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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">ABC HF</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>ABC: Heart Failure &#x26; Cardiomyopathy</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">ABC Heart Fail Cardiomyop</abbrev-journal-title></journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="epub">0000-0000</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name></publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abchf.20210007</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abchf.20210007</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Review Article</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Possible Mechanisms of Action of SGLT2 Inhibitors in Heart Failure</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Martins</surname><given-names>Camila Nicolela Geraldo</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Bau</surname><given-names>Adriana Aparecida</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>Luis Miguel da</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4428-5186</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Coelho</surname><given-names>Otavio Rizzi</given-names><suffix>Filho</suffix></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/></contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>1</label>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
<institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Ci&#xEA;ncias M&#xE9;dicas</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brazil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#xEA;ncias M&#xE9;dicas - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#x2013; Brazil.</institution></aff></contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><bold>Ot&#xE1;vio Rizzi Coelho-Filho</bold> &#x2022; Disciplina de Cardiologia, Departamento de Medicina Interna, Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, UNICAMP - Rua Vital Brasil, 251. Postal Code <postal-code>13083-888</postal-code>, Cidade Universit&#xE1;ria &#x201C;Zeferino Vaz&#x201D;, Campinas, SP - Brazil. Email: <email>orcfilho@unicamp.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="con">
<p><bold>Authors&#x2019; contributions</bold></p>
<p>Conception and design of the research, Acquisition of data, Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content: Martins CNG, Bau AA, Silva LM, Coelho-Filho OR</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold></p>
<p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p></fn></author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>06</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2021</year></pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<season>Jul-Sep</season>
<year>2021</year></pub-date>
<volume>1</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>33</fpage>
<lpage>43</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>28</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2021</year></date>
<date date-type="rev-recd">
<day>26</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2021</year></date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>08</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2021</year></date>
</history>
<permissions>
<license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
<license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p></license></permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>In mid-2013, sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors such as canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and empagliflozin were introduced as possible treatments for type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2). Cardiovascular safety studies demonstrated that not only were SGLT2 inhibitors safe, but they were also associated with a significant reduction in cardiovascular mortality and heart failure (HF) outcomes including hospitalizations. These findings encouraged the development of clinical trials aimed specifically at investigating the effects of this new drug class on HF with reduced ejection fraction (EF), including the DAPA-HF and EMPEROR-reduced studies. The demonstration of beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on the reduction of cardiovascular events in treated patients with symptomatic HF and reduced left ventricular EF (LVEF &#x3C; 40 %) resulted in the extension of SGLT2 inhibitor indication to patients with symptomatic HF with reduced EF. The mechanisms behind these beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibitors are not entirely known. In this review, we analyze several current hypotheses for the cardioprotective effects of SGLT2 inhibitors, including reduced blood pressure, increased natriuresis, improved energy metabolism, prevention of inflammation, weight loss, improved glycemic control, inhibition of the sympathetic nervous system, prevention of myocardial remodeling, prevention of ischemia/reperfusion injury, inhibition of Na+/H+ channels, increased autophagy and lysosomal degradation, SGLT1 inhibition, reduced hyperuricemia, reduced epicardial fat, increased erythropoietin levels, increased progenitor/precursor cells, reduced oxidative stress, and improved vascular function.</p></abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
<kwd>Diabetes Mellitus</kwd>
<kwd>Sodium-Glucose Transporter 2 Inhibitors</kwd></kwd-group>
<counts>
<fig-count count="8"/>
<table-count count="0"/>
<equation-count count="0"/>
<ref-count count="74"/>
<page-count count="11"/></counts></article-meta></front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introduction</title>
<p>As the global number of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) approaches 500 million, that of patients with heart failure (HF) reaches 64 million.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> HF and DM2 often co-occur, resulting in a worse prognosis for both conditions. Records suggest that DM2 can be present in up to 40% of patients with HF and reduced ejection fraction (EF) and up to 45% of those with preserved EF. Additionally, patients with DM2 are 2.5 to 5 times more likely to develop HF and 30% more likely to require hospitalization for HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref> The mechanisms involved in the association of DM2 and HF are multifactorial and include diastolic left ventricular (LV) dysfunction, metabolic alterations such as lipotoxicity, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation, oxidative stress, microcirculatory dysfunction, endothelial dysfunction, dysautonomia, and altered myocardial calcium cycling.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> Most treatments for DM2 involve increasing the activity of beta cells, insulin reposition, and the restoration of insulin sensitivity; pharmacological treatments for HF with reduced EF, on the other hand, involve the use of beta-blockers, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors, neprilysin inhibitors, and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> In mid-2013, sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors such as canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and empagliflozin were introduced as possible treatments for DM2. Surprisingly, the cardiovascular safety studies originally proposed by North-American and European regulatory agencies to ensure the safety of new antidiabetic drugs found that not only were SGLT2 inhibitors safe, but they were also associated with a significant reduction in cardiovascular mortality, and especially with HF outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> The cardiovascular safety studies of SGLT2 inhibitors and their findings on the reduction of HF outcomes, specifically hospitalization for HF, encouraged the initiation of clinical trials dedicated to the effects of this new drug class on HF with reduced EF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> More recently, the beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on the reduction of cardiovascular events in adequately treated patients with symptomatic HF (New York Heart Association [NYHA] functional class &#x3E;/= II) with reduced EF (&#x3C; 40%) led the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency (<italic>Ag&#xEA;ncia Nacional de Vigil&#xE2;ncia Sanit&#xE1;ria</italic>; Anvisa) to extend the indication of SGLT2 inhibitors to the treatment of symptomatic HF with reduced EF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> SGLT2 receptors are present in the proximal convoluted tubules of the kidney and mediate glucose uptake, accounting for 90% of renal glucose reabsorption. The inhibition of SGLT2 receptors leads to a reduction in their ability to reabsorb glucose, promoting its excretion in urine and leading to a reduction in plasma glucose levels. This effect is independent of insulin secretion so that this drug class is unlikely to cause hypoglycemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Although the reduction in cardiovascular events in patients with symptomatic HF and reduced EF after adjunctive treatment with dapaglifozin<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> and empaglifozin<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> has been demonstrated in rigorous clinical trials, the mechanism of action of this drug class in the treatment of HF has not been fully elucidated. This review aims to discuss the main possible mechanisms of action of SGLT2 inhibitors in HF.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Historical background</title>
<p>The need for cardiovascular safety testing of the three main SGLT2 inhibitors was especially emphasized by the FDA after studies showed that thiazolidinediones<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> and saxagliptin<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> could increase the risk of HF outcomes and especially hospitalization. The first clinical trial to establish the cardiovascular safety of SGLT2 inhibitors was the EMPA-REG OUTCOME study, published in 2015.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref>This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of patients with established cardiovascular disease and DM2, who were randomly allocated to empagliflozin or placebo. The study involved 7020 patients, 4687 in the treatment group and 2333 in the placebo group, followed for a mean period of 3.1 years. The primary outcomes were cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction (MI), and nonfatal stroke. The study yielded statistically significant findings on the safety and superiority of empagliflozin, with a 32% relative risk reduction for all-cause mortality and a 35% relative risk reduction in hospitalization for HF, although the rates of atherothrombotic events such as MI and stroke did not differ between groups.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> The CANVAS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> study published in 2017 had the same objective, and included 10142 patients with DM2 and high cardiovascular risk randomly allocated to canagliflozin or placebo and followed for a mean of 3.9 years. Primary outcome rates (all-cause cardiovascular mortality, non-fatal MI, or stroke) were significantly lower in the canagliflozin group, occurring in 26.9 participants per 1000 patient-years as compared to 31.5 per 1000 patient-years in the placebo group. The study also identified possible renal benefits such as reduced albuminuria progression, improved glomerular filtration rates, and reduced renal replacement therapy and renal mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref></p>
<p>The year 2019 saw the publication of the largest and longest follow-up study of cardiovascular outcomes in this drug class: the DECLARE-TIMI 58,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> which investigated the effects of dapagliflozin on cardiovascular events. This was also a randomized clinical trial involving 17160 patients with DM2 and established atherosclerotic disease or multiple risk factors for its development. Patients were randomly allocated to 10 mg/day dapagliflozin or placebo and followed for a mean period of 4.2 years. The two primary effectiveness outcomes were MACE (a composite of cardiovascular death, MI, or ischemic stroke) and a composite of cardiovascular death and hospitalization for HF. The use of dapagliflozin resulted in lower rates of hospitalization for HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> The publication of the three aforementioned studies clarified the benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with DM2. However, since few patients in the EMPA-REG OUTCOME, CANVAS, and DECLARE-TIMI 58 studies had a diagnosis of HF at the start of these investigations, dedicated studies were developed to evaluate the possible benefits of these drugs in patients with established HF. A randomized, double-blind clinical trial on patients with chronic HF with reduced EF with or without DM2 was developed to evaluate the effects of 10mg dapagliflozin once daily relative to placebo addition to standard treatment for HF. The primary outcome was a composite of cardiovascular death, hospitalization for HF, or urgent-care visits for HF. The study revealed a significant reduction in the occurrence of the primary outcome, which was reported in 16.2% of the dapagliflozin group and 21.2% of the placebo group.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Similar findings were obtained with empagliflozin,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> which also led to a significant reduction in the occurrence of major cardiovascular events in a population of patients with symptomatic HF and reduced EF, corroborating the benefits of this class of medications in the treatment of symptomatic HF with reduced EF.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Possible mechanisms of action of SGLT2 inhibitors in heart failure</title>
