convencionalmente.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
<p>A terapia pode ser baseada na associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de prednisona e azatioprina ou corticoide associado ou n&#xE3;o a ciclosporina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref></p></list-item>
<list-item>
<p>Terapia antiviral: a presen&#xE7;a de genoma viral no material da BEM tem guiado a terapia antiviral. O interferon-&#x3B2; (IFN-&#x3B2;) e a IGIV s&#xE3;o as principais op&#xE7;&#xF5;es terap&#xEA;uticas, cujo objetivo &#xE9; interromper a replica&#xE7;&#xE3;o viral, promovendo sua elimina&#xE7;&#xE3;o. &#xC9; necess&#xE1;ria confirma&#xE7;&#xE3;o de atividade inflamat&#xF3;ria associada &#xE0; replica&#xE7;&#xE3;o viral documentada pela BEM.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> Pacientes com CMD e persist&#xEA;ncia da presen&#xE7;a de genoma viral apresentaram melhora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca ap&#xF3;s o uso de IFN-&#x3B2; subcut&#xE2;neo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> O uso da terapia antiviral apresenta sua melhor efic&#xE1;cia nos est&#xE1;gios mais precoces da miocardite.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
<p>Infec&#xE7;&#xF5;es por citomegalov&#xED;rus, herpes simples e v&#xED;rus da imunodefici&#xEA;ncia humana (HIV) devem receber terapia pr&#xE9;-estabelecida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p></list-item></list>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Progn&#xF3;stico</title>
<p>O progn&#xF3;stico da miocardite &#xE9; t&#xE3;o vari&#xE1;vel quanto sua apresenta&#xE7;&#xE3;o cl&#xED;nica. Os pacientes podem se recuperar ou posteriormente evoluir para CMD ou &#xF3;bito.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref> Pacientes que apresentam fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o card&#xED;aca normal geralmente t&#xEA;m bom progn&#xF3;stico, diferentemente daqueles que apresentam CMD.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> De modo geral, cerca de 50% dos pacientes ir&#xE3;o evoluir com melhora ap&#xF3;s 2 a 4 semanas do in&#xED;cio do quadro e cerca de 30% ir&#xE3;o desenvolver CMD, enquanto os 20% restantes poder&#xE3;o evoluir com piora cl&#xED;nica, necessidade de transplante card&#xED;aco ou morte.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref></p>
<p>Fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o inferior a 30%, fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de encurtamento inferior a 15%, dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o do VE e regurgita&#xE7;&#xE3;o mitral moderada a grave s&#xE3;o consideradas preditores de mau progn&#xF3;stico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref> Em um estudo realizado por Kim et al.,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref> a dilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o do VE foi o principal fator associado &#xE0; mortalidade em crian&#xE7;as com miocardite aguda. A sobrevida livre de transplante em crian&#xE7;as com miocardite viral aguda varia de 70 a 75%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref> Entretanto, neonatos e lactentes apresentam mortalidade significativa em at&#xE9; 45% dos casos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref></p>
<p>Pacientes com miocardite fulminante apresentam maior chance de recuperar a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular quando sobrevivem &#xE0; fase aguda com choque cardiog&#xEA;nico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Novos horizontes</title>
<p>Os novos modelos de identifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de pat&#xF3;genos pelo sequenciamento metagen&#xF4;mico de nova gera&#xE7;&#xE3;o (<italic>metagenomic next-generation sequencing</italic>, mNGS) t&#xEA;m contribu&#xED;do para a abordagem em grandes centros. Na maioria dos estudos com mNGS, observa-se que os v&#xED;rus identificados n&#xE3;o estavam inclu&#xED;dos nos pain&#xE9;is virais de rotina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref> Tais estudos refor&#xE7;am, tamb&#xE9;m, a necessidade de frentes de pesquisa populacional espec&#xED;ficas para a epidemiologia e etiologia das miocardites. A persegui&#xE7;&#xE3;o do diagn&#xF3;stico etiopatog&#xEA;nico contribuir&#xE1; para a caracteriza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de desfechos e progn&#xF3;stico em popula&#xE7;&#xF5;es espec&#xED;ficas, possibilitando a inclus&#xE3;o de pesquisas em vacinas e terap&#xEA;uticas antivirais apropriadas.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclus&#xF5;es</title>
<p>A miocardite se apresenta como uma doen&#xE7;a multifacetada, capaz de promover distintos quadros cl&#xED;nicos e desfechos. In&#xFA;meros avan&#xE7;os tecnol&#xF3;gicos, diagn&#xF3;sticos e terap&#xEA;uticas v&#xEA;m modificando sua hist&#xF3;ria natural; no entanto, estudos epidemiol&#xF3;gicos de registro cl&#xED;nico s&#xE3;o essenciais para a caracteriza&#xE7;&#xE3;o da popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o em cada pa&#xED;s.</p>
<p>O <italic>Children and Adolescents Myocarditis and Cardiomyopathy Registry</italic> (ChARisMa), realizado pela Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), em Niter&#xF3;i, Rio de Janeiro, com institui&#xE7;&#xF5;es parceiras e com apoio do Departamento de Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (DEIC-SBC), tem por objetivo mapear e caracterizar a popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o pedi&#xE1;trica e adolescente com suspeita ou diagn&#xF3;stico de miocardite e cardiomiopatia. Os dados populacionais obtidos contribuir&#xE3;o para a orienta&#xE7;&#xE3;o e produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o de protocolos de medidas de educa&#xE7;&#xE3;o, diagn&#xF3;stico, terap&#xEA;utica e acompanhamento.</p>
<p>Promover as orienta&#xE7;&#xF5;es de pesquisa na suspeita diagn&#xF3;stica na inf&#xE2;ncia poder&#xE1; contribuir para melhor desfecho, n&#xE3;o somente nessa faixa et&#xE1;ria, como tamb&#xE9;m na popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o adulta com CMD de etiologia desconhecida.</p>
</sec></body>
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<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo n&#xE3;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
<p><bold>Vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o acad&#xEA;mica</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo &#xE9; parte de tese de doutorado de Ana Fl&#xE1;via Malheiros Torbey e Aurea L&#xFA;cia Alves de Azevedo Grippa de Souza pelo Programa de P&#xF3;s-Gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o em Ci&#xEA;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal Fluminense.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
<p><bold>Aprova&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9;tica e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo n&#xE3;o cont&#xE9;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn></fn-group>
</back></sub-article>
</article>