<p>As previously mentioned, SGLT2 inhibitors, though initially developed for the treatment of DM2, have demonstrated clear benefits on cardiovascular outcomes, especially those related to HF with reduced EF, in addition to kidney outcomes in patients with or without diabetes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Though the mechanisms through which SGLT2 inhibitors affect HF with reduced EF have not been completely elucidated, experimental studies have suggested several possible explanations for this association (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figure 1</xref>). These include the following: 1) reduced blood pressure; 2) increased natriuresis; 3) improved energy metabolism; 4) prevention of inflammation; 5) weight loss; 6) improved glycemic control; 7) inhibition of the sympathetic nervous system; 8) prevention of myocardial remodeling; 9) prevention of ischemia/reperfusion injury; 10) inhibition of Na+/H+ channels; 11) increased autophagy and lysosomal degradation, SGLT1 inhibition; 12) reduced hyperuricemia; 13) reduced epicardial fat; 14) increased erythropoietin (EPO) levels; 15) increased progenitor/precursor cells; 16) reduced oxidative stress; and 17) improved vascular function. Therefore, several hypotheses have been put forward to explain the effects of these drugs. The main ones will be discussed in the following sections.</p>
<fig id="f1">
<label>Figure 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Possible mechanisms through which SGLT2 inhibitors improve heart failure outcomes. iSGLT2: sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors; SNS: sympathetic nervous system; NLRP3: nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain-containing; SGLT1: sodium-glucose co-transporter 1.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0033-gf01.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Weight loss</title>
<p>Renal glucose excretion during treatment with SGLT2 inhibitors results in a substantial caloric loss. This results in a significant loss of body weight as fatty acids are mobilized from adipose tissue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> Clinical trials have demonstrated a significant reduction in body weight in patients treated with SGLT2 inhibitors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> While this weight loss may contribute to the beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibitors, other mechanisms must also be involved since the effects of weight loss measures on HF severity have been far smaller than those observed with SGLT2 inhibitors. Therefore, weight loss is unlikely to be the main mechanism through which SGLT2 inhibitors affect HF outcomes. Furthermore, the effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on weight loss are moderate and tend to decrease over time due to counterregulatory mechanisms such as increased energy intake triggered to maintain body weight.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Improved glucose control</title>
<p>Although SGLT2 inhibitors are effective at reducing glucose levels, this is unlikely to be directly associated with the benefits of this medication class on HF. Hyperglycemia alone is a weak risk factor for cardiovascular illness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Additionally, the rapid efficacy of these investigations (observed days after treatment initiation) speaks against an association between glucose reduction and improved cardiovascular outcomes. The differences in glycemic control and cardiovascular outcomes reported in previous clinical trials have been small, and post hoc analyses of these studies suggest that baseline glycated hemoglobin and changes in HbA1c are not necessarily associated with the effects of treatment with SGLT2 inhibitors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> This was confirmed in the DAPA-HF study, which found that dapagliflozin was similarly effective in individuals with and without diabetes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> In patients without diabetes, its effectiveness was similar to that observed in individuals with prediabetes or reduced glucose tolerance relative to normoglycemic participants. Similar findings were obtained in a study of empagliflozin, another SGLT2 inhibitor, which proved effective in the treatment of HF with reduced EF regardless of the presence of DM2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> Polynomial analyses in the DAPA-HF study demonstrated that baseline glycated hemoglobin was unrelated to the positive effects of dapagliflozin on HF and mortality.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> Additionally, in experimental models of HF, benefits of SGLT2 inhibition have been observed regardless of whether diabetes or hyperglycemia is present.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Blood pressure reduction</title>
<p>Hypertension is an important modifiable risk factor for HF. As such, it has been suggested that some of the beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on HF may be explained by their effects on blood pressure since SGLT2 inhibitors are known to reduce these values.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> Although the mechanisms behind the antihypertensive activity of SGLT2 inhibition are not entirely clear, these effects are likely mediated by the osmotic and diuretic effects of SGLT2 inhibitors caused by the inhibition of sodium reabsorption in the proximal tubules of the kidney. SGLT2 inhibition may increase urinary sodium excretion by 30 to 60%.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> The anti-hypertensive effects of SGLT2 inhibitors are larger than those of thiazide diuretics when used in combination with beta-blockers or calcium antagonists.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> By decreasing blood pressure, SGLT2 inhibitors may decrease the cardiac post-load, reducing cardiac overload and improving efficiency. This could be the mechanism through which SGLT2 inhibitors affect HF outcomes. However, the effects of SGLT2 inhibition on blood pressure reduction are modest and unlikely to entirely explain the beneficial effects of this drug on cardiovascular and kidney function. Additionally, reduced blood pressure is expected to have a greater effect on stroke rates relative to other cardiovascular outcomes, which was not observed in the EMPA-REG OUTCOME study.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Lastly, in the DAPA-HF trial, blood pressure reductions were modest and unlikely to be related to a significant reduction in cardiovascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Increased natriuresis</title>
<p>SGLT2 inhibitors promote natriuresis and glycosuria, and it has been suggested that osmotic diuresis may improve HF outcomes. Analyses from the EMPA-REG OUTCOME study suggested that hemoconcentration (presumably secondary to volume contraction) was responsible for nearly 50% of the cardiovascular benefits observed in this investigation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Yet the benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors are unlikely to be explained by diuresis alone since other diuretic measures have not been associated with a reduction of cardiovascular events in HF studies. It has been suggested that SGLT2 inhibitors may differ from classical diuretics given their peculiar mechanism of action and, especially, their effects on the reduction of interstitial fluid. In a study comparing dapagliflozin and hydrochlorothiazide, for instance, reduced plasma volume and increased erythrocyte mass were observed with the former but not the latter.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref> When compared to a loop diuretic (bumetanide), dapagliflozin was associated with a greater reduction in interstitial fluid rather than blood volume.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> It has therefore been suggested that SGLT2 inhibition may have differential effects on interstitial fluid (vs. intravascular volume) which can limit the neurohumoral stimulation that occurs in response to the contraction of intravascular volume caused by traditional diuretics.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reduced sympathetic stimulus</title>
<p>SGLT2 acts by stimulating the sympathetic nervous system. The effects of hyperstimulation of this system can include arterial stiffening and, consequently, chronic elevation of blood pressure, ultimately leading to vascular and kidney damage. Both effects are directly related to poorer HF outcomes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> SGLT2 inhibitors are associated with a reduced sympathetic tone, and the ability to induce vasodilation by activating voltage-gated potassium channels and protein kinase G, which are crucial for the regulation of vascular tone. Additionally, they improve endothelial function and arterial stiffness.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> The sympathetic nervous system,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> in turn, plays a crucial role in blood pressure control and the physiopathology of hypertension, and its activation may be related to the development of HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> Several experimental<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> and clinical<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> studies have suggested that SGLT2 inhibitors reduce the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Though the exact mechanisms behind HF risk reduction and the beneficial effects of SGLT2 inhibitors are not fully known, some hypotheses are supported by stronger evidence, such as the effects of sympathetic tone, as illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 2</xref>.</p>
<fig id="f2">
<label>Figure 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Possible systemic, direct, and indirect effects of iSGLT2. CAMKII: calmodulin-dependent protein kinase; EPO: erythropoietin; NHE: sodium/hydrogen exchange; NLRP3: nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain-containing; iSGLT2: sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitor; SNS: sympathetic nervous system.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0033-gf02.tif"/></fig>
<p>Interestingly, the reduction in sympathetic tone caused by SGLT2 inhibitors contributes to the reduction in HF hospitalizations.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> In older patients with HF refractory to clinical treatment, ipragliflozin improved sympathetic activity as assessed by 123 I-metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) myocardial scintigraphy, suggesting that this may contribute to the cardioprotective activity of SGLT2 inhibitors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> Additionally, hyperactivation of the sympathetic nervous system is associated with poor prognosis, ventricular arrhythmia or even sudden death. In the EMPA-REG OUTCOME study, empagliflozin was associated with a reduced incidence of sudden death.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Though the precise mechanisms underlying this association have not been fully elucidated, the attenuation of sympathetic hyperactivation caused by SGLT2 inhibitors may reduce the risk of complex arrhythmia and sudden death. The EMBODY<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> study, which is still ongoing, is investigating whether the effects of SGLT2 on sympathetic tone, through the re-establishment of the balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic tone, could improve survival and reduce the rates of cardiovascular events and sudden death. In this interesting study, patients with diabetes and HF will be randomized to empagliflozin or placebo. The findings from this investigation may provide novel evidence of the effects of this drug class on the reduction of electrical events of the heart. While the exacerbated activation of sympathetic tone is associated with unfavorable vascular remodeling several studies have reported significant reductions in arterial stiffness in patients with DM2 treated with dapagliflozin,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> canagliflozin,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> or empagliflozin.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> This effect is accompanied by improved endothelial function,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> promoting reductions in arterial and central pressure with possible effects on the prevention of cardiovascular events. More recently, in a study of 97 patients with DM2, Sposito et al. showed that treatment with dapagliflozin improved endothelial function relative to glibenclamide as determined by Doppler-recorded reactive vasodilation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> These findings indicate that the effect of SGLT1 inhibitors on sympathetic tone and vascular remodeling can contribute to their benefits for patients with HF.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reduced inflammation</title>
<p>Inflammation is a major contributor to HF severity. Inflammatory markers are increased in patients with HF and correlate with disease severity<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> in HF with reduced and preserved EF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Inflammatory cytokines are known to cause endothelial dysfunction and increase fibrosis and extracellular matrix turnover. SGLT2 inhibitors have the potential to decrease inflammation-associated molecular processes such as extracellular matrix turnover and fibrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref> This can be illustrated by the fact that dapagliflozin suppresses collagen synthesis in the rat myocardium, demonstrating its antifibrotic effects through the modulation of inflammatory responses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref> Despite these findings, it is still not entirely clear how SGLT2 inhibitors modify and modulate the inflammatory process. It is thought that SGLT2 inhibitors initially dampen the macrophage inflammatory response by decreasing the availability of glucose, the preferred energy source for these cells.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain-containing (NLRP3) inflammasome plays an important role in inflammatory mediation. The inflammasome is a complex of interacting proteins that trigger the maturation of pro-inflammatory cytokines to initiate the inflammatory response. This response is amplified by the production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and the activation of inducible nitric-oxide synthase. Therefore, the inflammasome, or the NLPR3 inflammasome, specifically, may play a central role in the modulation of chronic inflammation, affecting HF progression.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref> Recent data suggest that SGLT2 inhibitors can reduce NRLP3 inflammasome activation in the heart<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref> and that this effect is independent of glucose reduction. It is unclear whether the effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on the NRLP3 inflammasome are direct or indirect. Beta-hydroxybutyrate is an effective blocker of the NLRP3 inflammasome,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> and SGLT2 inhibitors increase circulating beta-hydroxybutyrate levels, which may contribute to their mechanism of action.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Prevention of cardiac remodeling</title>
<p>Cardiac remodeling refers to several structural alterations of the heart muscle, including cardiac hypertrophy, cardiomyocyte inflammation, and fibrosis. These alterations result in increased HR severity. SGLT2 inhibitors have beneficial effects on cardiac remodeling, as documented in several studies.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> A randomized trial investigated the effects of a 6-month treatment with empagliflozin or placebo on myocardial modeling in patients with diabetes and coronary artery disease using cardiac magnetic resonance imaging. The study showed that patients treated with empagliflozin exhibited a significant reduction in LV mass relative to those in the placebo group, despite the brevity of the treatment intervention.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> This result suggests that SGLT2 inhibitors can promote the reverse remodeling of the heart muscle. Although we do not clearly know how SGLT2 inhibitors prevent remodeling, part of this mechanism can be explained by their anti-inflammatory effects, which can reduce fibrosis<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref> and, consequently, cardiac remodeling. The inhibition of SGLT2 receptors can therefore reverse the cardiac remodeling observed in HF, reducing the stress on the LV and improving ventricular function.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Suppression of myocardial fibrosis</title>
<p>As previously mentioned, SGLT2 inhibitors play an important role in the attenuation of myocardial fibrosis, a form of irreversible myocardial damage associated with ventricular dysfunction. HF is accompanied by cardiac remodeling due to the deposition of the extracellular matrix, composed of fibrosis and collagen deposition by cardiac fibroblasts. In patients with DM2, even a 3% increase in the extracellular volume of the myocardium can lead to a highly significant increase of up to 52% in the risk of death or hospitalization for HF. It has been proposed that SGLT2 inhibitors may suppress collagen synthesis, activating M2 macrophages and inhibiting myofibroblast differentiation.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> M2 macrophages secrete interleukin-10 (IL-10), an anti-inflammatory cytokine that plays a crucial role in tissue healing and homeostasis. The reduction in myocardial fibrosis can be demonstrated noninvasively by the assessment of the extracellular volume through advanced imaging methods such as cardiac magnetic resonance, a method that is widely used in contemporary clinical studies. In a study by Mason et al., where patients with diabetes and coronary artery disease were randomized to empagliflozin or placebo for 6 months (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 3</xref>), the SGLT2 inhibitor led to a 1.4% reduction in extracellular volume (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 4</xref>) which was associated with a reduction in LV mass.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
<fig id="f3">
<label>Figure 3</label>
<caption>
<title>A 6-month blinded, randomized trial of the effects of empagliflozin vs placebo in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) and coronary artery disease (reproduced with permission from the authors).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> LV: left ventricular; ECV: extracellular volume.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0033-gf03.tif"/></fig>
<fig id="f4">
<label>Figure 4</label>
<caption>
<title>After 6 months of treatment with empagliflozin, there was a significant reduction in the myocardial extracellular volume of patients with diabetes and coronary artery disease (reproduced with permission from the authors).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> ECV: extracellular volume.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0033-gf04.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reduced ventricular overload</title>
<p>Another mechanism that may explain the benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors on all-cause mortality in patients with HF and reduced EF could be the reduction in pre- and post-load, and the ensuing improvement in ventricular functioning.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> This occurs because the inhibition of SGLT2 in the proximal tubule promotes natriuresis and glycosuria, resulting in osmotic diuresis,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref> and ultimately reducing ventricular filling pressure and myocardial work.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> The natriuretic response, through a tubuloglomerular feedback system, also leads to afferent arteriole vasoconstriction, reducing intraglomerular pressure and possibly explaining the renal preservation associated with the use of SGLT2 inhibitors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> The variation in plasma volume leads to an increase in hematocrit, which was likely responsible for over 50% of the benefits of these drugs on cardiovascular mortality according to the EMPA-REG OUTCOME<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> study. Another mechanism that may complement the change in plasma volume and hematocrit is increased erythropoiesis observed in some studies after the start of treatment with SGLT2 inhibitors. Additionally, unlike conventional diuretics, the uricosuric effect that may promote differences in cardiovascular outcomes since serum uric acid is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular death was present in those using SGLT2 inhibitors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Repairing vascular function</title>
<p>Endothelial and smooth vascular muscle dysfunctions contribute to the physiopathology of HF<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref> and contribute to increased morbidity and mortality rates. SGTL2 inhibitors improve vascular function by decreasing the activation of endothelial cells, inducing direct vascular relaxation. Additionally, SGLT2 inhibition reduces endothelial dysfunction and molecular alterations associated with early atherogenesis, decreasing arterial stiffness and vascular resistance.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><sup>64</sup></xref> Additional benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors include the induction of vasodilation through the activation of protein kinase-G and voltage-gated potassium channels. Together with natriuresis and osmotic diuresis, the direct effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on the vascular system contribute to improved hemodynamic function in patients with HF.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Increasing erythropoietin (EPO) levels</title>
<p>The increase in hematocrit observed with the use of SGLT2 inhibitors, even in individuals without diabetes, suggests that these medications can increase EPO secretion by the kidneys and ultimately promote erythropoiesis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref> This increase in EPO contributes to improvements in cardiomyocyte mitochondrial function, angiogenesis, cell proliferation, and inflammation, in addition to increasing oxygen supply to myocardial tissue.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref> The EMPA-Heart Cardio Link-6 randomized clinical trial demonstrated that one month of treatment with empagliflozin led to significant increases in EPO levels in patients with diabetes and coronary artery disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref> These patients also exhibited a significant increase in hematocrit and reductions in ferritin and hemoglobin concentration.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reducing epicardial fat</title>
<p>Epicardial adipose tissue is the visceral fat that surrounds the heart and comes into direct contact with the coronary tunica. The attenuation of epicardial adipose tissue as demonstrated on computed tomography can indicate the presence of inflammatory alterations and coronary neovascularization and is therefore associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular events.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> SGLT2 inhibitors reduce the accumulation of adipose tissue and perivascular inflammation, minimizing the secretion of leptin and its effects on cardiac fibrosis.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref> In patients with both diabetes and coronary artery disease, SGLT2 inhibition reduces the mass of epicardial adipose tissue and bioactive molecules such as TNF-alpha and the type 1 plasminogen activator inhibitor. This can therefore attenuate inflammation and even the remodeling associated with HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Increased vascular progenitor cells</title>
<p>Another mechanism that could explain the cardioprotective effect of SGLT2 inhibitors is the restoration of vascular repair through the mobilization of vascular progenitor cells in the bone marrow. Tissue revascularization requires a network of circulating cells to work together to mediate microvascular growth. There is evidence to suggest that SGLT2 inhibition may affect the balance of circulating progenitor vascular cells, monocytes, and inflammatory cells in patients with diabetes and established cardiovascular disease.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> In a previous study, Hess et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68"><sup>68</sup></xref> observed that treatment with empagliflozin was associated with a reduction in M1 proinflammatory macrophages, and a subsequent increase in the number of polarized M2 macrophages which are associated with an anti-inflammatory response (Th2). Previous studies have demonstrated that phlorizin-induced SGLT2 inhibition increases antioxidant production, and the administration of empagliflozin reduces the production of NOX1, an important component of oxidative stress in the peripheral vasculature of rats with diabetes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69"><sup>69</sup></xref> Systemic reductions in oxidative stress promote the maturation of progenitor cells in the bone marrow.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70"><sup>70</sup></xref> It has been proposed that the administration of SGLT2 inhibitors leads to an increase in the release of angiogenic progenitor cells from the bone marrow.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68"><sup>68</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Improved metabolism and cardiac bioenergetics</title>
<p>Fatty acids are an important energy source for healthy heart tissue; however, HF is associated with impaired cardiac fatty acid oxidation. In these cases, the heart utilizes ketone bodies as an alternative energy source through enzymes such as beta-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (BHD1). SGLT2 inhibitors can increase the production of ketone bodies, especially beta-hydroxybutyrate, increasing the energy supply to the heart muscle.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> In this way, the change in metabolic substrate contributes to increased efficiency and myocardial contractility. The increased ketone production is also believed to reduce acetyl CoA levels, which, in turn, reduce the hyperacetylation of mitochondrial enzymes, improving mitochondrial energy production.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Inhibition of sodium/hydrogen exchangers</title>
<p>Another explanation for the effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on HF involves their interaction with type 1 (NHE1) and 3 (NHE3) sodium/hydrogen exchangers. NHE1 is found in myocardial and vascular tissues, and when activated, increases intracellular sodium and calcium levels, the first of which is associated with HF and cardiomyocyte injury. NHE3 is found in the kidneys and promotes sodium reabsorption and subsequent water retention.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> SGLT2 inhibitors are believed to directly inhibit NHE1 and promote natriuresis by reducing NHE3 expression. This pathway may contribute to the explanation of the close link between diabetes and HF. They are stimulated by elevated glucose and insulin levels in diabetes and by the exacerbated neurohumoral activation in HF. Therefore, patients with decompensated HF can also experience an exacerbation of diabetes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> In conclusion, the inhibition of NHE1 and NHE3 may be an important part of the cardiac and renal mechanisms through which SGLT2 inhibitors treat HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reduced leptin levels</title>
<p>Leptin, a protein associated with energy homeostasis, is a major contributor to the development of HF in individuals with diabetes. This protein stimulates SGLT2 receptors in the kidneys, causing sodium retention and influencing inflammation and cardiac fibrosis. SGLT2 inhibitors can suppress the effects of leptin in several ways. The reduction in visceral adipose tissue lowers leptin levels, while the inhibition of SGLT2 receptors in the kidneys reduces sodium absorption.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> SGLT2 inhibitors also increase overall adiponectin levels, decreasing inflammatory action through TNF-alpha inhibition. Adiponectin is associated with reductions in body fat, which it promotes by inhibiting SGLT2.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Prevention of ischemia/reperfusion injury</title>
<p>Cell injury, necrosis, and programmed cell death (apoptosis, necroptosis, autophagy) are important physiopathological characteristics of several maladaptive processes in the heart, including myocardial ischemia and HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71"><sup>71</sup></xref> Recent experimental evidence suggests that SGLT2 inhibition has cardioprotective effects against ischemia/reperfusion injuries. The authors of these studies hypothesize that the improved cardiovascular survival observed after treatment with SGLT2 inhibitors is associated with their direct cytoprotective effects which include protection against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. The first demonstration of the cardioprotective effects of canagliflozin against ischemia/reperfusion injury in diabetic and non-diabetic animals was obtained in a study of Langendorff-perfused hearts from diabetic and non-diabetic rats treated with canagliflozin for a 4-week period, who showed smaller infarcts than those in comparison conditions.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref> These results also suggest that SGLT2 inhibitors may be introduced as a cardioprotective intervention in high-risk cardiovascular patients, irrespective of diabetes status.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref> The beneficial effect of SGLT2 on ischemia/reperfusion injury is associated with a reduction in the activity of calmodulin kinase II, resulting in increased calcium flux in the sarcoplasmic reticulum and increased contractility. However, it is not yet clear if this effect occurs in humans.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reducing hyperuricemia</title>
<p>Plasma uric acid has a negative effect on the prognosis of HF.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref> Uric acid serum levels are intimately related to insulin resistance markers. Patients with DM2 are known to have lower serum uric acid levels than the general population, and to date, this has been attributed to the osmotic diuresis caused by elevated serum glucose. Slight reductions in plasma uric acid have been observed after treatment with SGLT2 inhibitors.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73"><sup>73</sup></xref> This can be attributed to the increase in glycosuria in the proximal tubules since SGLT2 inhibitors promote uric acid secretion.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref> However, the issue of whether reduced hyperuricemia due to SGLT2 inhibition is a marker or cause of its effects remains open for discussion.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclusions</title>
<p>Several studies have demonstrated the benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors on cardiovascular outcomes. Yet the precise mechanisms behind the cardioprotective effects of SGLT2 inhibitors have not been entirely established. Several such mechanisms have been proposed, including reduced sympathetic activity, improved cardiovascular hemodynamics, and bioenergetic availability. These are all complex, interdependent factors that potentiate one another. As such, further studies are needed to shed light on the effects of SGLT2 inhibitors in the context of HF. SGLT2 inhibitors are promising drugs with proven effectiveness in the treatment of several chronic illnesses, starting with DM2 and extending to HF with reduced EF in 2019, and, as recently established by the DAPA-CKD study, consistent benefits on kidney function.</p>
</sec></body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn1">
<p><bold>Sources of Funding</bold></p>
<p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
<p><bold>Study Association</bold></p>
<p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
<p><bold>Ethics approval and consent to participate</bold></p>
<p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p></fn></fn-group>
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<sub-article article-type="translation" id="S01" xml:lang="pt">
<front-stub>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Artigo de Revis&#xE3;o</subject></subj-group></article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Poss&#xED;veis Mecanismos dos Inibidores de SGLT2 na Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca</article-title>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Martins</surname><given-names>Camila Nicolela Geraldo</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Bau</surname><given-names>Adriana Aparecida</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name><surname>Silva</surname><given-names>Luis Miguel da</given-names></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref></contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4428-5186</contrib-id>
<name><surname>Coelho</surname><given-names>Otavio Rizzi</given-names><suffix>Filho</suffix></name><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>1</sup></xref> <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/></contrib>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>1</label>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
<named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content></addr-line>
<country country="BR">Brasil</country>
<institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Ci&#xEA;ncias M&#xE9;dicas - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP &#x2013; Brasil.</institution></aff></contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><bold>Correspond&#xEA;ncia: Ot&#xE1;vio Rizzi Coelho-Filho</bold> &#x2022; Disciplina de Cardiologia, Departamento de Medicina Interna,Hospital das Cl&#xED;nicas da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, UNICAMP - Rua Vital Brasil, 251. CEP <postal-code>13083-888</postal-code>, Cidade Universit&#xE1;ria &#x22;Zeferino Vaz&#x22;, Campinas, SP - Brasil. Email: <email>orcfilho@unicamp.br</email></corresp>
<fn fn-type="con">
<p><bold>Contribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos autores</bold></p>
<p>Concep&#xE7;&#xE3;o e desenho da pesquisa, Obten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de dados, Reda&#xE7;&#xE3;o do manuscrito e Revis&#xE3;o cr&#xED;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#xFA;do intelectual importante: Martins CNG, Bau AA, Silva LM, Coelho-Filho OR.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="conflict">
<p><bold>Potencial conflito de interesses</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; conflito com o presente artigo</p></fn></author-notes>
<abstract>
<title>Resumo</title>
<p>Os inibidores dos cotransportadores s&#xF3;dio-glicose 2 (SGLT2) foram introduzidos originalmente para o tratamento de diabetes melito (DM2) em 2013, entre eles canaglifozina, dapaglifozina e empaglifozina. Os estudos de seguran&#xE7;a cardiovascular demonstraram n&#xE3;o apenas que os inibidores de SGLT2 eram seguros, mas que estavam associados a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa na mortalidade cardiovascular e nos desfechos relacionados com a insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca (IC), incluindo hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xF5;es. Tais resultados motivaram a realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de ensaios cl&#xED;nicos especificamente para investigar o efeito dessa nova classe de medicamentos na IC com fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o (FE) reduzida, entre eles DAPA-HF e EMPEROR-reduced. Foi comprovado o efeito ben&#xE9;fico dos inibidores SGLT2 na redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eventos cardiovasculares de pacientes com IC sintom&#xE1;tica e com FEVE reduzida (&#x3C; 40%) adequadamente tratados, o que expandiu a indica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de inibidores de SGLT2 em pacientes com IC sintom&#xE1;ticos com FE reduzida. Os reais mecanismos que explicam esse efeito ben&#xE9;fico dos inibidores de SGLT2 n&#xE3;o s&#xE3;o completamente esclarecidos. Nesta revis&#xE3;o, analisaremos as v&#xE1;rias hip&#xF3;teses que t&#xEA;m sido consideradas para explicar o efeito cardioprotetor nos inibidores de SGLT2, entre elas: redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da press&#xE3;o arterial, aumento da natriurese, melhora do metabolismo energ&#xE9;tico, preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o de inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o, perda de peso, melhora do controle glic&#xEA;mico, inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o do sistema nervoso simp&#xE1;tico, preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o do remodelamento mioc&#xE1;rdico, preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o da les&#xE3;o de isquemia/reperfus&#xE3;o, inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos canais de Na+/H+, aumento da autofagia e degrada&#xE7;&#xE3;o lisossomal, inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o SGLT1, redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da hiperuricemia, redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da gordura epic&#xE1;rdica, aumento dos n&#xED;veis de eritropoietina, aumento das c&#xE9;lulas progenitoras precursoras, diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o do estresse oxidativo e melhora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o vascular.</p></abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
<title>Palavras-chave:</title>
<kwd>Insufici&#xEA;ncia Card&#xED;aca</kwd>
<kwd>Diabetes Mellitus</kwd>
<kwd>Inibidores do Transportador 2 de S&#xF3;dio-Glicose</kwd></kwd-group></front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro">
<title>Introdu&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>Enquanto o n&#xFA;mero de pacientes portadores de diabetes melito tipo 2 (DM2) no mundo aproxima-se de 500 milh&#xF5;es, o n&#xFA;mero de pacientes com insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca (IC) chega a 64 milh&#xF5;es,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3"><sup>3</sup></xref> sendo que frequentemente a IC e o DM2 podem coexistir determinando um pior progn&#xF3;stico para ambas condi&#xE7;&#xF5;es. Os registros indicam que o DM2 pode ser encontrado em at&#xE9; 40% dos pacientes com IC de fra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eje&#xE7;&#xE3;o (FE) reduzida e em at&#xE9; 45% da IC com FE preservada. Al&#xE9;m disso, pacientes com DM2 t&#xEA;m risco 2,5 a 5 vezes maior de desenvolver IC e um risco 30% maior de requerer interna&#xE7;&#xF5;es por IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref></p>
<p>Os mecanismos atribu&#xED;dos na associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o do DM2 com a IC s&#xE3;o multifatoriais, incluindo a disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o diast&#xF3;lica do ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo (VE), altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es metab&#xF3;licas com lipotoxicidade, ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona, estresse oxidativo, disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o microcirculat&#xF3;ria, disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o endotelial, disautonomia e altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es do ciclo do c&#xE1;lcio mioc&#xE1;rdico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5"><sup>5</sup></xref> Classicamente, o tratamento para o DM2 baseia-se no aumento da atividade das c&#xE9;lulas beta, reposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de insulina e restaura&#xE7;&#xE3;o da sensibilidade &#xE0; insulina; enquanto o tratamento medicamentoso da IC com FE reduzida tem como pilar o uso de beta bloqueadores, inibidores do sistema renina-angiotensina-andosterona, inibidor de neprilisina e antagonista de receptor mineralocorticoide.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2"><sup>2</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> Em meados de 2013, os inibidores dos cotransportadores s&#xF3;dio-glicose 2 (SGLT2) foram introduzidos para o tratamento de DM2, entres eles canaglifozina, dapaglifozina e empaglifozina. Surpreendentemente, os estudos de seguran&#xE7;a cardiovascular, originalmente propostos pelas ag&#xEA;ncias regulat&#xF3;rias norte-americana e europeia para assegurar a seguran&#xE7;a de novos antidiab&#xE9;ticos, demonstraram n&#xE3;o apenas que os inibidores de SGLT2 eram seguros, como estavam associados com redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa na mortalidade cardiovascular e sobretudo em desfechos relacionados com IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Os estudos sobre seguran&#xE7;a cardiovascular dos inibidores de SGLT2 e sobretudo sobre seu impacto na redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de desfechos relacionados com IC, mais especificamente interna&#xE7;&#xE3;o por IC, motivaram a realiza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de ensaios cl&#xED;nicos especificamente dedicados para investigar o efeito dessa nova classe de medicamentos na IC com FE reduzida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> Mais recentemente ficou tamb&#xE9;m comprovado o efeito favor&#xE1;vel dos inibidores SGLT2 na redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eventos cardiovasculares de pacientes com IC sintom&#xE1;tica (classe funcional &#x3E;/= II da <italic>New York Heart Association</italic> [NYHA]), com FE reduzida (&#x3C; 40%) adequadamente tratados; o que motivou, a partir de 2019, a aprova&#xE7;&#xE3;o da ag&#xEA;ncia regulat&#xF3;ria norte-americana <italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic> (FDA) e tamb&#xE9;m da Ag&#xEA;ncia Nacional de Vigil&#xE2;ncia Sanit&#xE1;ria (Anvisa) para expandir a indica&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos inibidores de SGLT2 para o uso em pacientes com IC sintom&#xE1;tica com FE reduzida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1"><sup>1</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4"><sup>4</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6"><sup>6</sup></xref> O receptor SGLT2 est&#xE1; presente nos t&#xFA;bulos contorcidos proximais do n&#xE9;fron com a finalidade de mediar a capta&#xE7;&#xE3;o de glicose, sendo respons&#xE1;vel por cerca de 90% da sua reabsor&#xE7;&#xE3;o. Com a inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos receptores SGLT2, ocorre diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o na capacidade dos receptores em reabsorver a glicose, promovendo, assim, a sua excre&#xE7;&#xE3;o na urina, ocasionando a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos n&#xED;veis plasm&#xE1;ticos. Esse efeito independe da secre&#xE7;&#xE3;o de insulina, o que significa que a hipoglicemia n&#xE3;o &#xE9; um efeito colateral comumente relacionado a essa classe de drogas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Apesar de tanto a dapaglifozina<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> como a empaglifozina<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> terem sido testadas em estudos cl&#xED;nicos rigorosos, comprovando o efeito adicional &#xE0; terapia padr&#xE3;o para redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eventos cardiovasculares em pacientes com IC sintom&#xE1;tica com FE reduzida, os mecanismos pelos quais essa nova classe de medicamentos efetivamente atua no tratamento da IC n&#xE3;o est&#xE3;o totalmente esclarecidos. Esta revis&#xE3;o se prop&#xF5;e a discutir os poss&#xED;veis mecanismos principais de a&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos SGLT2 na IC.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Perspectiva hist&#xF3;rica</title>
<p>A FDA exigiu que a seguran&#xE7;a cardiovascular das tr&#xEA;s principais drogas da classe dos inibidores de SGLT2 fosse testada em estudos, especialmente ap&#xF3;s evid&#xEA;ncias apontarem que as tiazolidinedionas<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13"><sup>13</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15"><sup>15</sup></xref> e a saxagliptina<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16"><sup>16</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17"><sup>17</sup></xref> poderiam aumentar o risco de desfechos relacionados a IC, especificamente hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por IC. O primeiro estudo cl&#xED;nico realizado para estabelecer a seguran&#xE7;a cardiovascular dos inibidores do SGLT2 foi o EMPA-REG OUTCOME, publicado em 2015,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> que consistiu em um ensaio cl&#xED;nico randomizado, duplo-cego e controlado por placebo, em que todos os pacientes estudados apresentavam doen&#xE7;a cardiovascular estabelecida al&#xE9;m de serem portadores de DM2, designados aleatoriamente para receber empaglifozina ou placebo. Foram envolvidos nesse estudo 7.020 pacientes, sendo 4.687 no grupo tratamento e 2.333 no grupo placebo, seguidos por um tempo m&#xE9;dio de observa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de 3,1 anos. O desfecho prim&#xE1;rio do estudo foi composto de morte por causas cardiovasculares, infarto do mioc&#xE1;rdio (IM) n&#xE3;o fatal ou acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) n&#xE3;o fatal. Os resultados observados no desfecho prim&#xE1;rio, que atingiu diferen&#xE7;a estatisticamente significativa n&#xE3;o apenas para seguran&#xE7;a, mas tamb&#xE9;m para superioridade, mostraram redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do risco relativo de 32% de morte por qualquer causa e redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o relativa de 35% na hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por IC, por&#xE9;m sem altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es nas taxas de eventos aterotromb&#xF3;ticos, como IM e AVC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Em 2017, foi publicado o estudo CANVAS<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref> com a mesma finalidade, incluindo 10.142 portadores de DM2 e alto risco cardiovascular, randomizados para receber canaglifozina ou placebo com segmento m&#xE9;dio de cerca de 3,9 anos. A taxa do desfecho prim&#xE1;rio (morte por todas as causas cardiovasculares, IM ou AVC n&#xE3;o fatal) foi significativamente menor com canaglifozina ocorrendo em 26,5 por 1.000 pacientes, sendo que, no grupo placebo, ocorreu em 31,5 por 1.000 pacientes. O estudo tamb&#xE9;m levantou a hip&#xF3;tese sobre um poss&#xED;vel benef&#xED;cio renal com redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da progress&#xE3;o da albumin&#xFA;ria, assim como melhora das taxas de filtra&#xE7;&#xE3;o glomerular e redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da necessidade de terapia de substitui&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal e mortes por causas renais.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8"><sup>8</sup></xref></p>
<p>Em 2019, tivemos a publica&#xE7;&#xE3;o do maior estudo de desfecho cardiovascular dessa classe de medicamentos e com acompanhamento mais longo, que investigou o efeito da dapaglifozina em eventos cardiovasculares (DECLARE-TIMI 58).<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Esse foi tamb&#xE9;m um ensaio clinico randomizado com a participa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de 17.160 pacientes com DM2 e doen&#xE7;a ateroscler&#xF3;tica estabelecida ou m&#xFA;ltiplos fatores de risco para seu desenvolvimento, os quais foram aleatoriamente distribu&#xED;dos para receber dapaglifozina 10 mg ao dia ou placebo, acompanhados por uma m&#xE9;dia de 4,2 anos. Os dois desfechos de efic&#xE1;cia prim&#xE1;rios do ensaio foram MACE (um composto de morte cardiovascular, IM ou AVC isqu&#xEA;mico) e o composto de morte cardiovascular e hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca. O uso da dapaglifozina resultou em menores taxas de hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xF5;es por IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Com a publica&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos tr&#xEA;s estudos supracitados, ficou claro o benef&#xED;cio nos desfechos cardiovasculares do uso dos inibidores do SGLT2 em pacientes DM2. Com a finalidade de avaliar os poss&#xED;veis benef&#xED;cios em pacientes com IC estabelecida, uma vez que poucos pacientes nos estudos EMPA-REG OUTCOME, CANVAS e DECLARE-TIMI 58 apresentavam diagn&#xF3;stico de IC no in&#xED;cio do estudo, foram desenvolvidos estudos dedicados. Um ensaio duplo-cego, randomizado, em pacientes com IC de FE reduzida cr&#xF4;nica portadores ou n&#xE3;o de DM2, com intuito de avaliar os efeitos da dapaglifozina 10 mg uma vez ao dia, em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com placebo, quando adicionada ao tratamento padr&#xE3;o da IC, cujo desfecho prim&#xE1;rio foi composto de morte cardiovascular, hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por IC ou visita urgente por IC. O estudo evidenciou uma redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa da ocorr&#xEA;ncia do desfecho prim&#xE1;rio, que ocorreu em 16,2% no grupo dapaglifozina e em 21,2% no grupo placebo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7"><sup>7</sup></xref> Dados semelhantes foram tamb&#xE9;m obtidos com empaglifozina,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> que do mesmo modo mostrou redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significativa de eventos cardiovasculares maiores em uma popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o de pacientes com IC sintom&#xE1;tica com FE reduzida, corroborando, assim, o benef&#xED;cio clinico real dessa classe de medicamentos no tratamento da IC sintom&#xE1;tica com FE reduzida.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Poss&#xED;veis mecanismos dos inibidores de SGLT2 na insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca</title>
<p>Como j&#xE1; apontado, os inibidores de SGLT2 inicialmente desenvolvidos para o tratamento do DM2 t&#xEA;m apresentado evidentes benef&#xED;cios nos desfechos cardiovasculares, sobretudo nos desfechos direcionados para IC com FE reduzida, al&#xE9;m dos desfechos renais em pacientes diab&#xE9;ticos ou n&#xE3;o diab&#xE9;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Apesar dos mecanismos de a&#xE7;&#xE3;o pelos quais os inibidores de SGLT2 agem efetivamente na IC com FE reduzida n&#xE3;o estarem completamente elucidados, diversos estudos experimentais sugerem uma s&#xE9;rie de poss&#xED;veis mecanismos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 1</xref>). Entre eles, destacam-se os seguintes: 1) redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da press&#xE3;o arterial; 2) aumento da natriurese; 3) melhora do metabolismo energ&#xE9;tico; 4) preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o de inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o; 5) perda de peso; 6) melhora do controle glic&#xEA;mico; 7) inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o do sistema nervoso simp&#xE1;tico; 8) preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o do remodelamento mioc&#xE1;rdico; 9) preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o da les&#xE3;o de isquemia/reperfus&#xE3;o; 10) inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos canais de Na+/H+; 11) aumento da autofagia e degrada&#xE7;&#xE3;o lisossomal, inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o SGLT1; 12) redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da hiperuricemia; 13) redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da gordura epic&#xE1;rdica; 14) aumento dos n&#xED;veis de eritropoietina (EPO); 15) aumento das c&#xE9;lulas progenitoras precursoras; 16) diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o do estresse oxidativo; e 17) melhora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o vascular. Dessa forma, diversas hip&#xF3;teses s&#xE3;o consideradas para justificar seu efeito, e apresentaremos as principais a seguir.</p>
<fig id="f5">
<label>Figura 1</label>
<caption>
<title>Poss&#xED;veis mecanismos pelos quais os inibidores de SGLT2 melhoram a insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca. iSGLT2: inibidores de cotransportadores s&#xF3;dio-glicose 2; SNS: sistema nervoso simp&#xE1;tico; NLRP3: do ingl&#xEA;s nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine rich repeat, and pyrin domain-containing; SGLT1: cotransportadores s&#xF3;dio-glicose 1.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0033-gf01-pt.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Perda de peso</title>
<p>A excre&#xE7;&#xE3;o de glicose pelos rins secund&#xE1;ria ao tratamento com inibidores de SGLT2 resulta em substancial perda de calorias. Em consequ&#xEA;ncia, ocorre uma perda de peso corporal, &#xE0; medida que os &#xE1;cidos graxos s&#xE3;o mobilizados do tecido adiposo.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> Estudos cl&#xED;nicos t&#xEA;m demonstrado redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de peso corporal consistente em pacientes tratados com inibidores de SGLT2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21"><sup>21</sup></xref> Considerando que essa perda de peso deva contribuir para os efeitos ben&#xE9;ficos dos inibidores de SGLT2, outros mecanismos tamb&#xE9;m devem estar envolvidos, uma vez que as estrat&#xE9;gias de perda de peso em pacientes com IC t&#xEA;m sido muito menos efetivas na redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da gravidade da IC do que a observada com os inibidores de SGLT2. Dessa forma, &#xE9; improv&#xE1;vel que esse seja um mecanismo principal dos benef&#xED;cios observados na IC. Al&#xE9;m disso, o efeito dos inibidores de SGLT2 na perda de peso &#xE9; moderado e tende diminuir com o tempo devido a mecanismos de contrarregula&#xE7;&#xE3;o, como o aumento da ingesta de energia, acionados para tentar manter o peso.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22"><sup>22</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Melhora no controle da glicose</title>
<p>Levando em considera&#xE7;&#xE3;o que os inibidores de SGLT2 s&#xE3;o eficazes na redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da glicemia, os benef&#xED;cios dessa classe de medicamentos na IC n&#xE3;o est&#xE3;o relacionados diretamente com a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o glic&#xEA;mica. A hiperglicemia, isoladamente, tem se mostrado um fator de risco fraco para doen&#xE7;a cardiovascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Somando-se a isso, a r&#xE1;pida efic&#xE1;cia observada (em alguns dias de tratamento) torna dif&#xED;cil a rela&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos benef&#xED;cios cl&#xED;nicos com o efeito de redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da glicose. Al&#xE9;m disso, as diferen&#xE7;as no controle glic&#xEA;mico e nos desfechos cardiovasculares de estudos cl&#xED;nicos foram pequenas, e an&#xE1;lises <italic>post hoc</italic> dos estudos sugeriram que a hemoglobina glicada basal ou mudan&#xE7;as na HbA1c n&#xE3;o foram necessariamente associadas a qualquer modifica&#xE7;&#xE3;o de tratamento com inibidores de SGLT2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23"><sup>23</sup></xref> Isso se confirmou no estudo DAPA-HF, em que a efic&#xE1;cia da dapaglifozina foi semelhante em indiv&#xED;duos diab&#xE9;ticos e n&#xE3;o diab&#xE9;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> Mesmo nos pacientes n&#xE3;o diab&#xE9;ticos, a efic&#xE1;cia foi semelhante &#xE0; observada naqueles com pr&#xE9;-diabetes ou toler&#xE2;ncia diminu&#xED;da &#xE0; glicose em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o aos normoglic&#xEA;micos. Dados semelhantes, mostrando efic&#xE1;cia independente da presen&#xE7;a de DM2, foram observados em mais um estudo cl&#xED;nico investigando outro inibidor da SGLT2, a empaglifozina, em pacientes com IC e FE reduzida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11"><sup>11</sup></xref> Quando estudada continuamente no DAPA-HF, usando analises polinomiais, a hemoglobina glicada basal n&#xE3;o foi relacionada a efic&#xE1;cia da dapaglifozina em reduzir IC e a mortalidade.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref> Al&#xE9;m disso, em modelos experimentais de IC, o benef&#xED;cio da inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de SGLT2 foi observado independente de diabetes ou hiperglicemia.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25"><sup>25</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da press&#xE3;o arterial</title>
<p>A hipertens&#xE3;o &#xE9; um fator de risco modific&#xE1;vel importante para o desenvolvimento de IC. Tem sido sugerido que alguns dos efeitos ben&#xE9;ficos dos inibidores de SGLT2 no cen&#xE1;rio de IC se expliquem pela sua atua&#xE7;&#xE3;o na press&#xE3;o arterial, uma vez que os inibidores de SGLT2 reduzem a press&#xE3;o arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref> Embora os mecanismos exatos pelos quais a inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de SGLT2 resulte em efeitos anti-hipertensivos n&#xE3;o sejam totalmente claros, eles s&#xE3;o provavelmente mediados pelos efeitos osm&#xF3;ticos e diur&#xE9;tico dos inibidores de SGLT2 como resultado de uma inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o da reabsor&#xE7;&#xE3;o de s&#xF3;dio nos t&#xFA;bulos proximais do rim. A inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o do SGLT2 pode resultar em um aumento de 30% a 60% na excre&#xE7;&#xE3;o urin&#xE1;ria de s&#xF3;dio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26"><sup>26</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27"><sup>27</sup></xref> O efeito anti-hipertensivo dos inibidores de SGLT2 &#xE9; maior do que o dos diur&#xE9;ticos tiaz&#xED;dicos quando usados em associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o a &#xDF;-bloqueadores ou antagonistas do c&#xE1;lcio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28"><sup>28</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29"><sup>29</sup></xref> Ao diminuir a press&#xE3;o arterial, os inibidores de SGLT2 podem diminuir a p&#xF3;s-carga card&#xED;aca, com a consequente redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da sobrecarga card&#xED;aca e melhora da sua efici&#xEA;ncia. Esse seria o mecanismo que beneficia o cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o com IC. No entanto, os efeitos da inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o do SGLT2 na redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da press&#xE3;o arterial s&#xE3;o modestos e provavelmente n&#xE3;o explicam completamente os efeitos ben&#xE9;ficos cardiovasculares e renais desses medicamentos. Al&#xE9;m disso, espera-se que a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da press&#xE3;o arterial tenha um efeito mais importante nas taxas de AVC em compara&#xE7;&#xE3;o com outros desfechos cardiovasculares, o que n&#xE3;o foi observado no estudo EMPA-REG OUTCOME.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Finalmente, no ensaio DAPA-HF, as redu&#xE7;&#xF5;es na press&#xE3;o arterial foram bastante modestas e provavelmente n&#xE3;o est&#xE3;o relacionadas a grande redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o nos eventos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10"><sup>10</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Aumento da natriurese</title>
<p>Foi demonstrado que os inibidores de SGLT2 promovem natriurese e glicos&#xFA;ria, e tem sido sugerido que a diurese osm&#xF3;tica resultante pode melhorar os desfechos de IC. Na realidade, an&#xE1;lises do EMPA-REG OUTCOME sugeriram que a hemoconcentra&#xE7;&#xE3;o (presume-se que secund&#xE1;ria &#xE0; contra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de volume) foi respons&#xE1;vel por cerca de 50% do benef&#xED;cio cardiovascular observado.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> &#xC9; dif&#xED;cil explicar os benef&#xED;cios dos inibidores de SGLT2 somente com base na diurese, porque outras estrat&#xE9;gias diur&#xE9;ticas em si n&#xE3;o foram associadas com uma redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eventos em estudos de IC. Foi sugerido que os inibidores de SGLT2 podem diferir um pouco dos diur&#xE9;ticos cl&#xE1;ssicos, devido ao seu mecanismo peculiar e sobretudo ao seu efeito na redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de l&#xED;quido intersticial. Em um estudo comparando dapaglifozina e hidroclorotiazida, por exemplo, uma redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o no volume do plasma e aumento na massa de eritr&#xF3;citos foi observada com dapaglifozina, mas n&#xE3;o com hidroclorotiazida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref> Quando comparado com um diur&#xE9;tico de al&#xE7;a (bumetanida), a dapaglifozina foi associada a maior redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o no volume intersticial vs. volume intravascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31"><sup>31</sup></xref> Tem-se especulado, portanto, que a inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de SGLT2 pode proporcionar um efeito diferencial na regula&#xE7;&#xE3;o de fluido intersticial (vs. volume intravascular), o que pode limitar o estimula&#xE7;&#xE3;o neuro-humoral reflexa que ocorre em resposta &#xE0; contra&#xE7;&#xE3;o do volume intravascular com diur&#xE9;ticos tradicionais.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do est&#xED;mulo simp&#xE1;tico</title>
<p>A ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o do SGLT2 atua estimulando o sistema nervoso simp&#xE1;tico. A hiperestimula&#xE7;&#xE3;o simp&#xE1;tica resulta, entre outros efeitos, no enrijecimento arterial e, em consequ&#xEA;ncia, na eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o cr&#xF4;nica da press&#xE3;o arterial e em eventual dano vascular e renal. Ambos efeitos s&#xE3;o diretamente relacionados a piores desfechos na IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> Os inibidores de SGLT2 est&#xE3;o associados com redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do t&#xF4;nus simp&#xE1;tico, tendo demonstrado capacidade de induzir vasodilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o por meio da ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de canais de pot&#xE1;ssio dependentes de voltagem e prote&#xED;na-G, importantes na regula&#xE7;&#xE3;o do t&#xF4;nus vascular. Al&#xE9;m disso, agem melhorando a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o endotelial e prevenindo o enrijecimento arterial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> O sistema nervoso simp&#xE1;tico,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33"><sup>33</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34"><sup>34</sup></xref> por sua vez, desempenha papel fundamental no controle press&#xF3;rico e fisiopatologia da hipertens&#xE3;o arterial, sendo que a sua ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o pode estar relacionada com ocorr&#xEA;ncia de IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35"><sup>35</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36"><sup>36</sup></xref> Diversos estudos experimentais<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37"><sup>37</sup></xref> e cl&#xED;nicos<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38"><sup>38</sup></xref> t&#xEA;m sugerido que os inibidores do SGLT2 reduzem de maneira eficaz a ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o do sistema nervoso simp&#xE1;tico. Apesar de os exatos mecanismos para redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do risco de desenvolvimento de IC e os efeitos ben&#xE9;ficos dos inibidores de SGLT2 na IC ainda n&#xE3;o estarem totalmente esclarecidos, alguns mecanismos apresentam evid&#xEA;ncias mais robustas, incluindo o efeito no t&#xF4;nus simp&#xE1;tico, conforme ilustramos na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 2</xref>.</p>
<fig id="f6">
<label>Figura 2</label>
<caption>
<title>Potenciais efeitos sist&#xEA;micos, diretos e indiretos dos iSGLT2. CAMKII: prote&#xED;na dependente de calmodulina; EPO: eritropoetina; NHE: trocador s&#xF3;dio/hidrog&#xEA;nio; NLRP3: do ingl&#xEA;s nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine rich repeat, and pyrin domain-containing; iSGLT2: inibidores do cotransportador s&#xF3;dio-glicose 2; SNS: sistema nervoso simp&#xE1;tico.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0033-gf02-pt.tif"/></fig>
<p>Interessantemente, a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o do t&#xF4;nus simp&#xE1;tico causado pelos inibidores de SGLT2 contribui para redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de interna&#xE7;&#xF5;es relacionadas com IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32"><sup>32</sup></xref> Em uma popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o de pacientes idosos com IC refrat&#xE1;ria ao tratamento cl&#xED;nico, a ipraglifozina restaurou a atividade simp&#xE1;tica fisiol&#xF3;gica avaliada pela cintilografia mioc&#xE1;rdica com metaiodobenzilguanidina (MIBG) marcado com iodo 123 (I<sup>123</sup>), sugerindo que esse poderia ser um dos mecanismos cardioprotetores dos inibidores de SGLT2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39"><sup>39</sup></xref> Al&#xE9;m disso, a hiperativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o do sistema nervoso simp&#xE1;tico est&#xE1; associada a um pior progn&#xF3;stico, a arritmias ventriculares e at&#xE9; mesmo a morte s&#xFA;bita. No estudo EMPA-REG OUTCOME, o uso de empaglifozina esteve associado a redu&#xE7;&#xF5;es na incid&#xEA;ncia de morte s&#xFA;bita.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9"><sup>9</sup></xref> Apesar de os precisos mecanismos para essa &#xFA;ltima observa&#xE7;&#xE3;o n&#xE3;o estarem totalmente elucidados, uma possibilidade &#xE9; que a atenua&#xE7;&#xE3;o da hiperativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o simp&#xE1;tica causada pelos inibidores de SGLT2 poderia reduzir o risco de arritmias complexas e reduzir o risco de morte s&#xFA;bita. O estudo EMBODY,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40"><sup>40</sup></xref> ainda n&#xE3;o completo, est&#xE1; investigando se os efeitos de um inibidor de SGLT2 no t&#xF4;nus simp&#xE1;tico, ao restabelecer o equil&#xED;brio entre o t&#xF4;nus simp&#xE1;tico e parassimp&#xE1;tico, poderiam melhorar a sobrevida e reduzir os eventos cardiovasculares assim como a morte s&#xFA;bita. Nesse interessante estudo, pacientes diab&#xE9;ticos com IM ser&#xE3;o randomizados para receberem empaglifozina ou placebo, com perspectiva de que seus achados possam fornecer dados inovadores a respeito do papel dessa classe de medicamentos na redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eventos el&#xE9;tricos cardiovasculares. Enquanto a ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o exacerbada do t&#xF4;nus simp&#xE1;tico se associa com remodelamento vascular desfavor&#xE1;vel, diversos estudos t&#xEA;m reportado redu&#xE7;&#xF5;es significativas da rigidez arterial em pacientes com DM2 tratados com dapaglifozina,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> canaglifozina<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42"><sup>42</sup></xref> ou empaglifozina.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43"><sup>43</sup></xref> Esse efeito vem sendo demonstrado em conjunto com a melhora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o endotelial,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41"><sup>41</sup></xref> promovendo redu&#xE7;&#xF5;es na press&#xE3;o arterial e na press&#xE3;o central com poss&#xED;veis efeitos na preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o de eventos cardiovasculares. Mais recentemente, estudando uma corte de 97 pacientes com DM2, Sposito et al. mostram que o tratamento com a dapaglifozina melhorou a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o endotelial avaliada pela vasodilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o reativa com o Doppler comparada com a glibencamida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44"><sup>44</sup></xref> Essas evid&#xEA;ncias indicam que o efeito dos inibidores de SGLT1 no t&#xF4;nus simp&#xE1;tico, assim como no remodelamento vascular, podem contribuir para os seus benef&#xED;cios nos pacientes com IC.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o</title>
<p>A inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o tem contribui&#xE7;&#xE3;o fundamental na gravidade da IC. Os marcadores inflamat&#xF3;rios est&#xE3;o aumentados em portadores de IC, sendo que eles se correlacionam com a gravidade da doen&#xE7;a,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45"><sup>45</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> tanto na IC de FE reduzida quanto na FE preservada.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47"><sup>47</sup></xref> Sabe-se que citocinas inflamat&#xF3;rias causam, al&#xE9;m de disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o endotelial, aumento da renova&#xE7;&#xE3;o ou &#x201C;<italic>turnover</italic>&#x201D; de matriz extracelular e aumento da fibrose. Os inibidores de SGLT2 t&#xEA;m demonstrado potencial para diminuir processos moleculares relacionados a inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o, como o &#x201C;<italic>turnover</italic>&#x201D; da matriz extracelular e fibrose.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref> A exemplo disso, a dapaglifozina demonstrou suprimir a s&#xED;ntese de col&#xE1;geno no mioc&#xE1;rdio de ratos, o que comprova seu efeito antifibr&#xF3;tico via modula&#xE7;&#xE3;o da repostas infamat&#xF3;rias.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48"><sup>48</sup></xref> Apesar dessas evid&#xEA;ncias, ainda n&#xE3;o est&#xE1; totalmente claro como os inibidores de SGLT2 modificam e modulam o processo inflamat&#xF3;rio. Postula-se que, inicialmente, reduzem a resposta inflamat&#xF3;ria dos macr&#xF3;fagos, j&#xE1; que diminuem os n&#xED;veis de glicose, fonte preferencial de energia dessas c&#xE9;lulas.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49"><sup>49</sup></xref> A inflamassoma NLRP3 (do ingl&#xEA;s <italic>nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain, leucine rich repeat, and pyrin domain-containing</italic>) desempenha um papel importante na media&#xE7;&#xE3;o inflamat&#xF3;ria. A inflamassoma &#xE9; um complexo de prote&#xED;nas de intera&#xE7;&#xE3;o celular que desencadeia a matura&#xE7;&#xE3;o de citocinas pr&#xF3;-inflamat&#xF3;rias para iniciar a resposta inflamat&#xF3;ria. Essa resposta &#xE9; amplificada por meio da produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o do fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-alfa) e ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o do &#xF3;xido n&#xED;trico-sintase induz&#xED;vel. Dessa forma, o inflamassoma, mais especificamente o inflamassoma NLRP3, pode desempenhar um papel central na modula&#xE7;&#xE3;o da inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o cr&#xF4;nica, afetando a progress&#xE3;o da IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50"><sup>50</sup></xref> Dados recentes sugerem que os inibidores de SGLT2 t&#xEA;m a capacidade de inibir o inflamassoma NRLP3 no cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51"><sup>51</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52"><sup>52</sup></xref> e isso ocorre independentemente da redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de glicose. N&#xE3;o est&#xE1; claro se o efeito dos inibidores de SGLT2 em inibir o inflamassoma NRLP3 &#xE9; direto ou indireto. Enquanto o beta-hidroxibutirato &#xE9; um bloqueador eficaz do inflamassoma NRLP3,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53"><sup>53</sup></xref> os inibidores de SGLT2 aumentam os n&#xED;veis circulantes de beta-hidroxibutirato, o que pode, em parte, justificar o seu efeito.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o do remodelamento card&#xED;aco</title>
<p>O remodelamento card&#xED;aco inclui diversas altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es estruturais do m&#xFA;sculo card&#xED;aco, entre elas a hipertrofia card&#xED;aca, a inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o de cardiomi&#xF3;citos e a fibrose. Essas altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es implicam em maior gravidade da IC. Os inibidores de SGLT2 t&#xEA;m efeito ben&#xE9;fico no remodelamento card&#xED;aco, e isso foi documentado em diversos estudos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24"><sup>24</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30"><sup>30</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54"><sup>54</sup></xref><sup>&#x2013;</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> Um estudo randomizado investigou o efeito da empaglifozina comparada ao placebo, ambos por 6 meses, no modelamento mioc&#xE1;rdio em pacientes diab&#xE9;ticos com coronariopatia utilizando a resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca. Esse estudo mostrou que os pacientes tratados com empaglifozina apresentaram redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o significava no &#xED;ndice de massa do VE comparado ao placebo, mesmo em per&#xED;odo de tratamento reduzido de 6 meses.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59"><sup>59</sup></xref> Esse resultado sugere que os inibidores de SGLT2 podem promover o remodelamento reverso do m&#xFA;sculo card&#xED;aco. Embora n&#xE3;o saibamos claramente como os inibidores de SGLT2 atuam prevenindo o remodelamento, parte desse mecanismo pode ser explicado pela a&#xE7;&#xE3;o anti-inflamat&#xF3;ria que pode reduzir a fibrose<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref> e, consequentemente, o remodelamento card&#xED;aco. A inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos receptores SGLT2 pode, portanto, reverter o remodelamento card&#xED;aco observado na IC, reduzindo o estresse no VE e melhorando a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Supress&#xE3;o da fibrose mioc&#xE1;rdica</title>
<p>Conforme previamente mencionado, uma importante atua&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos inibidores de SGLT2 seria na atenua&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fibrose mioc&#xE1;rdica, dano irrevers&#xED;vel ao mioc&#xE1;rdio, que se associa a disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o ventricular. A IC &#xE9; marcada pelo remodelamento card&#xED;aco que ocorre por meio da deposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de matriz extracelular, composta por fibrose e deposi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de col&#xE1;geno por fibroblastos card&#xED;acos. Nos pacientes DM2, sabe-se que um acr&#xE9;scimo mesmo relativamente pequeno com 3% no volume extracelular do mioc&#xE1;rdio correlaciona-se com um aumento muito significativo de at&#xE9; 52% no risco de morte ou hospitaliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o por IC. &#xC9; proposto que os inibidores de SGLT2 suprimem a s&#xED;ntese de col&#xE1;geno, ativando macr&#xF3;fagos M2 e inibindo a diferencia&#xE7;&#xE3;o de miofibroblastos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> Os macr&#xF3;fagos M2 secretam interleucina 10 (IL-10), citocina anti-inflamat&#xF3;ria, desempenhando papel fundamental na cicatriza&#xE7;&#xE3;o e homeostase dos tecidos. A redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da fibrose mioc&#xE1;rdica p&#xF4;de ser comprovada n&#xE3;o invasivamente pela avalia&#xE7;&#xE3;o do volume extracelular por m&#xE9;todos de imagem avan&#xE7;ados, como a resson&#xE2;ncia magn&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca, metodologia que vem sendo utilizada por estudos cl&#xED;nicos contempor&#xE2;neos. No estudo de Mason et al., que randomizou pacientes diab&#xE9;ticos com coronariopatia para receberem empaglifozina ou placebo por 6 meses (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 3</xref>), o uso de um inibidor de SGLT2 reduziu significativamente o volume extracelular em 1,4% (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 4</xref>), o que apresentou associa&#xE7;&#xE3;o com a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o na massa do VE.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref></p>
<fig id="f7">
<label>Figura 3</label>
<caption>
<title>Estudo que investigou o efeito da empaglifozina ou placebo de forma randomizada e cega por 6 meses em pacientes com diabetes melito 2 (DM2) e doen&#xE7;a coronariana (reproduzida com autoriza&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos autores.)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> VE: ventr&#xED;culo esquerdo; VEC: volume extracelular.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0033-gf03-pt.tif"/></fig>
<fig id="f8">
<label>Figura 4</label>
<caption>
<title>Tratamento com empaglifozina por 6 meses reduziu significativamente o volume extracelular mioc&#xE1;rdico de pacientes diab&#xE9;ticos com coronariopatia (reproduzida com autoriza&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos autores.)<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58"><sup>58</sup></xref> VEC: volume extracelular.</title></caption>
<graphic xlink:href="0000-0000-abchf-001-01-0033-gf04-pt.tif"/></fig>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reduzindo a sobrecarga ventricular</title>
<p>Outro mecanismo proposto para explicar os benef&#xED;cios na mortalidade dos inibidores de SGLT2 em pacientes com IC e FE reduzida seria a redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da pr&#xE9; e p&#xF3;s-carga, resultando em melhora no funcionamento ventricular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> Isso ocorre porque a inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de SGLT2 no t&#xFA;bulo proximal promove a natriurese e a glicos&#xFA;ria, resultando em diurese osm&#xF3;tica,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60"><sup>60</sup></xref> e, em &#xFA;ltima inst&#xE2;ncia, reduz as press&#xF5;es de enchimento ventricular e o trabalho do mioc&#xE1;rdio.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> A resposta natriur&#xE9;tica, por um <italic>feedback</italic> t&#xFA;bulo glomerular, tamb&#xE9;m ocasiona vasoconstri&#xE7;&#xE3;o arteriolar aferente, reduzindo a press&#xE3;o intraglomerular, processo que pode explicar a preserva&#xE7;&#xE3;o renal observada com o uso dos inibidores de SGLT2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> A varia&#xE7;&#xE3;o do volume plasm&#xE1;tico reflete em um aumento do hemat&#xF3;crito, que provavelmente foi respons&#xE1;vel por mais de 50% do benef&#xED;cio de mortalidade cardiovascular de acordo com o que sugere o estudo EMPA-REG OUTCOME.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref> Outro poss&#xED;vel mecanismo complementar &#xE0; altera&#xE7;&#xE3;o do volume plasm&#xE1;tico e do hemat&#xF3;crito seria o aumento na eritropoiese, observado em alguns estudos ap&#xF3;s o in&#xED;cio do tratamento com os inibidores de ISGLT2. Al&#xE9;m disso, diferentemente de outras classes de diur&#xE9;ticos convencionais, o efeito uricos&#xFA;rico, que possivelmente promove diferen&#xE7;as em resultados cardiovasculares uma vez que o &#xE1;cido &#xFA;rico s&#xE9;rico est&#xE1; associado a risco aumentado de morte cardiovascular, esteve presente com o uso dos inibidores de SGLT2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19"><sup>19</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reparando a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o vascular</title>
<p>A disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o do endot&#xE9;lio e da musculatura lisa vascular contribuem para a fisiopatologia da IC<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62"><sup>62</sup></xref> e, quando presentes, aumentam a morbidade e mortalidade desses pacientes. O uso dos inibidores de SGLT2 tem demonstrado melhorar a fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o vascular, uma vez que diminui a ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o da c&#xE9;lula endotelial, o que induz relaxamento vascular direto. Al&#xE9;m disso, a inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o da SGLT2 reduz a disfun&#xE7;&#xE3;o da c&#xE9;lula endotelial e altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es moleculares associadas a aterog&#xEA;nese precoce, reduzindo a rigidez da parede arterial e a resist&#xEA;ncia vascular.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63"><sup>63</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64"><sup>64</sup></xref> Acrescentam-se aos mecanismos ben&#xE9;ficos dos inibidores de SGLT2 j&#xE1; citados a indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o de vasodilata&#xE7;&#xE3;o via ativa&#xE7;&#xE3;o da prote&#xED;na quinase G e dos canais de pot&#xE1;ssio dependentes de voltagem. Os efeitos diretos dos inibidores de SGLT2 no sistema vascular, somados a indu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da natriurese e diurese osm&#xF3;tica, contribuem para a hemodin&#xE2;mica adequada aos pacientes portadores de IC.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Aumentando os n&#xED;veis de eritropoetina (EPO)</title>
<p>O aumento de hemat&#xF3;crito observado com uso de inibidores de SGLT2, mesmo em indiv&#xED;duos n&#xE3;o diab&#xE9;ticos, sugeriu que essa classe de medicamentos pode aumentar a secre&#xE7;&#xE3;o de EPO pelo rim e, por fim, promover a eritropoiese.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref> Esse aumento da EPO contribui para a melhora da fun&#xE7;&#xE3;o mitocondrial dos cardiomi&#xF3;citos, a angiog&#xEA;nese, a prolifera&#xE7;&#xE3;o celular e a inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o, al&#xE9;m do aumento da oferta de oxig&#xEA;nio ao tecido mioc&#xE1;rdico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref> O estudo cl&#xED;nico randomizado EMPA-Heart Cardio Link-6 demonstrou que pacientes diab&#xE9;ticos e portadores de doen&#xE7;a coron&#xE1;ria arterial ap&#xF3;s um m&#xEA;s de tratamento com empaglifozina tiveram seus n&#xED;veis de EPO significativamente aumentados.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65"><sup>65</sup></xref> Al&#xE9;m disso, nesse mesmo estudo, foram demonstrados aumento significativo do hemat&#xF3;crito, redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da ferritina e redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da concentra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de hemoglobina.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reduzindo a gordura epic&#xE1;rdica</title>
<p>O tecido adiposo epic&#xE1;rdico &#xE9; a gordura visceral que circunda o cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o e est&#xE1; em contato direto com a t&#xFA;nica da art&#xE9;ria coron&#xE1;ria. A atenua&#xE7;&#xE3;o mais elevada do tecido adiposo epic&#xE1;rdico, visualizada pela tomografia computadorizada, pode indicar a presen&#xE7;a de altera&#xE7;&#xF5;es inflamat&#xF3;rias e neovasculariza&#xE7;&#xE3;o coronariana, estando associada a aumento do risco de eventos cardiovasculares.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20"><sup>20</sup></xref> Os inibidores de SGLT2 reduzem o ac&#xFA;mulo do tecido adiposo e a inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o perivascular, minimizando, assim, a secre&#xE7;&#xE3;o de leptina e suas a&#xE7;&#xF5;es produtoras de fibrose no cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66"><sup>66</sup></xref> Em pacientes que possuem, al&#xE9;m de diabetes, doen&#xE7;a coronariana, a inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o SGLT2 reduz a massa de tecido adiposo epic&#xE1;rdico, bem como mol&#xE9;culas bioativas: TNF-alfa e inibidor do ativador de plasminog&#xEA;nio-1. Isso pode, portanto, atenuar a inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o e at&#xE9; mesmo o remodelamento relacionados com a IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67"><sup>67</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Aumento das c&#xE9;lulas progenitoras pr&#xF3;-vasculares</title>
<p>Um dos mecanismos que poderiam explicar a cardioprote&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos inibidores de SGLT2 seria a restaura&#xE7;&#xE3;o do reparo vascular atrav&#xE9;s da mobiliza&#xE7;&#xE3;o de c&#xE9;lulas pr&#xF3;-vasculares derivadas da medula &#xF3;ssea. A revasculariza&#xE7;&#xE3;o do tecido requer uma rede de c&#xE9;lulas circulantes que trabalhem em conjunto para mediar avan&#xE7;os microvasculares. Evid&#xEA;ncias apontam que a inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o da SGLT2 altere o equil&#xED;brio entre as c&#xE9;lulas progenitoras pr&#xF3;-vasculares circulantes, mon&#xF3;citos e c&#xE9;lulas inflamat&#xF3;rias em paciente diab&#xE9;ticos e com doen&#xE7;a cardiovascular estabelecida.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Em um desses estudos, Hess et al.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68"><sup>68</sup></xref> observaram que o tratamento com empaglifozina foi associado a uma redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos macr&#xF3;fagos M1 pr&#xF3;-inflamat&#xF3;rios, aumentando os macr&#xF3;fagos polarizados M2, os quais est&#xE3;o relacionados com resposta anti-inflamat&#xF3;ria (Th2). Outros grupos demonstraram anteriormente que a inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de SGLT2 com florizina aumenta a produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o de antioxidante, e a administra&#xE7;&#xE3;o de empaglifozina reduziu a produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o de NOX1, um importante componente do estresse oxidativo na vasculatura perif&#xE9;rica de ratos diab&#xE9;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69"><sup>69</sup></xref> A redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o sist&#xEA;mica do estresse oxidativo &#xE9; reconhecida por promover a matura&#xE7;&#xE3;o adequada de c&#xE9;lulas progenitoras na medula &#xF3;ssea.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70"><sup>70</sup></xref> Foi proposto que a administra&#xE7;&#xE3;o do inibidor de SGLT2 est&#xE1; associada a um aumento de c&#xE9;lulas progenitoras pr&#xF3;-angiog&#xEA;nicas e &#xE0; sua libera&#xE7;&#xE3;o pela medula &#xF3;ssea.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68"><sup>68</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Melhora do metabolismo e da bioenerg&#xE9;tica card&#xED;aca</title>
<p>Os &#xE1;cidos graxos s&#xE3;o uma das fontes de energia mais importantes para o tecido card&#xED;aco saud&#xE1;vel; no entanto, no cen&#xE1;rio de IC, a capacidade de oxida&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos &#xE1;cidos graxos pelo cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o fica comprometida. Dessa forma, passa a oxidar corpos cet&#xF4;nicos como fonte alternativa de energia, principalmente por meio da enzima beta-hidroxibutirato desidrogenase 1 (BHD1). Os inibidores de SGLT2 s&#xE3;o capazes de aumentar a produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o de corpos cet&#xF4;nicos, especificamente do beta-hidroxibutirato, oferecendo uma fonte excedente de energia ao musculo card&#xED;aco.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Dessa forma, a mudan&#xE7;a de substrato metab&#xF3;lico contribui para maior efici&#xEA;ncia e contratilidade do mioc&#xE1;rdio. Al&#xE9;m disso, acredita-se que o aumento na produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o de cetonas reduza os n&#xED;veis de acetil-CoA que, por sua vez, reduziria a hiperacetila&#xE7;&#xE3;o das enzimas mitocondriais, melhorando a produ&#xE7;&#xE3;o de energia mitocondrial.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos trocadores de s&#xF3;dio e hidrog&#xEA;nio</title>
<p>Outra explica&#xE7;&#xE3;o para o efeito dos inibidores de SGLT2 na IC seria a sua intera&#xE7;&#xE3;o com trocadores de s&#xF3;dio e hidrog&#xEA;nio tipos 1 (NHE1) e 3 (NHE3). O NHE1, encontrado no mioc&#xE1;rdio e no tecido vascular, quando ativado, aumenta os n&#xED;veis de s&#xF3;dio e c&#xE1;lcio intracelular, o primeiro relacionado a IC e les&#xE3;o de cardiomi&#xF3;citos. O NHE3, localizado nos rins, promove a reabsor&#xE7;&#xE3;o de s&#xF3;dio e consequente reten&#xE7;&#xE3;o h&#xED;drica.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref> Acredita-se que os inibidores de SGLT2 inibam diretamente o NHE1 e promovam natriurese pela redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da express&#xE3;o do NHE3. Os NHE ajudam a explicar a &#xED;ntima liga&#xE7;&#xE3;o entre o diabetes e a IC. Eles s&#xE3;o estimulados pela glicose e insulina elevadas nos diab&#xE9;ticos e pelos mecanismos neuro-humorais exacerbados nos portadores de IC. Dessa forma, um paciente que apresenta descompensa&#xE7;&#xE3;o de IC pode tamb&#xE9;m apresentar uma exacerba&#xE7;&#xE3;o do diabetes.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12"><sup>12</sup></xref><sup>,</sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46"><sup>46</sup></xref> Portanto, a inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o do NHE1 e do NHE3 pode ser um importante mecanismo card&#xED;aco e renal pelo qual os inibidores de SGLT2 tratam a IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos n&#xED;veis de leptina</title>
<p>A leptina, prote&#xED;na relacionada a homeostase energ&#xE9;tica, &#xE9; conhecida como um importante fator para o desenvolvimento de IC em diab&#xE9;ticos. Isso acontece porque essa prote&#xED;na estimula a a&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos receptores de SGLT2 nos rins, causando reten&#xE7;&#xE3;o de s&#xF3;dio, al&#xE9;m de atuar na inflama&#xE7;&#xE3;o e fibrose card&#xED;aca. Os inibidores de SGLT2 podem inibir os efeitos da leptina de diversas maneiras. Ao reduzirem o tecido adiposo visceral, causam redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o nos n&#xED;veis de leptina. Al&#xE9;m disso, reduzem a absor&#xE7;&#xE3;o de s&#xF3;dio ao inibirem os receptores SGLT2 nos rins.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18"><sup>18</sup></xref> Os inibidores de SGLT2 atuam tamb&#xE9;m aumentando n&#xED;veis gerais de adiponectina e, como consequ&#xEA;ncia, diminuem a a&#xE7;&#xE3;o inflamat&#xF3;ria por meio da inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o do TNF-alfa. A adiponectina relaciona-se a diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o da gordura corporal, estimulando sua redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o por meio dos inibidores de ISGLT2.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Preven&#xE7;&#xE3;o de les&#xF5;es de isquemia/reperfus&#xE3;o</title>
<p>Les&#xE3;o celular, necrose e morte celular programada (apoptose, necroptose, autofagia) s&#xE3;o caracter&#xED;sticas fisiopatol&#xF3;gicas importantes de uma s&#xE9;rie de processos desadaptativos no cora&#xE7;&#xE3;o, incluindo isquemia mioc&#xE1;rdica e IC.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71"><sup>71</sup></xref> Evid&#xEA;ncias experimentais recentes sugerem que a inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o do SGLT2 tem um efeito cardioprotetor contra les&#xE3;o de isquemia/reperfus&#xE3;o. Os autores desses estudos hipotetizaram que a melhora da sobrevida cardiovascular observada clinicamente com tratamento por inibidores de SGLT2 estaria associada com efeito citoprotetor direto incluindo prote&#xE7;&#xE3;o contra les&#xE3;o de isquemia/reperfus&#xE3;o mioc&#xE1;rdica. Cora&#xE7;&#xF5;es de ratos diab&#xE9;ticos e n&#xE3;o diab&#xE9;ticos, em perfus&#xE3;o de Langendorff, tratados por 4 semanas com canaglifozina apresentaram infarto de tamanhos menores, sendo a primeira demonstra&#xE7;&#xE3;o do efeito cardioprotetor da canaglifozina contra les&#xE3;o de isquemia/reperfus&#xE3;o em animais diab&#xE9;ticos e n&#xE3;o diab&#xE9;ticos.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref> Esses resultados sugerem ainda que os inibidores de SGLT2 possam ser considerados como novas interven&#xE7;&#xF5;es cardioprotetoras em pacientes cardiovasculares de alto risco, independentemente do <italic>status</italic> diab&#xE9;tico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61"><sup>61</sup></xref> Esse efeito ben&#xE9;fico do inibidor de SGLT2 na les&#xE3;o de isquemia/reperfus&#xE3;o est&#xE1; associado com uma diminui&#xE7;&#xE3;o na atividade da calmodulina quinase II, resultando em um fluxo aumentado de c&#xE1;lcio no ret&#xED;culo sarcoplasm&#xE1;tico e aumento da contratilidade. No entanto, ainda n&#xE3;o est&#xE1; claro se esse efeito ocorre em humanos.</p>
</sec>
<sec>
<title>Reduzindo a hiperuricemia</title>
<p>O &#xE1;cido &#xFA;rico plasm&#xE1;tico afeta negativamente o progn&#xF3;stico da insufici&#xEA;ncia card&#xED;aca.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72"><sup>72</sup></xref> O n&#xED;vel s&#xE9;rico de &#xE1;cido &#xFA;rico est&#xE1; intimamente relacionado a marcadores de resist&#xEA;ncia &#xE0; insulina. O n&#xED;vel s&#xE9;rico de &#xE1;cido &#xFA;rico em pacientes com DM2 &#xE9; conhecido por ser menor do que o da popula&#xE7;&#xE3;o normal, e, at&#xE9; agora, isso &#xE9; explicado pela diurese osm&#xF3;tica causada pela eleva&#xE7;&#xE3;o da glicose s&#xE9;rica. Pequenas redu&#xE7;&#xF5;es no &#xE1;cido &#xFA;rico plasm&#xE1;tico t&#xEA;m sido evidenciadas com o tratamento com inibidores de SGLT2.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73"><sup>73</sup></xref> Isso pode ser atribu&#xED;do ao aumento da glicos&#xFA;ria nos t&#xFA;bulos proximais, uma vez que os inibidores de SGLT2 estimulam a secre&#xE7;&#xE3;o de &#xE1;cido &#xFA;rico.<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74"><sup>74</sup></xref> No entanto, o debate sobre se uma redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o na hiperuricemia por inibi&#xE7;&#xE3;o de SGLT2 &#xE9; um marcador ou desempenha um papel causal permanece em aberto.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions">
<title>Conclus&#xF5;es</title>
<p>V&#xE1;rios estudos t&#xEA;m demonstrado os benef&#xED;cios nos desfechos cardiovasculares com uso dos inibidores de SGLT2. Os mecanismos exatos pelos quais os inibidores de SGLT2 exercem efeito protetor cardiovascular n&#xE3;o est&#xE3;o completamente estabelecidos. V&#xE1;rios deles t&#xEA;m sido propostos, como demonstramos acima: redu&#xE7;&#xE3;o da atividade simp&#xE1;tica, melhora da hemodin&#xE2;mica cardiovascular e da disponibilidade bioenerg&#xE9;tica, entre outros. Todos esses fatores s&#xE3;o complexos, interdependentes e potencializam uns aos outros. Por esse motivo, necessitamos de mais estudos que ajudem a entender a a&#xE7;&#xE3;o dos inibidores de SGLT2 no contexto da IC. Vale lembrar que os inibidores de SGLT2 s&#xE3;o medicamentos promissores, que t&#xEA;m se mostrado muito &#xFA;teis no tratamento de diversas doen&#xE7;as cr&#xF4;nicas; inicialmente nos pacientes DM2, em 2019, acrescentados aos pilares do tratamento para IC de FE reduzida; e, mais recentemente, ap&#xF3;s o estudo DAPA-CKD, mostrou tamb&#xE9;m benef&#xED;cios renais consistentes.</p>
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<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="supported-by" id="fn4">
<p><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold></p>
<p>O presente estudo n&#xE3;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
<p><bold>Vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o acad&#xEA;mica</bold></p>
<p>N&#xE3;o h&#xE1; vincula&#xE7;&#xE3;o deste estudo a programas de p&#xF3;s-gradua&#xE7;&#xE3;o.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
<p><bold>Aprova&#xE7;&#xE3;o &#xE9;tica e consentimento informado</bold></p>
<p>Este artigo n&#xE3;o cont&#xE9;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p></fn></fn-group>
</back></sub-article>
</article>
